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176-404: [REDACTED]   United Kingdom Luxembourg The Netherlands Belgium France Britain 1941–1943 1944–1945 Germany Strategic campaigns The Kanalkampf (Channel Battle) was the German term for air operations by the Luftwaffe against the Royal Air Force (RAF) over the English Channel in July 1940, beginning the Battle of Britain during

352-548: A Kampfgeschwader 3 (KG 3) Do 17, which crash-landed near Antwerp , Belgium with one crew member dead. A cold front generated thick cloud and caused the Luftwaffe to curtail operations. Park ordered section strength (3–4 aircraft) standing patrols over six small coastal convoys and moved 609 Squadron to RAF Warmwell, to cover Portland. A number of single-aircraft raids penetrated the defences and Do 17s bombed docks at Cardiff , damaging SS San Felipe (5,913 GRT) and

528-404: A Heinkel He 59 seaplane and the crew was rescued by a British cruiser, complaining that they were a Red Cross service and should not have been fired upon. The British issued a warning that aircraft operating near convoys did so at their own risk. A scramble was ordered soon afterwards to protect Convoy Jumbo as it approached Portsmouth ; the convoy was attacked by Ju 87s which left before

704-828: A fair trial . The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years' War , while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period. Early modern Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country. The English Reformation ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in

880-521: A subpolar oceanic climate . Higher elevations in Scotland experience a continental subarctic climate and the mountains experience a tundra climate . The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean, although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions,

1056-604: A welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service , was created. The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947. Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of

1232-610: A Do 17 which crash-landed at Boulogne and another suffered minor damage. Before dark, He 111s bombed Portland Harbour, near-missed SS British Inventor (7,101 GRT), killing one man and hit HMS  Mercury , whose crew lost four dead and three wounded. Dowding was now in no doubt that the Luftwaffe was concentrating on ships and harbours and that the seven coastal convoys and deep-sea convoys at sea would be attacked. Dowding regarded convoy escort as wasteful and feared that Fighter Command would be depleted before main battle. The Germans had lost seven reconnaissance aircraft in

1408-465: A Ju 87, shot down by Foylebank gunners, Leutnant Schwarze and his gunner being posted missing and another Stuka was slightly damaged; a Bf 109 was damaged. Convoy OA 178 ( Outbound Atlantic ) of 14 ocean-going merchantmen and local collier traffic left the Thames Estuary, bound for the west coast and passed Dover safely on 3 July. German radar picked up the convoy and

1584-542: A KG 1 He 111 (the pilot was killed and the four crew members were posted missing). A Bf 109 from 4./JG 51 was shot down by 74 Squadron ( Leutnant Johann Böhm being taken prisoner) and Squadron Leader D. Cooke of 65 Squadron was killed in the afternoon. On 9 July Kesselring committed the Zerstörergeschwader (Destroyer Wings) to battle en masse for the first time against Britain. The first engagement took place when 257 Squadron damaged

1760-482: A code-name (Bread) taken from a list created by the RAF and given by Naval Control of Shipping as convoys were formed. The list was long enough to avoid duplication and the names were re-used, as a convoy was unlikely to need a code name for more than two weeks (often only two or three days). Peewit was used for convoys on 21 July and 11 September, Booty was used for convoys on 25 and 30 July, 11 August, 8 and 21 November. Pilot

1936-465: A conquest of the Low Countries with the shortest possible notice, to forestall the French, and prevent Allied air power from threatening the strategic Ruhr Area of Germany. It would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. As much as possible of the border areas in northern France should be occupied. Germany's Blitzkrieg tactics rapidly overpowered

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2112-745: A large part of the Low Countries came to be referred to as the Burgundian Netherlands . After the reign of the Valois Dukes ended, much of the Low Countries were controlled by the House of Habsburg . This area was referred to as the Habsburg Netherlands , which was also called the Seventeen Provinces up to 1581. Even after the political secession of the autonomous Dutch Republic (or "United Provinces") in

2288-463: A leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801. After the defeat of France at the end of

2464-404: A lone He 111, it was "bounced" by Bf 109s; two pilots force-landed and another fighter was damaged, the pilots surviving. At 19:30 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the convoy passed Dover, forty-five Do 17s from I. and II./KG 2 took off from Arras and attacked at 20:15, sinking one ship and damaging three more. The radar stations at Pevensey , Rye and Dover gave good warning of

2640-437: A militarised frontier and contact point between Rome and Germanic tribes . The Low Countries were the scene of the early independent trading centres that marked the reawakening of Europe in the 12th century. In that period, they rivalled northern Italy as one of the most densely populated regions of Western Europe. Guilds and councils governed most of the cities along with a figurehead ruler; interaction with their ruler

2816-853: A policy of splendid isolation in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in Afghanistan and Persia , in what came to be known as the Great Game . During this time, Canada , Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing dominion status. At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the German Empire and the United States . The Edwardian era saw social reform and home rule for Ireland become important domestic issues, while

2992-521: A prelude to the main battle against the RAF and its infrastructure. The Luftflotte commanders, Hugo Sperrle and Albert Kesselring , had already begun coastal operations as the indecision of OKL had left them with little else to do. OKL decided to pursue coastal targets because these were easier to find than targets inland. The Royal Air Force (RAF) would suffer a higher degree of attrition in comparison to fighting over land, since they would be fighting over an area which would be strongly contested by

3168-507: A result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries . In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society. Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan. The UK was the first democratic nation to lower its voting age to 18 in 1969. In

3344-811: A series of connected wars (including the English Civil War ) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the execution of King Charles I , and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England , Scotland and Ireland. Although the monarchy was restored , the Interregnum along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of

3520-531: A victory in the air battle would preclude an invasion of Britain by persuading the Churchill Government to negotiate peace with Germany. This was most evident during a conference in Berlin on 31 July when Hitler outlined Operation Sea Lion and its objectives. No Luftwaffe representative was present and Göring ignored summonses by Hitler to conferences aimed and inter-service co-operation. While

3696-602: A week and the Jagdgeschwader were ordered to provide escorts. On 8 July, the weather was favourable for the Luftwaffe , with thick cloud extending from 1,500–20,000 ft (460–6,100 m) shielding the bombers from RAF fighters. A convoy sailing up the Bristol Channel was shadowed by a Do 17, which was intercepted by 92 Squadron and claimed destroyed, though this is not shown in German records. In

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3872-481: Is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland". The BBC historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland. The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and nationality . People of

4048-538: Is ranked 2nd out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index . A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050. England accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering 50,350 square miles (130,395 km ). Most of the country consists of lowland terrain, with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the Tees–Exe line which roughly divides

4224-599: Is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole. The word England is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK. The term "Britain" is used as a synonym for Great Britain , but also sometimes for the United Kingdom. Usage is mixed: the UK Government prefers to use the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" on its website (except when referring to embassies), while acknowledging that both terms refer to

4400-579: Is the Isle of Wight . Scotland accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering 30,410 square miles (78,772 km ). This includes nearly 800 islands , notably the Hebrides , Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK, the Highlands to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including

4576-537: Is the blind poet Bernlef , from c.  800 , who sang both Christian psalms and pagan verses. Bernlef is representative of the coexistence of Christianity and Germanic polytheism in this time period. The earliest examples of written literature include the Wachtendonck Psalms , a collection of twenty five psalms that originated in the Moselle-Frankish region around the middle of

4752-627: Is the highest peak in Wales. Wales has over 1,680 miles (2,704 kilometres) of coastline including the Pembrokeshire Coast . Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey ( Ynys Môn ). Low Countries Historically, the regions without access to the sea linked themselves politically and economically to those with access to form various unions of ports and hinterland , stretching inland as far as parts of

4928-528: The Kriegsmarine . Hitler issued a directive to this end on 16 July, which ordered the Luftwaffe to prevent all air attacks on the invasion force, destroy British coast defences at the landing points and break the resistance of the British army. The campaign did not start against the RAF until August. Throughout the intervening period, the Luftwaffe undertook its third major operational move within

5104-609: The Luftwaffe organisation, order of battle and equipment. The accumulation of information allowed AI and the codebreakers at Bletchley Park to glean strategic intelligence from tactical signals being sent in lower-grade codes by Luftwaffe flying units. The British estimate of the number of German bombers was reduced from 2,500 to 1,250 by 6 July (the true number was 1,500–1,700). Changes in Luftwaffe methods and objectives were communicated via landline but at times it could be inferred from Enigma decrypts that changes were afoot. The code-name Adlertag and references to

5280-631: The Luftwaffe transferred air units to the European coast from Hamburg to Brest in Brittany on the French Atlantic coast. By 17 July, the two air fleets had reached their intended strength for operations against southern England and the Midlands, with 1,200 medium bombers, 280 dive-bombers, 760 single-engine fighters, 220 twin-engine fighters, 50 long-range reconnaissance aircraft (90 of

5456-486: The Luftwaffe was not prepared for naval warfare and this strategy was tantamount to Blockade , which was put in effect against Britain from 18 July. The blockade required the co-operation of the Luftwaffe with the Kriegsmarine (German navy) but Göring ensured air assistance was not forthcoming. Göring loathed the navy and its Commander-in-Chief Großadmiral Erich Raeder . In Göring's eyes, Raeder and

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5632-526: The Luftwaffe was ordered to intercept the ships after attacking Portland. A Junkers Ju 88 reconnaissance aircraft from 1.(F)/123 flew over the Channel and reported that the convoy was south-west of Portland. I./StG 2 from Falaise with 24 Ju 87s, escorted by a Staffel of fighters from I./JG 1. The attack was followed by 23 Ju 87s of III./StG 51 after they had been hastily re-fuelled and bombed up. SS Dallas City (4,952 GRT)

5808-588: The 1884 Reform Act championed by William Gladstone granting suffrage to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation , causing significant social and economic stresses. By the late 19th century, the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury initiated a period of imperial expansion in Africa , maintained

5984-543: The Armistice of 22 June 1940 . When German bomber crews flew over Britain they did so at night; sorties were recorded in May and June 1940. When Britain rejected Hitler's demands, the Luftwaffe undertook preparations to neutralise the country and end the war. Luftflotte 2 (Air Feet 2) and Luftflotte 3 were transferred to France and Belgium. In June and July, sporadic attacks were carried out at night, inland and along

6160-534: The Atlantic slave trade , mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial slave ships transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa. The slaves were taken to work on plantations , principally in the Caribbean but also North America . However, with pressure from the abolitionism movement , Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took

6336-678: The Austrian Netherlands . The United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830) temporarily united the Low Countries again before it split into the three modern countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. During the early months of World War I (around 1914), the Central Powers invaded the Low Countries of Luxembourg and Belgium in what has been come to be known as the German invasion of Belgium . It led to

6512-650: The Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of clan chiefs . The British colonies in North America that broke away in the American War of Independence became the United States . British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India . British merchants played a leading part in

6688-663: The Cairngorms , Loch Lomond and The Trossachs and Ben Nevis which at 1,345 metres (4,413 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles. Wales accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering 8,020 square miles (20,779 km ). Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales . The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon ( Welsh : Yr Wyddfa ) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft),

6864-523: The Commonwealth of Nations . The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test, Operation Hurricane , in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture . As

7040-467: The Duchy of Burgundy . At the height of Burgundian influence, the Low Countries became the political, cultural, and economic centre of Northern Europe , noted for its crafts and luxury goods, notably early Netherlandish painting , which is the work of artists who were active in the flourishing cities of Bruges , Ghent , Mechelen , Leuven , Tournai and Brussels , all in present-day Belgium. Musicians of

7216-496: The Dutch Revolt . Each of the provinces had its own laws, customs and political practices. The new policy, imposed from the outside, angered many inhabitants, who viewed their provinces as distinct entities. It and other monarchical acts, such as the creation of bishoprics and promulgation of laws against heresy , stoked resentments, which fired the eruption of the Dutch Revolt . After the northern Seven United Provinces of

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7392-767: The European Convention on Human Rights . The UK remained a great power with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO . The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the " war on terror " in the early 21st century. British troops fought in the War in Afghanistan , but controversy surrounded Britain's military deployment in Iraq , which saw

7568-583: The European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles . It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement . Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in

7744-494: The Falkland Islands , leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a 2013 referendum . From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues. Another British overseas territory, Gibraltar , ceded to Great Britain in

7920-652: The Franco-Flemish School were highly sought by the leading classes of all Europe. In 1477 the Burgundian holdings in the area passed through an heiress— Mary of Burgundy —to the Habsburgs . Charles V, who inherited the territory in 1506, was named ruler by the States General and styled himself as Heer der Nederlanden ( lit.   ' Lord of the Netherlands ' ). He continued to rule

8096-545: The French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830). Unchallenged at sea , British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace among the great powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became

8272-587: The Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote. Britain was one of the principal Allies that defeated the Central Powers in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts, British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on

8448-513: The Luftflotte 2 commander, could ill-afford losses at the rate suffered in July 1940 either. On 2 July 1940, in the aftermath of the French surrender, Adolf Hitler decided that an invasion of Britain could only begin after achieving air superiority. On 12 July he outlined his reasoning: aerial domination over the invasion area and its sea approaches was necessary to compensate for the weakness of

8624-593: The Photographic Reconnaissance Unit flew sorties to Norway and points south to the Spanish border to photograph German-occupied ports, looking for signs of invasion preparations. Nothing was revealed until the second week of August, when accumulations of barges were found and interpreted as an invasion preparation. RAF Bomber Command sent its bombers nightly against the German ports, aircraft industry and against airfields when unable to bomb

8800-405: The Representation of the People Act 1918 . After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the League of Nations and received a mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George , the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population. By

8976-410: The Roman departure was followed by Anglo-Saxon settlement . In 1066, the Normans conquered England . With the end of the Wars of the Roses the English state stabilised and began to grow in power, resulting by the 16th century in the annexation of Wales , the domination of Scotland , and the establishment of the British Empire . Over the course of the 17th century, the role of the British monarchy

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9152-412: The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 created the present United Kingdom. The UK became the first industrialised country and was the world's foremost power for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the " Pax Britannica " between 1815 and 1914. At its height in the 1920s, the British Empire encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and

9328-425: The Second World War . By 25 June, the Allies had been defeated in Western Europe and Scandinavia . Britain had rejected peace overtures and on 16 July, Adolf Hitler issued Directive 16 to the Wehrmacht (German armed forces), ordering preparations for an invasion of Britain, under the codename Unternehmen Seelöwe ( Operation Sea Lion ). The Germans needed air superiority over southern England for

9504-463: The Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the Axis powers . There were eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic , the North Africa campaign and the Italian campaign . British forces played important roles in the Normandy landings of 1944 and the liberation of Europe . The British Army led the Burma campaign against Japan, and the British Pacific Fleet fought Japan at sea. British scientists contributed to

9680-566: The Western Approaches . Convoy patrols were resumed on 7 July in defence of CW and CE (west- and east-bound) coal convoys along the south coast and 145 Squadron shot down a Do 17P reconnaissance aircraft over the Channel, 43 Squadron shot down another shadowing an east-bound convoy and another Do 17 fell to 601 Squadron later on. Luftwaffe Jagdgeschwader (Fighter Wings) were encouraged to embark upon freie jagd (free hunts) to engage RAF fighters wherever possible, with no bombers to protect. As 54 Squadron prepared to attack

9856-449: The Western Front . The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt. The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with

10032-408: The coastline paradox . It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel , which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world. The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Celtic broadleaf forests , English Lowlands beech forests , North Atlantic moist mixed forests , and Caledonian conifer forests . The area of woodland in

10208-436: The largest protest in British history in opposition to the government led by Tony Blair . The Great Recession severely affected the UK economy. The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits. Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering. A referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 resulted in

10384-512: The 16th century and established the Church of England . Moreover, it defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs. Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England , and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland. In 1603,

10560-401: The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, is a key military base . A referendum in 2002 on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected by 98.97% of voters in the territory. Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of

10736-406: The 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism , deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. In 1982, Argentina invaded the British territories of South Georgia and

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10912-426: The 4th and 5th century, Frankish tribes had entered this Roman region and came to run it increasingly independently. They came to be ruled by the Merovingian dynasty , under which dynasty the southern part (below the Rhine ) was re- Christianised . By the end of the 8th century, the Low Countries formed a core part of a much expanded Francia and the Merovingians were replaced by the Carolingian dynasty . In 800,

11088-476: The 5th century) united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century. In 1066, the Normans invaded England from northern France. After conquering England , they seized large parts of Wales , conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture. The Anglo-Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with,

11264-486: The 84 railway tanks with aviation fuel had reached the main depot at Le Mans . The Transportgruppen (transport groups) could not cope and barely kept their own units running. Preparations continued at a glacial pace, since the men responsible for the organisation of German air power and its efficient transfer to the Channel, were enjoying the fruits of their new assignments in Paris. Senior staff members were distracted by victory parades and promotions, including Göring who

11440-430: The Admiralty had been strained since the establishment of the RAF on 1 April 1918. In the early 1920s, the three services competed for resources, influence and the right of the RAF to exist. The War Office and the Navy tried to abolish the RAF and regain control of army and naval aviation. By 1940, service rivalry had diminished with the return of the Fleet Air Arm to Navy control but the Air Ministry remained suspicious of

11616-414: The Air Force) or Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW—Supreme High Command of the Armed Forces), stated that sea attacks on warships and shipping must take second place to "military objectives"; the OKW did not alter this view until February 1941. Göring and OKL intended to strike at the RAF and establish air superiority , if not air supremacy , made clear in Göring's 30 June directive. Göring hoped that

11792-436: The Bristol Channel. The ships rounded Land's End into the English Channel; usually the convoy would have an escort of two destroyers and six armed merchant trawlers. Off Falmouth four escorts, usually destroyers of Plymouth Command , joined until relieved by ships from Portland Command relieved in turn by ships from Portsmouth Command off the Isle of Wight. At Dungeness , Dover Command mine-sweeping trawlers took over until

11968-437: The British war effort . Dowding preferred the navy to re-route its convoys to ease the burden on his forces. German intentions were exploitative at first but evolved into dual purpose operations—to close the Channel to shipping and draw Fighter Command into combat. Luftflotte 2 and Luftflotte 3 (Air Fleets 2 and 3) sent small numbers of bombers against British sea communications, attacking ships and laying mines. In July,

12144-464: The Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales , Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland). Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century. Meanwhile, Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in

12320-550: The Channel Islands had begun on 30 June 1940 and on Monday 1 July, early morning mist curtailed operations by Luftflotte 2 and Luftflotte 3 but reconnaissance sorties by the Aufklärungsgruppen took place and two Dornier Do 215s were shot down by British ground defences. A Junkers Ju 88 from 3.(F)/ Aufklärungsgruppe 121 was also lost to mechanical failure. Several Bristol Blenheims , escorted by Hawker Hurricanes of 145 Squadron , reconnoitred Abbeville for no loss. Supermarine Spitfires of 72 Squadron shot down

12496-404: The Channel between the Battle of France and Britain; systematic German attacks against British coastal targets and convoys began on 4 July. During the Kanalkampf , the Luftwaffe received modest support from shore artillery and the Schnellboote (S-boats, E-Boats to the British) of the German Navy ( Kriegsmarine ). Fighter Command could not guarantee the defence of the convoys;

12672-513: The Channel coast? The attacks yesterday both from the air and by E-boats , were very serious, and I should like to be assured this morning that the situation is in hand and the Air is contributing effectively. Horton regarded the episode as a disgrace and the Admiralty complained to the prime minister , who demanded that Fighter Command do more to protect Channel shipping. The weather was poor over

12848-440: The Channel on 5 July. 65 Squadron shot down an 8. Staffel Heinkel He 111 of Kampfgeschwader 1 (KG 1) over the sea with the loss of all five crew. Late in the evening, 64 Squadron flew a reconnaissance patrol over Calais and Bf 109s from JG 51 shot down a Spitfire, its pilot being killed and another was damaged for no loss to the German fighters. Evidence grew that the main Luftwaffe attack would fall in

13024-457: The Channel waters each day needed cover every day and roughly one-third were attacked. It became an immediate burden to 11 Group (Air Officer Commanding [AOC] Keith Park ) which was responsible for defending south-east England. The employment of convoys from the Suffolk coast to Lyme Bay negated the value of using the sea as a protective shield because the location gave tactical advantages to

13200-505: The French and Belgian infrastructure damaged during the Battle of France . The army rebuilt bridges to supply forward bases and the Luftwaffe the former Allied air bases. This often meant short-range dive bombers and fighters were sent to forward airfields which were urgently in need of electricity and running water for personnel. Upon the French surrender the Luftwaffe supply system was breaking down. For example, on 8 July only 20 of

13376-592: The German Rhineland . Because of this, nowadays not only physically low-altitude areas, but also some hilly or elevated regions are considered part of the Low Countries, including Luxembourg and the south of Belgium. Within the European Union , the region's political grouping is still referred to as the Benelux (short for Belgium-Netherlands-Luxembourg). During the Roman Empire , the region contained

13552-419: The German occupation of the two countries. However, the German advance into France was quickly halted, causing a military stalemate for most of the war. In the end, a total of approximately 56,000 people were killed in the invasion. During World War II , when Adolf Hitler 's gaze turned his strategy west toward France, the Low Countries were an easy route around the imposing French Maginot Line . He ordered

13728-494: The German threat which he did, apparently without consulting the navy. Before the war, Fighter Command had expected attacks by unescorted German bombers upon the eastern Britain. The German occupation of France put the west of England in range of German aircraft. Dowding considered that airfields and factories would be attacked as well as convoys and ports, to draw RAF fighter forces into battle and inflict losses. On 3 July, Dowding asked for convoys to be sent around Scotland, to reduce

13904-517: The Germans sank several British and neutral ships and shot down a considerable number of British fighters. The Royal Navy was forced to suspend the sailing of large convoys in Channel waters and close it to ocean-going vessels until more protection could be arranged, which took several weeks. On 1 August, Hitler issued Directive 17, extending Luftwaffe operations to the British mainland and RAF-related targets. On 13 August ( Adlertag , Eagle Day)

14080-480: The Low Countries as opposed to les pays de par delà ("the lands over there") for the Duchy of Burgundy and the Free County of Burgundy , which were part of their realm but geographically disconnected from the Low Countries. Governor Mary of Hungary used both the expressions les pays de par deça and Pays d'Embas ("lands down here"), which evolved to Pays-Bas or Low Countries . Today

14256-523: The Low Countries colloquially means the Netherlands and Belgium, sometimes the Netherlands and Flanders —the Dutch-speaking north of Belgium. For example, a Low Countries derby ( Derby der Lage Landen ), is a sports event between Belgium and the Netherlands. Belgium separated in 1830 from the (northern) Netherlands. The new country took its name from Belgica , the Latinised name for

14432-462: The Low Countries, as it was known during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The Low Countries were in that war divided in two parts. On one hand, the northern Federated Netherlands or Belgica Foederata rebelled against King Philip II of Spain ; on the other, the southern Royal Netherlands or Belgica Regia remained loyal to the Spanish king. This divide laid the early foundation for

14608-830: The Manhattan Project whose task was to build an atomic weapon. Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan. The UK was one of the Big Three powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world ; it drafted the Declaration by United Nations with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . It worked closely with

14784-605: The Name of Great Britain". The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used as a description for the former Kingdom of Great Britain , although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain". The Acts of Union 1800 formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as

14960-523: The Pope crowned and appointed Charlemagne Emperor of the re-established Roman Empire . After the death of Charlemagne , Francia was divided in three parts among his three grandsons. The middle slice, Middle Francia , was ruled by Lothair I , and thereby also came to be referred to as "Lotharingia" or "Lorraine". Apart from the original coastal County of Flanders , which was within West Francia ,

15136-491: The RAF fighters from reaching the bombers. United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , commonly known as the United Kingdom ( UK ) or Britain , is a country in Northwestern Europe , off the coast of the continental mainland . It comprises England , Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland . The UK includes the island of Great Britain , the north-eastern part of

15312-716: The Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7% to remain part of the United Kingdom. In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union . The UK left the EU in 2020. On 1 May 2021, the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement came into force. The COVID-19 pandemic had a severe impact on the UK's economy , caused major disruptions to education and had far-reaching impacts on society and politics in 2020 and 2021. The United Kingdom

15488-530: The Thames Estuary where they were relieved by Thames Command ships. The Dover Command ships then took over a CW (coal west) convoy for the reciprocal voyage. Coal convoys were slow and in easy range of enemy aircraft flying from France but the south coast ports needed 40,000 long tons (41,000 t) of coal a week and land transport capacity was insufficient. When using R/T, convoy names like CW 9 were undesirable, being long-winded and liable to problems with reception. Convoys expected to receive air cover were given

15664-501: The UK has the world's sixth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product (GDP). It is a nuclear state , and is ranked fifth globally in military expenditure . The UK has been a permanent member of the UN Security Council since its first session in 1946. It is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , Council of Europe , G7 , OECD , NATO , Five Eyes , AUKUS and CPTPP . British influence can be observed in

15840-484: The UK in 2023 is estimated to be 3.25 million hectares, which represents 13% of the total land area in the UK. Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round. The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below 0  °C (32  °F ) or rising above 30 °C (86 °F). Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience

16016-961: The UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include Cornwall , the New Forest , the South Downs and the Norfolk Broads . Upland areas include the Lake District , the Pennines , the Yorkshire Dales , Exmoor , and Dartmoor . The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames , Severn , and the Humber . England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike , at 978 metres (3,209 ft) in the Lake District; its largest island

16192-402: The United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government". The UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it

16368-575: The United Kingdom is London , whose wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe , with a population of 14.9 million. The cities of Edinburgh , Cardiff , and Belfast are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, respectively. The lands of the UK have been inhabited continuously since the Neolithic . In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began;

16544-411: The United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible. The hours of sunshine vary from 1200 to about 1580 hours per year, and since 1996 the UK has been and still is receiving above the 1981 to 2010 average hours of sunshine. Climate change has a serious impact on the country. A third of food price rise in 2023 is attributed to climate change. As of 2022, the United Kingdom

16720-436: The United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British , English , Scottish , Welsh , Northern Irish , or Irish ; or as having a combination of different national identities. Settlement by Cro-Magnons of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. The island has been continuously inhabited only since

16896-685: The United Kingdom. The 1928 Equal Franchise Act gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926 . Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the Great Depression (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government

17072-640: The United States to establish the IMF , World Bank and NATO . The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the Marshall Plan , but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe. In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government under Clement Attlee initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society in the following decades . Major industries and public utilities were nationalised ,

17248-628: The acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies , particularly in North America and the Caribbean. Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments. On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed,

17424-545: The army and navy made tentative steps towards an amphibious assault , OKL was engaged in an internal debate about which targets should be attacked to attain control of the air as quickly as possible. Though Göring's directive mentioned cutting off British supplies, he referred to shipping. On 11 July, the Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff, Hans Jeschonnek , ordered that coastal shipping should be attacked as

17600-475: The attack and seven Spitfires from 64 Squadron were ordered up from RAF Kenley, with six more from 65 Squadron at RAF Hornchurch . The fighters took off too late, could not prevent the attack and 65 Squadron was bounced by 70 Bf 109s from JG 27. Three Spitfires were shot down, all three pilots being killed and two Bf 109s were claimed destroyed (although neither can be identified through Luftwaffe loss records). The fighters of 64 Squadron damaged

17776-545: The attacker. Coastal radar could give little advance warning of incoming raids since the proximity of Luftwaffe airbases, meant that German aircraft could attack and quickly withdraw, making interception difficult. Standing patrols over convoys could compensate but this exhausted pilots and handed the tactical initiative to the Germans. Coast and convoy defence had a place in Air Staff fighter defence policy but Dowding had to decide how best to employ Fighter Command to meet

17952-412: The battles could be described as a German victory of sorts. In 2000, Stephen Bungay wrote that in early August the Channel was German by day but that fact did not threaten Fighter Command. Bungay wrote that the Luftwaffe had to advance well beyond the Channel to win an aerial campaign and that Hugo Sperrle , the commander of Luftflotte 3 , was already alarmed at German losses. Albert Kesselring ,

18128-533: The bulk of its opponent. RAF pilots that abandoned their aircraft over water would face the same peril as their German counterparts; the RAF lacked an air-sea rescue service, unlike the Luftwaffe . It was also desirable to eliminate the English Channel as supply route to Greater London via the Thames Estuary . Shipping could travel north of Scotland but it would slow the supply of materials for

18304-552: The burden of convoy escort along the south coast, to preserve Fighter Command for the main battle. Four weeks later the Air Ministry (ostensibly after complaints from the Admiralty) instructed him to meet the Luftwaffe with large formations over shipping on the south coast route. On 9 August Winston Churchill was still asking the navy to use the convoys as bait to lure German bombers; the tactic succeeded but fighting over

18480-585: The capture of bases in France and the Low Countries; in the North Sea , the Grimsby fishing fleet had been attacked twice in June. Air attacks increased and in July, ship losses off the east coast exceeded those by naval mines . Attacks on minesweepers, escort vessels and anti-invasion patrols rapidly increased and was made worse by a lack of light anti-aircraft guns and the concentration of the air defence effort in

18656-417: The coast and ten big ocean-going ships joined at Plymouth and Falmouth, en route to Gibraltar by when most of the coasters had entered port. On 2 July, Ju 87 dive-bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (StG2, Dive-Bomber Wing 2) attacked the convoy and the British troopship Aeneas (10,058 GRT) moving at 7 kn (13 km/h; 8.1 mph), 21 nmi (39 km; 24 mi) south-east of Start Point, Devon

18832-622: The convoys, was damaged by a mine and sank as it was being towed home. To be closer to the coast, Dowding transferred 79 Squadron from Biggin Hill to RAF Hawkinge in place of 245 Squadron, which was sent to RAF Turnhouse in Scotland. In the morning of 4 July, the Luftwaffe attacked Portland harbour. Messerschmitt Bf 110s from V.(Z)./ Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1: Experimental Wing) and two Staffeln (squadrons) of Messerschmitt Bf 109s from I./ Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG 1: Fighter Wing) (renamed III./ Jagdgeschwader 27 -JG 27-

19008-512: The crews had orders to abandon raids unless there was 7/10ths cloud; by the end of June, 90 per cent of planned sorties were cancelled. The Blenheims and some Fairey Battles , returned from France, began to fly on moonlit nights. In July 1940, Bomber Command lost 72 aircraft on these operations. Fighter Command claimed 21 German bombers at night over Britain in June. Seven German aircraft crashed and were credited to night-fighters. British night air defences remained rudimentary until early 1941; there

19184-736: The decades-long process of European integration , the UK was a founding member of the Western European Union , established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). In a 1975 referendum 67% voted to stay in it. When the EC became

19360-658: The defences of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. All three countries were occupied from May 1940 until early 1945. During the occupation, their governments were forced into exile in Britain. In 1944, they signed the London Customs Convention , laying the foundation for the eventual Benelux Economic Union , an important forerunner of the EEC (later the EU ). One of the Low Countries' earliest literary figures

19536-600: The discovery of landmarks easy. On the night of 6/7 June, the first Luftwaffe bomb to fall on Greater London was dropped on at Addington and small raids continued through the month. Thirteen airfields, sixteen factories and fourteen ports were attacked to little effect. Flying at low altitudes, the German bombers could be illuminated by searchlights. Two were shot down in June by anti-aircraft guns . The bombers began to fly higher and escape anti-aircraft fire. Operations against British sea communications did not appeal to Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring . In Göring's view,

19712-537: The early hours a large CW convoy put to sea from the Thames Estuary to pass Dover at 12:00. At 11:30, a He 111 found near the convoy off the North Foreland was claimed shot down by Spitfires of 74 Squadron and appears to have escaped, though seen on fire, undercarriage down, diving into cloud. An hour later, radar picked up considerable aerial activity over the Pas de Calais. An unescorted Staffel of Do 17s

19888-569: The east and southern coasts to keep civilians awake and to damage morale. The attacks were ill-directed and German intentions were not clear to the British. Night operations gave the Luftwaffe experience in using night navigation equipment, such at the Knickebein (crooked leg). By taking bearings and cross-bearings in the Battle of the Beams on German medium-wave transmitters, aircraft could find their position sufficiently accurately to make

20064-483: The eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream , bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills. The average total annual sunshine in

20240-404: The fighters arrived. Blenheim IF fighters from 235 Squadron claimed a Dornier Do 17 damaged and Spitfires from 64 Squadron engaged and shot down a Do 17 from Kampfgeschwader 77 (KG 77: Bomber Wing 77) that was approaching RAF Kenley . Twenty ships of Convoy OA 177G ( convoy Outbound Atlantic ) departed Southend on 1 July, consisting of local coasters carrying coal to the ports along

20416-594: The first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort. In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain . Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz . The Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States and

20592-587: The formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of regions such as East Asia and Latin America . Throughout the Victorian era , political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies. Beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832, Parliament gradually widened the voting franchise , with

20768-403: The further history the Low Countries can be seen as the object of a continual struggle between these two powers, the title of Duke of Lothier was coveted in the low countries for centuries. In the 14th and 15th century, separate fiefs came gradually to be ruled by a single family through royal intermarriage . This process culminated in the rule of the House of Valois , who were the rulers of

20944-762: The global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the Crimean War , allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia , participating in the naval battles of the Baltic Sea known as the Åland War in the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland , among others. Following the Indian Rebellion in 1857 , the British government led by Lord Palmerston assumed direct rule over India . Alongside

21120-415: The harbour. The gunners on Foylebank did not have the time to man their weapons properly and 104 bombs were dropped, many hitting the vessel. Foylebank's tender was hit and sank immediately, 176 sailors being killed or died of wounds. The Stukas sank Silverdial and damaged the merchantmen East Wales (4,358 GRT), William Wilberforce (5,004 GRT) and City of Melbourne (6,630 GRT). StG 51 lost

21296-537: The heirs. By streamlining the succession law in all Seventeen Provinces and declaring that all of them would be inherited by one heir, Charles effectively united the Netherlands as one entity. After Charles' abdication in 1555, the Seventeen Provinces passed to his son, Philip II of Spain . The Pragmatic Sanction is said to be one example of the Habsburg contest with particularism that contributed to

21472-463: The historic Low Countries, while Nederland (singular) is the normal Dutch name for the country of the Netherlands. However, in official use, the name of the Dutch kingdom is still Kingdom of the Netherlands , Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (plural). This name derives from the 19th-century origins of the kingdom which originally included present-day Belgium. In Dutch, and to a lesser extent in English,

21648-615: The intentions of the Army. Fighter Command cooperated with the Navy during the Battle of Dunkirk when the RAF provided fighter cover for the embarkation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), which was costly for both services. By 1 June, the RAF reduced its effort to conserve its fighters; a minesweeper , a transport and three destroyers were sunk and two destroyers were damaged in its absence. The lack of air cover

21824-554: The invasion; the Luftwaffe was to destroy the RAF and protect the cross-channel invasion from the Royal Navy . To commence the destruction of RAF Fighter Command , the Luftwaffe attacked convoys in the Channel. Historians differ somewhat about the dates of the Battle of Britain and British histories usually treat 10 July as the beginning. British and German writers and historians acknowledge that air battles were fought over

22000-872: The island of Ireland , and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles , making up a total area of 94,354 square miles (244,376 km ). Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland ; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , the North Sea , the English Channel , the Celtic Sea , and the Irish Sea . The United Kingdom had an estimated population of over 68.2 million people in 2023. The capital and largest city of both England and

22176-403: The kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots , inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions. In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in

22352-408: The last retreat of the ice around 11,500 years ago. By the end of the region's prehistoric period , the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed Insular Celtic , comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland . The Roman conquest , beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain , was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing

22528-399: The later modern states of Belgium and the Netherlands. The region politically had its origins in the Carolingian empire ; more precisely, most of the people were within the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia . After the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia, the Low Countries were brought under the rule of various lordships until they came to be in the hands of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy . Hence,

22704-409: The legal and political systems of many of its former colonies , and British culture remains globally influential, particularly in language , literature , music and sport . English is the world's most widely spoken language and the third-most spoken native language . The Acts of Union 1707 declared that the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by

22880-471: The local cultures. Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and tried unsuccessfully to annex Scotland . Asserting its independence in the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath , Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in near-constant conflict with England . In 1215 the Magna Carta was the first document to state that no government was above the law, that citizens have rights protecting them and that they were entitled to

23056-448: The main air offensive against the RAF began. The Kanalkampf had drawn out Fighter Command as intended and convoy attacks continued for several more days. Both sides had suffered losses but the Luftwaffe had failed to defeat on Fighter Command; the Luftwaffe had yet to gain air superiority for Operation Sea Lion. The historian Williamson Murray (1983) regarded the Channel battles as inconclusive; Peter Smith (2007) wrote that

23232-436: The major part of the British Isles archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel . The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London

23408-402: The medium bombers could fly bomber-reconnaissance sorties against shipping and ports) and 90 short-range reconnaissance aircraft. Luftflotte 5 in Norway, with 130 medium bombers, 30 twin-engine fighters and 30 long-range reconnaissance aircraft, exerted an indirect effect on the Kanalkampf , by making the RAF keep fighters in the north. Relations between the Air Ministry, War Office and

23584-619: The mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes. Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936. The rise of Irish nationalism , and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule , led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921. A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931 . Northern Ireland remained part of

23760-428: The naval command. Time was lost and the fluidity of aerial warfare meant that RAF aircraft came into action at the wrong time or place, often in numbers too small to defend the evacuation ships. Vice Admiral Max Horton , the Commander-in-Chief, Dover , was responsible for organising the evacuation (Operation Dynamo) and asked to meet Dowding in late June, to prevent the operational difficulties occurring again. Horton

23936-406: The navy represented the bourgeois clique of German society the National Socialist revolution had pledged to eliminate. The Reichsmarschall consistently refused to accept the navy's calls for assistance in the war against the Royal Navy and British commerce throughout the conflict. All of the directives issued to the Luftwaffe by the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL—High Command of

24112-460: The next day) escorted Junkers Ju 87 Stukas of II./ Sturzkampfgeschwader 51 (StG 51, renamed II./ Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 StG 1, the next day). At 08:15 the Stukas arrived and with no RAF fighters in sight, attacked HMS  Foylebank (ex-MV Andrew Weir ,5,582 GRT) armed with four twin four-inch high-angle guns, multiple two-pounder Pom-Pom guns and 0.5-inch machine guns. The ship had been sent to Portland on 9 June to protect

24288-458: The north, the term "Low Countries" continued to be used to refer collectively to the region. The region was temporarily united politically between 1815 and 1839, as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , before this split into the three modern countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. The Low Countries were part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica and Germania Inferior . They were inhabited by Belgic and Germanic tribes . In

24464-463: The only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also widely referred to as countries . The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom. Some statistical summaries, such as those for

24640-709: The others after the 60 Bf 109 and Bf 110 fighters. The German bomber crews exaggerated the number of Hurricanes and split into six formations, one finding itself over the convoy but its bombing was scattered and no ships were hit; a Hurricane was shot down and another damaged; Squadron Leader C. G. Lott was wounded, the Hurricanes probably being shot down by II./JG 51. In return III./ Zerstörergeschwader 26 (ZG 26, Destroyer Wing 26) commanded by Hauptmann Johann Schalk lost three Bf 110s destroyed and one damaged. Seven crewmen were posted missing, with one pilot safe, after being intercepted by 43 Squadron. No Bf 109 appears to have been lost and they prevented

24816-417: The period from 9 to 13 August, were uncovered but not its purpose. As the Kanalkampf continued, Enigma gave more notice of targets, timing and the size raids but this was sometimes too late to be useful and Luftwaffe changes at short-notice could negate the information. Tactical information from Enigma was not well co-ordinated with RAF Y-stations (RAF Y), which reported separate to Enigma but RAF Y

24992-584: The primary target. The Blenheims of 2 Group made daylight attacks on airfields occupied by the Luftwaffe . In July ports and shipping were made the priority target but until the ports filled with invasion craft in August, Bomber Command continued to attack industry and Luftwaffe ground facilities. The Germans had 400 airfields available and dispersed aircraft around them, making the bombing ineffectual. The targets were defended by large concentrations of anti-aircraft artillery, making ground strafing too risky. The Blenheims were vulnerable to fighter attack and

25168-739: The railways, manufacturing industry and shipbuilding. Coal convoys sailed down the east coast to London Docks or down the west coast then the Bristol Channel , English Channel, the Dover Straits and the Thames Estuary to the docks. Trade convoys along the east coast were FN (northbound) and FS (southbound). The area between the English, French and Netherlands coasts was about 400 mi (640 km) long, 110 mi (180 km) at its widest point and 22 mi (35 km) at its narrowest, between Dover and Calais. The seas were full of shoals, sandbars, shipwrecks and minefields laid by both sides, sometimes forcing ships to sail in line. A Coal East (CE convoy) assembled at Glasgow, joined by ships from South Wales in

25344-442: The rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system . With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power and the interest in voyages of discovery led to

25520-428: The rest of the Low Countries were within the lowland part of this, " Lower Lorraine ". After the death of Lothair, the Low Countries were coveted by the rulers of both West Francia and East Francia . Each tried to swallow the region and to merge it with their spheres of influence. Thus, the Low Countries consisted of fiefs whose sovereignty resided with either the Kingdom of France or the Holy Roman Empire . While

25696-406: The result of the Acts of Union 1707 between the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland . In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole , in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of Jacobite uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart . The Jacobites were finally defeated at

25872-496: The sea caused Fighter Command greater losses. The quantity of Luftwaffe Enigma messages declined after the Battle of France, when it resumed the use of land lines but at the end of June, decrypts revealed that the Luftwaffe was preparing for operations against Britain from Belgium and Holland and that most bomber Geschwader would be ready by 8 July; photographic reconnaissance (PR) showed runways being extended. Since PR had found no invasion shipping in Channel ports, it

26048-423: The seventeen declared their independence from Habsburg Spain in 1581, the ten provinces of the Southern Netherlands remained occupied by the Army of Flanders under Spanish service and are therefore sometimes called the Spanish Netherlands . In 1713, under the Treaty of Utrecht following the War of the Spanish Succession , what was left of the Spanish Netherlands was ceded to Austria and thus became known as

26224-462: The ships. While demanding close escort, the Admiralty required ships to engage unidentified aircraft within 1,500 yd (1,400 m), a practice the RAF considered irresponsible. More training in aircraft recognition and pilots not flying towards to ships on tracks similar to bombing runs were obvious remedies and with experience, navy gunners made fewer mistakes. British power stations ran on coal from Wales , Northumberland and Yorkshire as did

26400-463: The sloop HMS  Foxglove . A local airfield was bombed and two pilots were killed on the ground. At 12:45, Dover radar detected the build-up of a large formation behind the Pas de Calais and to prevent the Luftwaffe from using the cloud cover to approach unseen and attack the convoys from the trailing edge of the cloud base, Park ordered six squadrons from 11 Group into action. At 13:00 six Hurricanes were ordered up from RAF North Weald , where

26576-511: The south and as Fighter Command squadrons were rebuilt with pilots from Operational Training Units (OTU), Dowding agreed with Keith Park (11 Group). On 6 July, Air Vice-Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory ( 12 Group ) to a transfer of some squadrons to bases closer to the coast. The Air Staff expected German attacks from the Cherbourg peninsula and 609 Squadron was moved from RAF Northolt to RAF Middle Wallop on Salisbury Plain ; 87 Squadron moved to Exeter to cover Bristol , Plymouth and

26752-464: The south-east of England, against a possible invasion. The Admiralty reserved the right for ships to fire on aircraft on an apparently attacking course because it had been found that a high volume of prompt, accurate fire could reduce the accuracy of bombing and sometimes shoot down the attacker. Hurried training and lack of experience in aircraft recognition among navy crews led to many RAF aircraft being taken for hostile and fired on, even when escorts for

26928-473: The space of two months. The first had seen it push forward its Air Fleets into the Low Countries and the second into southern France. Now it was expanded into northern France and Belgium, along the English Channel coast. It took time to establish the signal system in France owing to a shortage of trained staff officers while the units replenished after losses through the Ergänzungsverbände (supplemental formations). The Luftwaffe and army had to repair

27104-404: The station commander, Wing Commander Victor Beamish , became so impatient that he ordered his aircraft to be readied and took off in support, leading 151 Squadron . The Hurricanes were confronted with a formation of 100 bombers and fighters in a stepped up formation, ranging from 12,000–20,000 ft (3,700–6,100 m). The six Hurricanes formed two sections of three, one against the bombers and

27280-438: The term is typically fitted to modern political boundaries and used in the same way as the term Benelux . The name of the country of the Netherlands has the same etymology and origin as the name for the region Low Countries, due to "nether" meaning "low". In the Dutch language itself De Lage Landen is the modern term for Low Countries, and De Nederlanden (plural) is in use for the 16th century domains of Charles V ,

27456-420: The territories as a multitude of duchies and principalities until the Low Countries were eventually united into one indivisible territory, the Seventeen Provinces , covered by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 , while retaining existing customs, laws, and forms of government within the provinces. The Pragmatic Sanction transformed the agglomeration of lands into a unified entity, of which the Habsburgs would be

27632-436: The twelve NUTS 1 regions , refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions". Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province". With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences". The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination. It

27808-701: Was able to give warnings of German sightings of coastal convoys and imminent attacks by eavesdropping on and decrypting Luftwaffe wireless transmissions between aircraft and the ground. RAF Y identified airborne bomber units and their bases, occasionally also uncovering the target area, although it was mid-August before this added much to Radio Direction Finding (Radar) reports. German voice transmissions by radio telephone (R/T) were collected by listening stations around Britain, headquartered at RAF Kingsdown in Kent, by German speaking Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) and Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) and sent to local RAF headquarters and Fighter Command HQ which

27984-409: Was bombed, 21 men were killed and 122 were rescued by the destroyer HMS  Witherington , the ship sinking off Portland Bill. StG2 also damaged the British SS Baron Ruthven (3,178 GRT) causing five casualties; a doctor was transferred from a destroyer but two of the wounded died before the ship reached Portsmouth. S-23 a German Schnellboot (Fast Boat, E-Boat to the British), out looking for

28160-503: Was bombed, engulfed in flames and collided with SS Flimston (4,674 GRT) which was also hit; the ships took 15 minutes to disengage, Dallas City sinking later at 50°09' N, 02°01 W, the crew being rescued. Antonio limped into Portland Harbour with Flimston , where the anti-aircraft ship Foylebank was on fire and sinking. The Dutch ship SS Deucalion (1,796 GRT, 27 survivors) sank at 50°11' N, 02°35' W, Kolga (3,526 GRT) and Britsum (5,225 GRT) were sunk and SS Canadian Constructor ,

28336-416: Was chosen as the defining point of the Prime Meridian at the International Meridian Conference in 1884. The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° and 61° N , and longitudes 9° W and 2° E . Northern Ireland shares a 224-mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland. The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long, though measurements can vary greatly due to

28512-406: Was considered likely that preliminary operations were contemplated. After about a month of small night raids, on 10 July the Luftwaffe began bigger daylight attacks on ports, coastal convoys and aircraft factories. Decrypts in late June enabled the Air Ministry Air Intelligence branch (AI) to predict the beginning of the German offensive and decrypts for several months previous had been uncovering

28688-425: Was damaged for no Luftwaffe loss. In the late evening, Hurricanes of 79 Squadron scrambled to defend shipping off Dover being attacked by Dornier Do 17s of Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG 2). Several ships were badly damaged, a freighter was beached to avoid sinking and Bf 109s from II./ Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51) shot down a Hurricane. Sergeant Henry Cartwright, a flying ace with five victories,

28864-404: Was formed in 1931. Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system." After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War . Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in

29040-593: Was intercepted by 610 Squadron off Dover and dropped their bombs wide of the ships. The Spitfires damaged a bomber but lost a pilot killed to return fire; six more Spitfires sighted Do 17s escorted by a Staffel of Bf 109s and a Bf 109 was claimed without loss. (A II./JG 51 Bf 109 force-landed, the pilot wounded.) Hurricanes of 79 Squadron took off from Hawkinge and north of Dover, were attacked and lost two pilots killed to Bf 109s. Kampfgeschwader 54 (KG 54) Ju 88s made ineffectual attacks and Geoffrey Allard of 85 Squadron shot down

29216-419: Was killed, for one Do 17 damaged. The day was a success for the Luftwaffe , the attack on Portland inflicting the worst ever loss of life on British military personnel based in Britain. Churchill was perturbed and submitted an "Action This Day" memo to the Admiralty, Could you let me know on one sheet of paper what arrangements you are making about the Channel Convoys now that the Germans are all along

29392-458: Was no specialist night fighter or reliable aircraft interception radar . Coastal radar looked out to sea and when a raider crossed the coast, it became difficult to track. At the beginning of The Blitz in October, the Luftwaffe flew 5,900 sorties and lost 23 aircraft, a 0.4 per cent loss rate. The failures cost Air Officer Commanding (AOC) Hugh Dowding , his job in November 1940. Luftwaffe attacks on shipping were made much easier by

29568-510: Was not uncommon and the RAF believed itself to be more successful in battle, over-claiming German losses by 4:1. Of the 156 German aircraft lost in the west, about 35 were shot down by fire from naval vessels leaving 102, aside from other causes, likely to have been shot down by the RAF against 106 British losses. Co-operation was hindered by Fighter Command retaining rigid control of its units. The Admiralty complained that RAF methods did not permit direct contact by RAF operational staff liaising with

29744-443: Was promoted to Reichsmarschall . During the Kanalkampf the Germans assembled powerful air forces to attack convoys in the Channel but it took about forty days after the French capitulation for the Luftwaffe to begin its assault on the Britain. Diversion of effort was contrary to the German concept of Schwerpunktprinzip (concentration principle) and the Luftwaffe did not operate over Britain in force until after

29920-415: Was reduced, particularly as a result of the English Civil War . In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland united under the Treaty of Union to create the Kingdom of Great Britain . The Acts of Union 1800 incorporated the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922 as the Irish Free State , and

30096-461: Was regulated by a strict set of rules describing what the latter could and could not expect. All of the regions mainly depended on trade, manufacturing and the encouragement of the free flow of goods and craftsmen. Dutch and French dialects were the main languages used in secular city life. Historically, the term Low Countries arose at the Court of the Dukes of Burgundy , who used the term les pays de par deçà ("the lands over here") for

30272-581: Was the largest empire in history . However, its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War damaged Britain's economic power and a global wave of decolonisation led to the independence of most British colonies. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy . The UK has three distinct jurisdictions: England and Wales , Scotland , and Northern Ireland . Since 1999, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various devolved matters. A developed country ,

30448-536: Was the centre of the Dowding system where messages were collated with reports from RDF and the Observer Corps . Voice transmissions could occasionally alert Fighter Command to formations assembling beyond RDF range, giving the height of formations, discriminating between fighters and bombers and hear orders being passed to fighter escorts showing main and secondary attacks, Luftwaffe judgements about RAF intentions, meeting points and courses for return journeys. RAF Coastal Command Spitfires and Lockheed Hudsons of

30624-432: Was the first country in the world to use an approved COVID-19 vaccine , developing its own vaccine through a collaboration between Oxford University and AstraZeneca , which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world. The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 94,354 square miles (244,376 km ), with a land area of 93,723 square miles (242,741 km ). The country occupies

30800-400: Was told to put his complaints on paper and send them to Dowding, with a copy to the Air Ministry and they never met. It was felt by the Admiralty that the RAF was fighting a separate war, with little consideration given to joint operations. The protection of shipping was controversial in the RAF, since it required a substantial commitment of fighters. On average the twelve convoys passing through

30976-445: Was used for convoys on 30 July and 4 August. An accurate title to identify a convoy is Convoy CW 9 (Peewit). The codenames, including Bacon, Bosom, Totem, Fruit, Table, Minor, Cat, Secure, Agent, Bread, Arena and Topaz could be broadcast to convoys to warn them of air attack but merchant ships were not allowed to broadcast them, the codes being reserved for the use of the escorts and the Senior Officer of Escort. The German occupation of

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