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54-537: The Karain prehistoric site is situated 430 m (1,410 ft) above sea level and about 80 m (260 ft) above the eastern slope of Sam Dağı Mountain ( Mount Katran ), where the western Taurus Mountains calcareous zone borders on the Travertine Plain . Karain is a complex of caves that consists of three main chambers and corridors, separated by calcite walls, narrow curves and passageways. Halls and galleries contain speleothems . A fragment of

108-662: A Neanderthal cranium discovered and dated confirms human habitation since the early Paleolithic age between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. Researchers documented the continuity of human presence in the cave for a period of more than 25,000 years, from the Mesolithic , through the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic , to the Bronze Age . It is assumed that during the time of Greek colonization of Asia Minor ( Iron Age ),

162-499: A cella with a horseshoe-shaped rear wall partly cut out of the bedrock, with an entrance hall and columned forecourt. A temple of Athena at Heracleia reveals its earlier foundation by not being aligned with the Hellenistic street pattern. In Byzantine times, the mountain, known as Latros , became a flourishing monastic centre. According to tradition, the first monastic community was established by Sinaite monks fleeing from

216-488: A ridge of many spurs located in the Muğla and Aydın provinces of Turkey , running in an east–west direction along the north shore of the former Latmian Gulf on the coast of Caria , which became part of Hellenised Ionia . The city of Latmus, located on the south slopes of Mount Latmus 25 kilometres (16 mi) east of Miletus , was originally a port on the narrow gulf, as reported by Strabo . He also states that Latmus

270-678: A satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was Halicarnassus , from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned. Other major towns were Latmus, refounded as Heracleia under Latmus , Antiochia , Myndus , Laodicea , Alinda and Alabanda . Caria participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Persian rule. During the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC),

324-573: A Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns: Theangela , Sibde , Medmasa , Euranium , Pedasa or Pedasum, and Telmissus . These with Myndus and Syangela (or Syagela or Souagela) constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is Ceramus and Bargasus. On the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory ( Cape Krio ), also called Doris after

378-427: A brackish-water one and the lake has been made a bird sanctuary. Its area of 7 square kilometres (2.7 sq mi) with a maximum depth of 25 metres (82 ft) still extends from the base of the west spur of Mount Latmus, although, having lost its port, the ancient medium-sized town of Heraclea ad Latmum has declined in size and facilities to the small village of Kapikiri . Beşparmak looms far beyond Kapikiri to

432-724: A low level of grazing by animals belonging to indigenes that lived somewhere else. There is no evidence that they settled or grew crops in the region. Subsection 2, dated 1240/1126 BCE to 710/558 BCE, represents a settlement from the Beyşehir Occupation Phase of southern Anatolia, dated there 3500/3000 BP to 1500 BP. It has a specific palynological profile of "secondary anthropogenic indicators;" that is, not pollen of cultivated plants but of other species growing on cultivated land: certain percentages of Plantago lanceolata , Sanguisorba minor , Pistacia , Platanus , Quercus calliprinos and Juniperus . The Lake Bafu profile shows

486-520: A publication now in the public domain :  Smith, William , ed. (1854–1857). "Latmus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography . London: John Murray. Caria Caria ( / ˈ k ɛər i ə / ; from Greek : Καρία, Karia ; Turkish : Karya ) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid- Ionia ( Mycale ) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia . The Carians were described by Herodotus as being Anatolian mainlanders and they called themselves Caria because of

540-583: Is Harpasa (Arpaz). At the confluence of the Maeander and the Orsinus, Corsymus or Corsynus is Antioch on the Maeander and on the Orsinus in the mountains a border town with Phrygia , Gordiutichos ("Gordius' Fort") near Geyre . Founded by the Leleges and called Ninoe it became Megalopolis ("Big City") and Aphrodisias , sometime capital of Caria. Other towns on the Orsinus are Timeles and Plarasa. Tabae

594-545: Is based entirely on ancient sources. The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, reveal an ethnic layering consistent with the known colonization. Coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus , but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Ion Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus ( Güllük Körfezi) and the towns of Iassus and Bargylia , giving an alternative name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye, which

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648-648: Is the Calbis River ( Dalyan River). On the other side is Caunus (near Dalyan), with Pisilis or Pilisis and Pyrnos between. Then follow some cities that some assign to Lycia and some to Caria: Calynda on the Indus River, Crya and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus (Katranci Bay or the Gulf of Makri ), the Glaucus River being the border. Other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus. At

702-593: Is the same as Mount Phthires in the Catalogue of Trojans . The mouth of the Gulf of Latmus began to fill with sediment from the Maeander (Büyük Menderes) river, which emptied into it, even in classical antiquity. By 300 CE Lake Bafa had formed behind the estuary marshes. It gradually diminished in salinity and would now be fresh water except that canals to the Aegean introduce a saline element. The ecology remains

756-490: Is the time of the rise of Ionia , the palynological scenario suggests a movement of population from the land to the newly settled or expanded big cities of the Ionian League . Subsection 4 and Baf S6 go on to catalogue the return of the fruit trees, re-clearing the land for pasture, planting of rye and other cereals, ultimate destabilization of the soil through over-use, denudation and acceleration of sedimentation. After

810-614: The Dorian colony of Cnidus . At the base of the peninsula ( Datça Peninsula ) is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names, the Bybassia Chersonnese, had been derived. It was now Acanthus and Doulopolis ("slave city"). South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the "Gulf of Doris" (Gulf of Symi ), the locale of the Dorian Confederacy. There are three bays in it: Bubassius, Thymnias and Schoenus,

864-471: The Leleges , but the evidence is not precise enough to say if the indigenes were all or partly Leleges. As the Carians worshipped Endymion , he may have been brought in at this time. Subsection 3 reveals an abandonment of the cleared areas, the decline of Olea , and the spread of Pistacia , Pinus brutia and Quercus coccifera (instead of deciduous oak) on formerly cleared land and in the maquis. As this

918-565: The Muslim conquests in the 7th century. In the 9th century, Joseph the Hymnographer was tonsured in the monastery of Latmus. By the early 10th century, there were three monasteries. Paul of Latrus was a hermit who lived on the mountain during the 10th century. By 1222, the monastic community of Latros numbered 11 monasteries. However, it began declining towards the end of the 13th century due to increasing Turkish attacks, and disappeared in

972-598: The Roman Empire the name of Caria was still used for the geographic region. The territory administratively belonged to the province of Asia . During the administrative reforms of the 4th century this province was abolished and divided into smaller units. Caria became a separate province as part of the Diocese of Asia. Christianity was on the whole slow to take hold in Caria. The region was not visited by St. Paul , and

1026-694: The Xanthos trilingual inscription . The Carians were incorporated into the Macedonian Empire following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC. Halicarnassus was the location of the famed Mausoleum dedicated to Mausolus , a satrap of Caria between 377–353 BC, by his wife, Artemisia II of Caria . The monument became one of the Seven Wonders of

1080-481: The 14th century. Endymion was Christianised as a mystic saint, whose coffin was opened annually and whose bones emitted musical tones and the site drew pilgrims. Iron ore was mined in the area as of the early 20th century. In 2018, four kilometers of the ancient stone road, which connects the ancient cities of Alinda and Latmus, have been destroyed by villagers to make way for their olive groves . [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

1134-472: The Aegean became one of extension : the region widened and dome-like or ovoid massifs were uncovered, or exhumed, from the subduction zones and rose by isostasy . In the case of the Menderes Massif, which is 40,000 km (15,444.1 sq mi), the reasons are better known due to geologic research in central Turkey. Anatolia is a triangular block created by the intersection in central Turkey of

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1188-610: The Ancient World , and from which the Romans named any grand tomb a mausoleum. Caria was conquered by Alexander III of Macedon in 334 BC with the help of the former queen of the land Ada of Caria who had been dethroned by the Persian Empire and actively helped Alexander in his conquest of Caria on condition of being reinstated as queen. After their capture of Caria, she declared Alexander as her heir. As part of

1242-580: The Carians called Andanus . After Bargylia is Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the Bodrum Peninsula Myndus (Mentecha or Muntecha), 56 miles (90 km) from Miletus. In the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown. On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula (Cape Termerium) is Termera (Telmera, Termerea), and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus ( Gökova Körfezi ). It "was formerly crowded with numerous towns." Halicarnassus ,

1296-980: The Gordes Massif north of the Alasehir or Gediz graben , the Cine Massif south of the Büyük Menderes graben and the Central Massif between. The latter is split like a forked tongue by the Küçük Menderes Graben into the Kuzey Detachment to the north and the Guney Detachment to the south. Mycale is part of the Guney Detachment, while Latmus is in the Cine Massif. The Graben are low-key rift valleys . There have been some small intrusions of magma into

1350-458: The North and East Anatolian faults. As the northward-pressing Arabian Plate pushes against this wedge the latter slips to the west but the broad end opens along fault lines like the rays of a fan, extending the massif to the north-northeast and south. This is being called a bivergent (diverges in two places) model. The entire massif is divided or nearly so by a karst topography into three sections:

1404-434: The base of the east end of Latmus near Euromus , and near Milas where the current village Selimiye is, was the district of Euromus or Eurome, possibly Europus, formerly Idrieus and Chrysaoris ( Stratonicea ). The name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria; moreover, Euromus was originally settled from Lycia . Its towns are Tauropolis, Plarasa and Chrysaoris. These were all incorporated later into Mylasa . Connected to

1458-414: The battles, but if they were bound down by too strong a compulsion to be able to make revolt, when the battles begin, to be purposely slack. Plutarch in his work, The Parallel Lives, at The Life of Themistocles wrote that: "Phanias ( Greek : Φαινίας ), writes that the mother of Themistocles was not a Thracian , but a Carian woman and her name was Euterpe ( Eυτέρπη ), and Neanthes ( Νεάνθης ) adds that she

1512-476: The cave had a religious function, as Greek inscriptions and decorations suggest, that are carved into the rock in front of the entrance. Paleolithic and Neolithic flint blades, scrapers and arrowheads, some made in Levallois technique were discovered. In the subsequent layers lithic figurines and bone sculptures have been found, that suggest relations to the nearby Hacilar culture . The attention of researchers

1566-565: The cities of Caria were allies of Xerxes I and they fought at the Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis , where the Queen of Halicarnassus Artemisia commanded the contingent of 70 Carian ships. Themistocles , before the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, tried to split the Ionians and Carians from the Persian coalition. He told them to come and be on his side or not to participate at

1620-473: The city was refounded a kilometer to the west on a rectilinear grid system as Heracleia under Latmos , dedicated to the hero Heracles . The modern village of Kapıkırı is built among the ruins. The temenos , or sanctuary of Endymion, with pre-Greek origins, was rebuilt in Hellenistic times , and may still be seen on a rise to the south of the ancient city. The building faces the southwest; it has

1674-429: The early history of the region. Baf S1, containing the oldest sediment, is layered in four subsections, the first carbon dated to before 4000 BCE. From the pollen of subsection 1 a model can be constructed of a lightly grazed climax forest of deciduous oak and pine: 27.6% Quercus pubescens , 14.6% Pinus and lesser concentrations of Isoetes histrix . Low levels of the pasture weed, Plantago lanceolata , indicate

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1728-400: The east for a total distance of about 35 kilometres (22 mi), 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) wide. It is deeply eroded by various streams into spurs. The spur that can be seen from Kapikiri is one Dağ, or "mountain", but the entire ridge with all the spurs is Dağlar, "mountains", in the sense of "range." The ancient writers generally recognized the western spur over

1782-565: The foot of Mount Latmus overlooking Lake Bafa. They came to light in a survey conducted by Anneliese Peschlow of the German Archaeology Institute. Peschlow dates the earliest to about 6000 BCE and believes from other findings that the region has been continuously occupied since then. She is currently working to get Mount Latmus reserved as a national park. The paintings, which are done entirely in red, depict mainly social and religious scenes. Different representations of

1836-636: The graben appearing now as granito-diorite outcrops. Dates on thin sections of monazite obtained from the earliest exhumed rocks of the graben suggest "... that the Cenozoic extension in the Gordes Massif, and possibly the entire Menderes Massif, might have begun in the Late Oligocene ." Despite the rare intrusions, the massif is not of volcanic origin. Most of the visible layer is light, metamorphic rock of various kinds, especially marble and schists . Except for alluvial fans of impermeable clay

1890-639: The gulf as Latmus, but Strabo reports that the ridge east was called Mount Grium and extended through Caria . The morphotectonic configuration of Anatolia and the Aegean is a result of continental drift movements associated with the Alpine orogeny , a zone of mountain-building caused by the collision of the African and Arabian Plates with the Eurasian Plate . The former have been slipping under

1944-527: The idea that it was a god. Latmus is probably alluded to by Homer , when he speaks of the mountain of the Phthirians, in the neighbourhood of Miletus. Latmus appears in Greek mythology as the site of the cave where Selene 's consort Endymion lies forever young and beautiful in blissful sleep. Beginning in 1994 about 170 rock paintings have been discovered in shallow caves and overhangs near springs at

1998-515: The islands. Most chose to leave in 1919, before the population exchange . In July 2021, archaeologists led by Abuzer Kızıl have announced the discovery of two 2,500-year-old marble statues and an inscription during excavations at the Temple of Zeus Lepsynos in Euromus . According to Abuzer Kızıl, one of the statues was naked while other was wearing armor made of leather and a short skirt. Both of

2052-698: The last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, and an island: Elaeus or Elaeussa near Loryma . On the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite Symi . South of there is the Rhodian Peraea , a section of the coast under Rhodes . It includes Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion (Cape Marmorice) with Physicus, Amos , Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa ( Marmaris ). Beyond Cressa

2106-464: The latter by a sacred way are Labraunda and Sinuri . Around Stratonicea is also Lagina as well as Panamara , Tendeba and Astragon . Further inland towards Aydın is Alabanda , noted for its marble and its scorpions , Orthosia , Coscinia or Coscinus on the upper Maeander and Alinda . To the east is the religious centre Hyllarima . At the confluence of the Maeander and the Harpasus

2160-469: The latter compressing and lifting the edge and creating zones of metamorphic rock from previous layers of sedimentary rock . These zones in the Aegean are represented by a number of massifs that were originally buried by crustal subduction : the Rhodope , Kazdag, Menderes, Cycladic Massif and Crete. For various geologic reasons, modelled differently by different geologists, the zone of compression in

2214-549: The mountain include a dragon, indicating that it was worshipped as a god; that is, Latmus was a sacred mountain at least as early as the Early Bronze Age . A 2004 palynological study of two sediment cores taken from Lake Bafa near Kapikiri (Baf S1) and from the western depth (Baf S6) suggests a habitation sequence of the Büyük Menderes River valley and the shores of Latmus that appears to support

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2268-534: The name of their king. He reports the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians . The Carians spoke Carian , a native Anatolian language closely related to Luwian . Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges , which could be an earlier name for Carians. Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns

2322-467: The only early churches seem to be those of Laodicea and Colossae ( Chonae ) on the extreme inland fringe of the country, which itself pursued its pagan customs. It appears that it was not until Christianity was officially adopted in Constantinople that the new religion made any real headway in Caria. In the 7th century, Byzantine provinces were abolished and the new military theme system

2376-594: The region as a whole, a large Muslim (practically exclusively Turkish) majority reaching as high as 99% and a non-Muslim minority (practically exclusively Carian supplemented with a small Jewish community in Milas) as low as one per cent. One of the first acts of the Ottomans after their takeover was to transfer the administrative center of the region from its millenary seat in Milas to the then much smaller Muğla , which

2430-517: The replacement of deciduous oak and pine with maquis species: Phillyrea , Cistus , Ericaceae ; fruit trees: Olea , Castanea ; and farm weeds: Plantago lanceolata and Juniperus. Carbon in the sediment suggests the forest was cleared by slash and burn . This period corresponds to the settlement of the Carians in the area, who apparently moved in from southern Anatolia. There is a semi-legendary tradition that they subdued another Pre-Hellenic people,

2484-433: The rock is highly porous due to a network of small faults, which dips into the warmer regions below the surface. Warm springs and vapors are common, giving the appearance of volcanic activity. The ancients cross-culturally viewed these phenomena as being caused by divinities, which rock-paintings indicate they worshipped. The north slopes of Latmus are subject to heavy and damaging mudslides, which also would have contributed to

2538-468: The sealing off of the bay to form the lake, population and land use declined to their current low levels around Latmus, but the river valley is cultivated. Latmus became a member of the Delian League in the fifth century BCE. In the fourth century the Persian satrap (a Carian) Mausolus of Halicarnassus captured the city by a ruse and fortified it with a circuit wall; under Hellenising influence

2592-514: Was at various times attributed to Phrygia, Lydia and Caria and seems to have been occupied by mixed nationals. Caria also comprises the headwaters of the Indus and Eriya or Eriyus and Thabusion on the border with the small state of Cibyra . Caria is often identified with the Bronze Age region of Karkiya (or Karkisa ) known from Hittite texts, though this identification is uncertain. Caria

2646-595: Was confirmed when the Athenians discovered the graves of the dead from Delos . Half of it were identified as Carians based on the characteristics of the weapons they were buried with. The expansionism of Lydia under Croesus (560-546 BC) incorporated Caria briefly into Lydia before it fell before the Achaemenid advance. Caria was then incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as

2700-698: Was especially drawn to the carving of a human face, stylistically similar to the products of the Natufian culture which flourished in the Levant during the Mesolithic period. This discovery may corroborate a commercial relationship of the population of southern Asia Minor and Palestine. The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations hosts an extensive collection of Karain artifacts. Be%C5%9Fparmak Mountains Beşparmak Mountains ( Latin : Latmus ; Ancient Greek : Λάτμος , romanized :  Latmos ) are

2754-533: Was from Halicarnassus in Caria.". After the unsuccessful Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the cities of Caria became members of the Athenian-led Delian League , but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, the Carian dynast Mausolus took control of neighbouring Lycia , a territory which was still held by Pixodarus as shown by

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2808-561: Was introduced. The region corresponding to ancient Caria was captured by the Turks under the Menteşe Dynasty in the early 13th century. There are only indirect clues regarding the population structure under the Menteşe and the parts played in it by Turkish migration from inland regions and by local conversions. The first Ottoman Empire census records indicate, in a situation not atypical for

2862-454: Was nevertheless better suited for controlling the southern fringes of the province. Still named Menteşe until the early decades of the 20th century, the kazas corresponding to ancient Caria are recorded by sources such as G. Sotiriadis (1918) and S. Anagiostopoulou (1997) as having a Greek population averaging at around ten per cent of the total, ranging somewhere between twelve and eighteen thousand, many of them reportedly recent immigrants from

2916-517: Was settled by Greek immigrants in the Early Iron Age . Their presence is attested by protogeometric pottery which appears in the area around 1100 BC, along with other markers of Greek material culture. The coast of Caria was part of the Doric hexapolis ("six-cities"). An account also cited that Aristotle claimed Caria, as a naval empire, occupied Epidaurus and Hermione and that this

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