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101-736: In Cameroon, the Kapsiki live on a plateau in the Far North Province in the center of the Mandara Mountains . They are considered one of Cameroon's Kirdi ( pagan ) ethnic groups due to their resistance to Islamisation during the Fulani jihad of Modibo Adama and Hama Yaji. In Nigeria, the Kamwe live on the slopes of the mountains and the western plain. The Kapsiki have been living in this area for five centuries, long before

202-488: A crust , a mottled zone and a pallid zone. He cautions strongly against the concept of "lateritic deep weathering" since "it begs so many questions". Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. The initial products of weathering are essentially kaolinized rocks called saprolites . A period of active laterization extended from about

303-410: A band of granite separates the sedimentary area from a zone of metamorphic rock to the southwest. This latter region includes deposits of gneiss , mica , and schists . The Rhumsiki Valley , a mountainous field littered by the cores of extinct volcanoes, constitutes a small area of volcanic rock, such as trachyte and rhyolite . The Far North's soils are a bit more complex. Much of the province

404-454: A base course. Thick laterite layers are porous and slightly permeable, so the layers can function as aquifers in rural areas. Locally available laterites have been used in an acid solution, followed by precipitation to remove phosphorus and heavy metals at sewage-treatment facilities. Laterites are a source of aluminum ore ; the ore exists largely in clay minerals and the hydroxides , gibbsite , boehmite , and diaspore , which resembles

505-418: A few protected areas and national parks. Foremost among these is Waza National Park ( Parc National du Waza ), which occupies 1700 km . The park was created in 1968, and has since grown to be one of Cameroon's largest tourist attractions. Kalamaloué National Park ( Parc National de Kalamaloué ) is a smaller protected area, which protects 45 km in the narrow neck of land separating Nigeria and Chad at

606-493: A high clay content, which means they have higher cation exchange capacity , low permeability, high plasticity and high water-holding capacity than sandy soils. It is because the particles are so small, the water is trapped between them. After the rain, the water moves into the soil slowly. Due to intensive leaching, laterite soils lack in fertility in comparison to other soils, however they respond readily to manuring and irrigation. Palms are less likely to suffer from drought because

707-515: A large portion of the Far North's population. The heart of the province is primarily Fulani territory, and Maroua is mostly a Fulani settlement. They also occupy smaller pieces of land south of there, one along the border with Chad, and one to the southeast. The Zumaya (sedentary Fulani group who reached the department of Diamare before the arrival of Massina Fulani) had first established their kingdom (Wouro-Laamorde) at Kalaki (Wouro Zangui). With

808-438: A major source of iron and aluminum ore. Percolating waters caused degradation of the parent basalt and preferential precipitation by acidic water through the lattice left the iron and aluminum ores. Primary olivine , plagioclase feldspar and augite were successively broken down and replaced by a mineral assemblage consisting of hematite , gibbsite , goethite , anatase , halloysite and kaolinite . Laterite ores were

909-629: A mere trickle. The Logone all but disappears during the wet season. The low elevation of the Chad basin (200–500 metres) causes flooding during the wet season; the Logone is especially prone to this, and much of its basin is marshlike conditions along its length during the wet season. Even during the dry season, some of these remain, called Yaéré in Fulfulde . The El Beïd and Serbewel Rivers drain these marshy areas into Lake Chad. The Diamaré Plain, part of

1010-584: A result of the same tectonic activity that gave rise to the Bénoué Depression in the North Province. The area was once volcanically active, as a number of freestanding necks of trachyte and rhyolite of extinct volcanoes attest. The most spectacular of these lie in the valley by the tourist village of Rhumsiki . The part of the range that lies within the Far North is on a middle plateau at about 800–900 metres. Isolated mountains continue into

1111-523: A smaller group, with about 169,700 members in the country in 1982. These are broken into the Mundang and the Tupuri , whose territories lie adjacent to one another on the southern border with Chad. The Kanuri , on the western border between Nigeria and Waza Park, are the sole speakers of a Nilo-Saharan language . They numbered about 56,500 individuals in 1982. Some 63,000 semi-nomadic Shuwa Arabs live in

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1212-466: A sudden global cooling. The rate of laterization would have decreased with the abrupt cooling of the earth. Weathering in tropical climates continues to this day, at a reduced rate. Laterites are formed from the leaching of parent sedimentary rocks ( sandstones , clays , limestones ); metamorphic rocks ( schists , gneisses , migmatites ); igneous rocks ( granites , basalts , gabbros , peridotites ); and mineralized proto-ores; which leaves

1313-613: Is 45 to 60% Al 2 O 3 and 20 to 30% Fe 2 O 3 . The remaining weight consists of silicas (quartz, chalcedony and kaolinite ), carbonates ( calcite , magnesite and dolomite ), titanium dioxide and water. Bauxites of economical interest must be low in kaolinite. Formation of lateritic bauxites occurs worldwide in the 145- to 2-million-year-old Cretaceous and Tertiary coastal plains. The bauxites form elongate belts, sometimes hundreds of kilometers long, parallel to Lower Tertiary shorelines in India and South America; their distribution

1414-521: Is a major population centre, and over a dozen ethnic groups live in small areas there. These are the Matal , Wuzlum , Vame , Muyang , Mokolo , Dugwor , Marva , North Mofu , Mofu , Cuvok , Merey , Zulgo-Gemzek , Mada (Cameroon) , and Mbuko . The Buduma live on islands in Lake Chad north of Kotokoland. The various Kotoko peoples live in the strip between Nigeria and Chad. This group includes

1515-404: Is a possible application of this low-cost, low-technology, visually unobtrusive, efficient system for rural areas with dispersed point sources of pollution. Ores are concentrated in metalliferous laterites; aluminum is found in bauxites , iron and manganese are found in iron-rich hard crusts, nickel and copper are found in disintegrated rocks, and gold is found in mottled clays. Bauxite ore

1616-840: Is also heavily fished. What little industry the north has mostly falls into the realm of handicrafts . Much of this revolves around cattle and related products, particularly in Maroua . This city is home to many tanneries , leatherworking , and embroidery and metalworking . Maroua even has a beef cannery . Maroua also has a large artisanat , which sells handicrafts such as pottery , beads . SODECOTON Cotton gins operate in Guider, Mora, Mokolo, Maroua, Yagoua, and Kaélé. SODECOTON also operates cottonseed oil mills in Kaélé and Maroua. Rhumsiki and other communities are home to spinners and weavers , who work primarily with cotton. Rice processing forms

1717-617: Is also widely used in Brazil for road building. Bedrock in tropical zones is often granite, gneiss, schist or sandstone; the thick laterite layer is porous and slightly permeable so the layer can function as an aquifer in rural areas. One example is the Southwestern Laterite (Cabook) Aquifer in Sri Lanka. This aquifer is on the southwest border of Sri Lanka, with the narrow Shallow Aquifers on Coastal Sands between it and

1818-799: Is an oxide with three atoms of oxygen and two metal atoms. It has also been used for any reddish soil at or near the Earth's surface. Laterite covers are thick in the stable areas of the Western Ethiopian Shield , on cratons of the South American Plate, and on the Australian Shield . In Madhya Pradesh , India, the laterite which caps the plateau is 30 m (100 ft) thick. Laterites can be either soft and easily broken into smaller pieces, or firm and physically resistant. Basement rocks are buried under

1919-554: Is another possibility within the Far North, and airstrips operate in Koza , Méri , Waza, Yagoua, and Kaélé . Maroua has a regional airport. Riverain transport is possible along the Logone and Chari Rivers during rainy season. The Far North is home to many of Cameroon's most popular tourist destinations. Waza National Park is the pre-eminent wildlife park in Cameroon, and it is well managed with knowledgeable guides and rentable rooms on

2020-515: Is between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn . Laterite has commonly been referred to as a soil type as well as being a rock type. This, and further variation in the modes of conceptualizing about laterite (e.g. also as a complete weathering profile or theory about weathering), has led to calls for the term to be abandoned altogether. At least a few researchers, including T. R. Paton and M. A. J. Williams, specializing in regolith development have considered that hopeless confusion has evolved around

2121-604: Is composed of young soils rich in raw minerals. This is true of much of the land south of Lake Chad, and of the Mandara Mountains on the western border with Nigeria. Soil here is black clay (alluvial soil). The seasonal flooding of the Logone River gives rise to a north–south band of hydromorphic soils at the border with Chad . The remainder of the territory, the Diamaré Plain and the El Beïd River valley,

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2222-613: Is in Maroua, which houses Sao, Tupuri, Musgum, and Fulani artefacts. Evidence of human habitation has been found in the Chad basin and at sites near Maroua and Mokolo. The Paleo-Sudanese peoples are the earliest known inhabitants of the territory. The arrival of Neo-Sudanese groups from the east and west forced the Paleo-Sudanese into the Mandara Mountains. The Shuwa Arabs , descendants of Banu Hilal deported from

2323-465: Is increased road banditry. Buses service the more traveled destinations, especially the road south from Maroua to Garoua. Smaller destinations are reachable by bush taxi or privately hired motorcycle drivers. Motorcycle taxis are the primary means of travelling about in the large towns. Travel on the open road has in recent years been curtailed by increases in road banditry. These outlaws often ambush buses or bush taxis and rob all passengers. Air travel

2424-678: Is made up of ferruginous soils . The province's dry/wet seasonal variations create relatively shallow, ferrous or lateritic soils. A number of rivers criss-cross the territory, many of them rising in the Mandara Mountains. The Mayo Kébi , Mayo Louti , and their tributaries form part of the Niger River basin. The Louti rises in the Mandaras, passing and swelling the Kébi in the North Province. The Kébi rises south of Yagoua and flows into western Chad. The province's other rivers are part of

2525-412: Is not related to a particular mineralogical composition of the parent rock. Many high-level bauxites are formed in coastal plains which were subsequently uplifted to their present altitude. The basaltic laterites of Northern Ireland were formed by extensive chemical weathering of basalts during a period of volcanic activity. They reach a maximum thickness of 30 m (100 ft) and once provided

2626-399: Is tarred as far north as Kousséri. National Road 12 handles traffic between Maroua and Yagoua, and National Road 14 goes between Mora west to Nigeria via Kerawa . The stretches between Maroua and Kousséri, Maroua and Mokolo, and Maroua south to Garoua are tarred. Away from these more travelled thoroughfares, roads in the Far North are unpaved and can be quite rough. This is particularly true in

2727-693: Is the Mandara Mountains, a legacy of the Fulani conquest of the past, in the Diamaré plain, and at the Logone-Chari confluence and up to Lake Chad. The remainder of the province is moderately populated, and the Logone valley and the Chari division are sparsely populated until about the level of Kousséri. Since independence, much of the Far North's population has been migrating to large population centres, particularly Maroua and Garoua . The Fulani (Fulbe) make up

2828-498: Is the main source of aluminum. It is a variety of laterite (residual sedimentary rock), so it has no precise chemical formula. It is composed mainly of hydrated alumina minerals such as gibbsite [Al(OH) 3 or Al 2 O 3 . 3H 2 O)] in newer tropical deposits; in older subtropical, temperate deposits the major minerals are boehmite [γ-AlO(OH) or Al 2 O 3 .H 2 O] and some diaspore [α-AlO(OH) or Al 2 O 3 .H 2 O]. The average chemical composition of bauxite, by weight,

2929-531: Is today something of a tourist trap , because, as Hudgens and Trillo put it, "[w]herever you look, the scenery is breathtaking." The Far North is very much divided between Muslim and non-Muslim. This manifests in the form of prejudice against non-Muslims, especially in rural areas. Moreover, the Kirdi groups remain disadvantaged socially, educationally, and economically. Human rights organisations cite Fulani lamibe (traditional rulers) as enjoying great leeway from

3030-588: The Adamawa Plateau . At this point, Kanem and its successor Bornu were active participants in trans-Saharan trade . Slaves in particular were frequently traded in exchange for horses and salt. The Kanem-Bornu Empire lasted until 1893, when the Sudanese warlord Rabih az-Zubayr overthrew it. Other groups in the territory also formed kingdoms, such as that of the Kotoko . They were eventually split, as

3131-714: The Afade , Logone, Makari, and the Kotoko proper, and the Kuseri and Maltam. The Jina and Majera live south of Kotokoland, between Waza National Park and Chad. More distantly related groups include the Kera, with a small territory on the southern border with Chad, the Massa, who occupy the tip of the province's beak, including Yagoua, and the Musaya, on the Chad border at Dom village. With

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3232-679: The Chad Basin . The El Beid River flows northwest from the Kalamalou National Park and forms the northernmost stretch of the border between Cameroon and Nigeria . The Mayo Tsanaga rises south and west of the El Béïd's source and moves eastward at the north of the Diamaré Depression. The Logone rises west of the territory and flows north to form most of the border between the Far North and Chad. It eventually meets

3333-529: The Chari , which also rises in Chad. The Chari forms the remainder of the Chad-Cameroon border beginning at Kousséri before emptying into Lake Chad. These rivers all follow a tropical regime , fluctuating between high water in the wet season (May to September) and low water in the dry season (October to April). At the height of the dry season, many of the waterways disappear completely or else diminish to

3434-590: The Extreme North Region (from French : Région de l'Extrême-Nord ), is the northernmost and most populous constituent province of the Republic of Cameroon . It borders the North Region to the south, Chad to the east, and Nigeria to the west. The capital is Maroua . The province is one of Cameroon's most culturally diverse. Over 50 different ethnic groups populate the area, including

3535-616: The Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt , arrived from the northeast and settled around Lake Chad in the 15th century. Archaeological finds attest to the existence of the Sao culture in the Logone valley and around Lake Chad as early as the 5th century. Little is known about the Sao, except that they were copper and ironworkers and, legend says, fearsome giants. Legends of later peoples claimed that

3636-533: The Matakam use stone, the Fulani use clay, and the Guizigi weave walls of straw. The head of a particular household or lineage often builds several small houses within a single, walled compound called a saré . These compounds tend to be built with the compound of the chief at their centre, and all houses have a granary nearby, as the long dry season prevents year-round food cultivation. Concentric farms surround

3737-526: The Shuwa Arabs , Fulani , and Kapsiki . Most inhabitants speak the Fulani language Fulfulde , Chadian Arabic , and French . Sedimentary rock such as alluvium , clay , limestone , and sandstone forms the greatest share of the Far North's geology. These deposits follow the province's rivers, such as the Logone and Mayo Tsanaga , as they empty into Lake Chad to the north. At the province's south,

3838-514: The subsoils of the equatorial forests, of the savannas of the humid tropical regions, and of the Sahelian steppes . They cover most of the land area between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn; areas not covered within these latitudes include the extreme western portion of South America, the southwestern portion of Africa, the desert regions of north-central Africa, the Arabian peninsula and

3939-467: The 8th and 15th century. The prevailing opinion among scholars, however, dates them to no later than the 10th century. At this time, eastern invaders entered the Chad Basin and conquered them. The Sao likely disappeared through intermarriage with this and other groups. Many of the current ethnic groups in the Far North claim descent from the Sao. The Kanem Empire , originated in the 9th century AD to

4040-582: The Angkor monuments—which are widely distributed in Cambodia and Thailand—between the 9th and 13th centuries. The stone materials used were sandstone and laterite; brick had been used in monuments constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries. Two types of laterite can be identified; both types consist of the minerals kaolinite, quartz, hematite and goethite. Differences in the amounts of minor elements arsenic, antimony, vanadium and strontium were measured between

4141-754: The Cameroonian beak. Here, climate is tropical of the Sudan type , with higher rainfalls of 900 to 1,500 mm (35 to 59 in) per year. Temperatures average 26 °C (79 °F), except for the Chad Basin, where they climb to 28 °C (82 °F). Actual temperatures of course fluctuate with the seasons, however. At Kousséri, for example, there is an 8.9 °C (16.0 °F) difference between January (23.5 °C (74.3 °F)) and August (32.4 °C (90.3 °F)). The Far North has two seasons: one dry, and one wet. These are further broken down based on average temperatures, yielding four distinct periods in

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4242-437: The Chad plain, occupies the southeastern third of the province. It is not as prone to flooding due to a number of inselbergs through the area. The province is also home to a number of lakes. The most prominent of these is Lake Chad. The lake was formed by a tectonic depression that has since been filled in by the area's rivers. However, over time, these rivers have deposited sediment as well, making Lake Chad nearly disappear in

4343-593: The Diamaré Plain. The mountains' northern extent is hilly, dissected by a number of rivers. The Far North is hot and dry. Beginning at 10° N, the climate is tropical and Sahelian , and rainfall is a relatively small 400 to 900 mm (16 to 35 in) per year, with rains falling a bit more frequently in the Mandara region. South of 10°, the region west of the Mayo Kébi and south to the border with Chad, in

4444-507: The Far North and often wind up far south for sale in Yaoundé or Douala . Other ethnic groups are today becoming more involved in cattle raising. Horses and donkeys are common in the province, although these are usually employed as beasts of burden. Farmers also raise sheep and goats . Animal husbandry is less prevalent in the Far North than in the North and Adamawa Provinces , however, as

4545-433: The Logone River. The average elevation of this basin is 280 metres. The Diamaré Plain occupies the lower third of the Chad plain and is characterised by a number of isolated inselbergs. The Mandara Mountains at the southwestern border with Nigeria form the highest point, lying between 500 and 1000 metres, with an average of about 900 metres. Mount Tourou is the highest point, at 1,442 metres. These mountains likely arose as

4646-550: The Logone valley. This is largely due to the Rice Expansion and Modernisation Company of Yagoua (SEMRY), which operates some 129 km of rice fields. Elsewhere, cotton is the most lucrative cash crop. Both textiles and oil come from the cotton.. Société du Développement du Coton (SODECOTON) is the main government body working to improve cotton yields in the region. The Bororo Fulani and Shuwa Arabs both live principally as cattle raisers. Bororo herds roam much of

4747-444: The Mandara Mountains, where large stones litter the roadway. Motorcycles are often one of the few options for travel to more remote destinations. These vehicles also serve as the primary taxi service in town. Access to petrol is another problem, as supplies often run out during the rainy season. Merchants often hike or bicycle into Nigeria to obtain cheaper fuel there for resale in Cameroon. A major obstacle to road travel in recent years

4848-413: The Mandara Mountains. The seasonal flooding of the Logone River and Mayo Tsanaga supports large fields of rice . Millet and sorghum grow all over, though millet tends to grow better than sorghum in arid conditions. Cotton is common, especially in the Diamaré Plain, though it grows poorly in the swampy Logone valley. Beans are also common. Village farmers typically sow in concentric circles around

4949-513: The Philippines. Laterites reflect past weathering conditions; laterites which are found in present-day non-tropical areas are products of former geological epochs , when that area was near the equator. Present-day laterite occurring outside the humid tropics are considered to be indicators of climatic change, continental drift or a combination of both. In India, laterite soils occupy an area of 240,000 square kilometres. Laterite soils have

5050-456: The Sao were descendants of the Hyksos who arrived in the area in several waves. Another theory makes them the original inhabitants of the Chad basin, traditionally an oasis to the north of the basin. They may have been of Nilotic origin. Even the span of their civilisation is in dispute, with various estimates putting their rise at some point between the 5th and 8th century and their fall between

5151-553: The Semi-Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT ) has employed this system to rehabilitate degraded laterite soils in Niger and increase smallholder farmers' incomes. In some places, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests. When moist, laterites can easily be cut with a spade into regular-sized blocks. Laterite is mined while it is below the water table, so it is wet and soft. Upon exposure to air it gradually hardens as

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5252-583: The Sudan area: dry and relatively cool from November to January as the province experiences a shade of winter from climes further north, dry and hot from January to April, torrentially rainy from April to June, and cool and sporadically wet from June to November. In the Sahel zone, the wet periods are shorter, lasting only five to seven months in the south but shortening toward Lake Chad. Temperatures reach their highest levels from January to May. Beginning at about 11° N,

5353-489: The animals, however. The town of Logone-Birni , for example, is called "the village of the crocodiles". Savanna makes up the province's primary vegetation. Most of the area is thus covered in thin grasses punctuated by thorny shrubs such as Baobab , Faidherbia , and Karita . Those areas that have higher rainfall—south of 10&729 N and the Mandara Mountains—have thicker grasses and more and larger trees. Here

5454-507: The arid conditions make watering large animals difficult and large population centres make fields scarce. Maroua has emerged as an important centre for animal raisers, with both a cattle market and a veterinary centre. Fishing is an important way of life for the peoples who live along Lake Chad. The Kofia Islands are home to the Budumu and to fishermen from Cameroon, Chad, and Nigeria, most of whom earn their living in this fashion. The Logone

5555-483: The beginning of the Fulani jihad they joined the Massina Fulani to convert the Kirdi to Islam. The Bororo Fulani, tall, thin nomads with lighter complexions than their sedentary kin, drive herds of cattle through this region, though they also move through most of the northern strip of land between Nigeria and Chad, as well. The Fulani speak Fulfulde, a Senegambian language . Adamawa-language speakers make up

5656-456: The border with their capital at Mokolo . The Kapsiki , Hya , Bana , Zizilivikan , Jimi , and Gude occupy the remainder of the border from north to south. The Bulahai , Buwal , Gawar, Besleri , Sharwa , Tsuvan , and Mazagway lie just east of this border grouping. The southern border of the province is home to the Daba and Muturwa . The territory between Maroua, Mokolo, and Tokombére

5757-474: The chiefs' compounds serving as little more than tourist attractions. In contrast, traditional Fulani leaders, known as lamibe, retain much of their influence. In the 1990s, politics in the region was dominated by the National Union for Democracy and Progress ( Union nationale pour la démocratie et le progress , UNDP) with its large base of Fulani supporters. The UNDP is largely Fulani-based today, but

5858-615: The composition of bauxite . In Northern Ireland they once provided a major source of iron and aluminum ores. Laterite ores also were the early major source of nickel . Francis Buchanan-Hamilton first described and named a laterite formation in southern India in 1807. He named it laterite from the Latin word later , which means a brick; this highly compacted and cemented soil can easily be cut into brick-shaped blocks for building. The word laterite has been used for variably cemented, sesquioxide -rich soil horizons . A sesquioxide

5959-418: The contrary, in the wetter parts of laterites subject to leaching ferricretes have been suggested to form. The mineralogical and chemical compositions of laterites are dependent on their parent rocks. Laterites consist mainly of quartz , zircon , and oxides of titanium , iron, tin , aluminum and manganese , which remain during the course of weathering. Quartz is the most abundant relic mineral from

6060-562: The earth which experienced prolonged tropical weathering of ultramafic rocks containing the ferro-magnesian minerals olivine , pyroxene , and amphibole . Yves Tardy, from the French Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique , calculated that laterites cover about one-third of the Earth's continental land area. Lateritic soils are

6161-583: The effectiveness of granular laterite in removing phosphorus and heavy metals from landfill leachate . Initial laboratory studies show that laterite is capable of 99% removal of phosphorus from solution. A pilot-scale experimental facility containing laterite achieved 96% removal of phosphorus. This removal is greater than reported in other systems. Initial removals of aluminum and iron by pilot-scale facilities have been up to 85% and 98% respectively. Percolating columns of laterite removed enough cadmium , chromium and lead to undetectable concentrations. There

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6262-426: The effects of desertification by reintroducing trees to the region. In larger towns and cities, such as Maroua , houses tend to follow the modern model of concrete walls and metal roof. Though house construction differs from people to people, the most common type is a small building with a small entryway under a conical roof covered in palm leaves or thatching. Builders make walls from locally available materials, so

6363-478: The exception of the Fulani herders, most people in the Far North are subsistence farmers . Although predominantly Muslims , the province has a significant minority of a mixture of Christianity , and traditional religions . The Kirdi peoples resisted Islam in the 19th century, though today many of these have been Islamized and Christianized at least partially. However, most groups have converted more fully to Islam. The Fulani are dominant politically and religiously in

6464-410: The farm. Hedges surround the farm to keep away animals. Farming tools are typically simple hoes, sickles, knives, and machetes. Farmland is burnt during the dry season, then crops are planted at the first rains. These farms can be quite extensive, as in the Mandara Mountains area. Here, farms climb up the mountain slopes in terraces held in place by stones. Rice is the primary moneymaker for farmers in

6565-464: The final prong of the province's industry. Much of this hulling is done through SEMRY in Yagoua. Limestone mining operates at Figuil , and CIMENCAM produces cement there. Three major roads service the Far North. National Road 1 enters the province from the south via Yaoundé and Maltam . It continues north and east through Mora and on toward Kousséri and then veers northwest into Nigeria. This road

6666-684: The government, which allows them to keep private prisons and administer justice as they see fit. Government prisons are no better, especially those given over to holding suspected road bandits. The province is divided into six departments ( departements ): These are in turn broken down into subdivisions. Presidentially appointed senior divisional officers ( prefets ) and subdivisional officers ( sous-prefets ) govern each respectively. Traditional leaders, usually referred to as chiefs in English, often preside over particular ethnic groups or villages; nevertheless, many of these wield very little power today,

6767-512: The great slave hunts of the 19th century, but by this isolated habitat they have been able to maintain themselves against the Fulbe . This also applies to the other peoples of Mandara region, such as the Mafa , Mofu , Podoko Guisiga, or Daba. The mountain region has a kaleidoscope of local cultures. The Kapsiki live in villages of 2000-6000 people, and subsist on livestock farming, agriculture and - in

6868-675: The interior of Australia. Some of the oldest and most highly deformed ultramafic rocks which underwent laterization are found as petrified fossil soils in the complex Precambrian shields in Brazil and Australia. Smaller highly deformed Alpine-type intrusives have formed laterite profiles in Guatemala, Colombia, Central Europe, India and Burma. Large thrust sheets of Mesozoic island arcs and continental collision zones underwent laterization in New Caledonia, Cuba, Indonesian and

6969-404: The lowest to highest water table levels—is progressively depleted of the easily leached ions of sodium , potassium , calcium and magnesium . A solution of these ions can have the correct pH to preferentially dissolve silicon oxide rather than the aluminum oxides and iron oxides . Silcrete has been suggested to form in zones in relatively dry "precipitating zones" of laterites. To

7070-440: The major source of early nickel. Rich laterite deposits in New Caledonia were mined starting the end of the 19th century to produce white metal . The discovery of sulfide deposits of Sudbury , Ontario, Canada, during the early part of the 20th century shifted the focus to sulfides for nickel extraction. About 70% of the Earth's land-based nickel resources are contained in laterites; they currently account for about 40% of

7171-406: The mercy of the [Boko Haram] sect, and are seen as threat to local security". Sustenance farming serves as the primary occupation for most Far North residents. Crops vary from area to area. Far to the south, planters may raise root crops such as manioc , but as one moves north, cereals dominate. Maize is found in the strip between Chad and Nigeria. Groundnuts are in Maroua and northwest and in

7272-472: The mid- Tertiary to the mid- Quaternary periods (35 to 1.5 million years ago). Statistical analyses show that the transition in the mean and variance levels of O during the middle of the Pleistocene was abrupt. It seems this abrupt change was global and mainly represents an increase in ice mass; at about the same time an abrupt decrease in sea surface temperatures occurred; these two changes indicate

7373-476: The mid-1980s, constructed trial sections of bituminous-surfaced low-volume roads using laterite in place of stone as a base course. The laterite did not conform with any accepted specifications but performed equally well when compared with adjoining sections of road using stone or other stabilized material as a base. In 1984 US$ 40,000 per 1 km (0.62 mi) was saved in Malawi by using laterite in this way. It

7474-728: The moisture between the flat clay particles evaporates and the larger iron salts lock into a rigid lattice structure and become resistant to atmospheric conditions. The art of quarrying laterite material into masonry is suspected to have been introduced from the Indian subcontinent. They harden like iron when they are exposed to air. After 1000 CE Angkorian construction changed from circular or irregular earthen walls to rectangular temple enclosures of laterite, brick and stone structures. Geographic surveys show areas which have laterite stone alignments which may be foundations of temple sites that have not survived. The Khmer people constructed

7575-479: The more insoluble ions, predominantly iron and aluminum. The mechanism of leaching involves acid dissolving the host mineral lattice , followed by hydrolysis and precipitation of insoluble oxides and sulfates of iron, aluminum and silica under the high temperature conditions of a humid sub-tropical monsoon climate . An essential feature for the formation of laterite is the repetition of wet and dry seasons . Rocks are leached by percolating rain water during

7676-460: The name. Material that looks highly similar to the Indian laterite occurs abundantly worldwide. Historically, laterite was cut into brick-like shapes and used in monument-building. After 1000 CE, construction at Angkor Wat and other southeast Asian sites changed to rectangular temple enclosures made of laterite, brick, and stone. Since the mid-1970s, some trial sections of bituminous -surfaced, low-volume roads have used laterite in place of stone as

7777-470: The north of the province up to Lake Chad. More than 974,408 people in the province speak one of the various Chadic languages and thus comprise the plurality of the population. Many of these are Kirdi , ( pagan in Fulfulde) peoples who refused to convert to Islam during the Fulani conquest of the 19th century. Many of these Kirdi today live in the province's mountainous western border, as this areas

7878-492: The northeast of Lake Chad , and from there expanded in the region. Islam reached Kanem early, and the rulers converted in the 11th century. Kanem-Bornu strengthened as an Islamic stronghold, and the population converted as well. Embassies were traded with North African states, and trade increased. The rulers launched a series of conquests, culminating in Dunama Dabbalemi 's (r. 1221–1259) expansion south as far south as

7979-587: The northern Kotoko became a vassal state of the Kanem Empire, while the southerners paid tribute but remained mostly independent with their capital at Logone-Birni. This part of the kingdom would eventually be Islamicised as well. Laterite Laterite is a soil type rich in iron and aluminium and is commonly considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red coloration, because of high iron oxide content. They develop by intensive and prolonged weathering of

8080-404: The ocean. It has the considerable water-holding capacity, depending on the depth of the formation. The aquifer in this laterite recharges rapidly with the rains of April–May which follow the dry season of February–March, and continues to fill with the monsoon rains. The water table recedes slowly and is recharged several times during the rest of the year. In some high-density suburban areas

8181-409: The parent rock. Laterites vary significantly according to their location, climate and depth. The main host minerals for nickel and cobalt can be either iron oxides , clay minerals or manganese oxides . Iron oxides are derived from mafic igneous rocks and other iron-rich rocks; bauxites are derived from granitic igneous rock and other iron-poor rocks. Nickel laterites occur in zones of

8282-512: The past. This is a cause of concern, since when the Logone and Mayo Kébi flood, they meet. This diverts water from the Logone to the Kébi, and ultimately the Bénoué . This has caused some scientists to predict that in the future, river capture will occur, depriving Lake Chad of one of its major sources. Much of Lake Chad evaporates each year and must be replaced by rains from the wet season. Other lakes include Lake Fianga , which exists only during

8383-476: The premises. The wildlife there is relatively easy to see, and, of Cameroon's wildlife parks, Lonely Planet names it "the best for viewing wildlife", and Rough Guides calls it the "probably the best site for savannah game viewing in West Africa". Another of the Far North's draws is the picturesque scenery. Dozens of small villages dot the province, and each of these provides its own unique draws for

8484-706: The province celebrates its own traditional festivals and holidays. Among the Fulani, the chief among these are Ramadan and the Feast of the Ram . Other notable festivals include the Cock Festival of the Tupuri. During the ritual, the nephew of the head of a family kills a cock and throws its head into the fire. The head is said to always land on its right side. The Dance of the Cock is another Tupuri affair. A museum of local art

8585-468: The province only experiences about 25 to 30 rainy days each year. The whole territory of the Far North Province was once home to most of Africa's iconic species: antelope , jackals , cheetahs , crocodiles , elephants , giraffes , heron , hippopotami , hyenas , leopards , lions , monkeys , warthogs , and others. Centuries of human habitation have today forced these species back to

8686-401: The province's northernmost reaches. This park protects those species that routinely traverse Cameroon in their yearly migrations. Mozogo Gokoro National Park houses a diverse number of monkey and reptile species within 14 km . The status of the province's wildlife remains uncertain, as corruption has allowed even these protected areas to be used by poachers. Some villages have embraced

8787-531: The province. As of 30 October 2013, IRIN reports: "There are 8,128 Nigerian refugees in Cameroon's Far North Region, but only 5,289 are registered by UNHCR ... Many of the Nigerians who have fled into Cameroon prefer to stay with friends and family near the border areas. The refugee population fleeing from Boko Haram are scattered in very inaccessible localities in the north of Cameroon, and many who refuse to be registered and stay in camps are still at

8888-736: The rainwater is held in the soil. However, if the structure of lateritic soils becomes degraded, a hard crust can form on the surface, which hinders water infiltration, the emergence of seedlings, and leads to increased runoff. It is possible to rehabilitate such soils, using a system called the 'bio-reclamation of degraded lands'. This involves using indigenous water-harvesting methods (such as planting pits and trenches), applying animal and plant residues, and planting high-value fruit trees and indigenous vegetable crops that are tolerant of drought conditions. These soils are most suitable for plantation crops. They are good for oil palm, tea, coffee and cashew cultivation. The International Crops Research Institute for

8989-565: The ruling Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) party is careful to address Fulani interests. The Far North has few hospitals. These are located in Mokolo, Maroua, Logone-Birni, Bini, Kousséri, and Waza. Furthermore, many of the inhabitants cannot afford Western medicines. Three cholera outbreaks have occurred in the Far North since 2010, in 2010, 2011, and 2014, as sanitation and access to clean drinking water became more difficult due to extended drought conditions. Each ethnic group in

9090-479: The seasonal flooding of the Logone; during the dry season, it is at best a swamp. Maga Lake , south of the town of the same name at the eastern border, is an artificial body of 6,000 square metres. It is known for its fishing. Most of the Far North lies at a relatively low elevation. This lower-lying portion makes up part of the Chad Plain and slopes gently from about 500 metres in the southwest to 200 metres at

9191-447: The settlement, these surrounded by hedges to keep livestock away. Bororo Fulani are primarily nomadic, though they do establish some semi-permanent settlements for the old or infirm. The province is Cameroon's fourth most densely populated, with 1,855,695 people and an average of 54 inhabitants per km . Most of this population lives in the corridor between Maroua, which has 214,000 inhabitants, and Mokolo . Another area of high density

9292-544: The shrubs have thick bark to withstand the fires that sometimes ravage the area during the dry season. The frequently flooded Logone Valley and the perimeter of Lake Chad also support thicker and taller fields of grasses. Human activities such as burning of fields, chopping down trees, and overgrazing of cattle have exacerbated the problem of desertification in the Far North. In response, the Cameroonian government, with aid from various non-governmental organisations, has begun Operation Green Sahel . The project aims to reverse

9393-428: The temple contain laterite blocks behind the sandstone surface. The masonry was laid without joint mortar. It is used as a local building material in places such as Burkina Faso , where it is valued for being strong and for reducing heating and cooling costs. The French surfaced roads in the Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam area with crushed laterite, stone or gravel. Kenya, during the mid-1970s, and Malawi, during

9494-528: The thick weathered layer and rarely exposed. Lateritic soils form the uppermost part of the laterite cover. In some places laterites contain pisolites and ferricrete , and they may be found in elevated positions as result of relief inversion . Cliff Ollier has criticized the usefulness of the concept given that it is used to mean different things to different authors. Reportedly some have used it for ferricrete, others for tropical red earth soil, and yet others for soil profiles made, from top to bottom, of

9595-400: The tourist. Oudjilla has a picturesque chief's compound, and Tourou is renowned for the fact that the women there wear hats made from calabashes , which convey details such as marital status. The Mandara Mountains are another major draw, as they offer hiking and striking views. This is most evident at Rhumsiki, where the "much photographed" Rhumsiki Peak is located. The village of Rhumsiki

9696-545: The two laterites. Angkor Wat —located in present-day Cambodia—is the largest religious structure built by Suryavarman II , who ruled the Khmer Empire from 1112 to 1152. It is a World Heritage site. The sandstone used for the building of Angkor Wat is Mesozoic sandstone quarried in the Phnom Kulen Mountains, about 40 km (25 mi) away from the temple. The foundations and internal parts of

9797-419: The underlying parent rock , usually when there are conditions of high temperatures and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods. The process of formation is called laterization . Tropical weathering is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. The majority of the land area containing laterites

9898-472: The village of Rumsiki in particular - on tourism. The Malima Project has been helping Kapsiki populations in Cameroon with educational projects aimed at primary schooling. The Malima Project has created a documentary and organized events to promote its educational activities in the area. This article about a Cameroonian ethnicity is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Far North Province The Far North Region , also known as

9999-702: The water table could recede to 15 m (50 ft) below ground level during a prolonged dry period of more than 65 days. The Cabook Aquifer laterites support relatively shallow aquifers that are accessible to dug wells. In Northern Ireland, phosphorus enrichment of lakes due to agriculture is a significant problem. Locally available laterite—a low-grade bauxite rich in iron and aluminum—is used in acid solution, followed by precipitation to remove phosphorus and heavy metals at several sewage treatment facilities. Calcium-, iron- and aluminum-rich solid media are recommended for phosphorus removal. A study, using both laboratory tests and pilot-scale constructed wetlands, reports

10100-463: The wet season; the resulting solution containing the leached ions is brought to the surface by capillary action during the dry season. These ions form soluble salt compounds which dry on the surface; these salts are washed away during the next wet season. Laterite formation is favored in low topographical reliefs of gentle crests and plateaus which prevents erosion of the surface cover. The reaction zone where rocks are in contact with water—from

10201-518: Was more easily defensible against the Fulani invaders. The various Mandara peoples lie primarily in the Mandara Mountains along the border with Nigeria. The Mandarawa are furthest north with their base at Mora , and the Parkwa lie directly south of them. The Glavda and Gvoko lie southwest in smaller territories. Although not part of the Mandara group, the Turu people , Mabas , and Matakam live along

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