The thorax ( pl. : thoraces or thoraxes ) or chest is a part of the anatomy of mammals and other tetrapod animals located between the neck and the abdomen .
62-588: Boeckella is a genus of copepods in the family Centropagidae . The genus Boeckella contains 49 species, of which five are listed as vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List – the Australian endemics B. bispinosa , B. geniculata , B. nyoraensis, B. shieli , and B. calcaris from Bolivia and Peru. The genus was originally described by G. M. Thomson as " Boeckia ", in honour of Jonas Axel Boeck (1833–1873). That name proved, however, to be
124-438: A junior homonym of Boeckia , a genus of Amphipoda , and so Jules de Guerne and Jules Richard provided it with the replacement name Boeckella in 1889. Copepod Copepods ( / ˈ k oʊ p ə p ɒ d / ; meaning "oar-feet") are a group of small crustaceans found in nearly every freshwater and saltwater habitat . Some species are planktonic (living in the water column), some are benthic (living on
186-537: A larval form. For copepods, the egg hatches into a nauplius form, with a head and a tail but no true thorax or abdomen. The larva molts several times until it resembles the adult and then, after more molts, achieves adult development. The nauplius form is so different from the adult form that it was once thought to be a separate species. The metamorphosis had, until 1832, led to copepods being misidentified as zoophytes or insects (albeit aquatic ones), or, for parasitic copepods, 'fish lice '. Copepods are assigned to
248-514: A 24-hour period. This is compared to uninfected females which, on average, ate 2.93 × 10 cells per day. Blastodinium -infected females of C. finmarchicus exhibited characteristic signs of starvation, including decreased respiration , fecundity, and fecal pellet production. Though photosynthetic , Blastodinium spp. procure most of their energy from organic material in the copepod gut, thus contributing to host starvation. Underdeveloped or disintegrated ovaries and decreased fecal pellet size are
310-475: A copepod named Sheldon J. Plankton as a recurring character. Thorax In insects , crustaceans , and the extinct trilobites , the thorax is one of the three main divisions of the body, each in turn composed of multiple segments. The human thorax includes the thoracic cavity and the thoracic wall . It contains organs including the heart , lungs , and thymus gland, as well as muscles and various other internal structures. Many diseases may affect
372-457: A direct result of starvation in female copepods. Parasitic infection by Blastodinium spp. could have serious ramifications on the success of copepod species and the function of entire marine ecosystems . Blastodinium parasitism is not lethal, but has negative impacts on copepod physiology, which in turn may alter marine biogeochemical cycles . Freshwater copepods of the Cyclops genus are
434-430: A low Reynolds number and therefore a high relative viscosity. One foraging strategy involves chemical detection of sinking marine snow aggregates and taking advantage of nearby low-pressure gradients to swim quickly towards food sources. Most free-living copepods feed directly on phytoplankton , catching cells individually. A single copepod can consume up to 373,000 phytoplankton per day. They generally have to clear
496-418: A more or less pigmented disc, the areola . The apex of a normal heart is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from the mid-line. Different types of diseases or conditions that affect the chest include pleurisy , flail chest , atelectasis , and the most common condition, chest pain. These conditions can be hereditary or caused by birth defects or trauma . Any condition that lowers
558-607: A predator is sensed, and can jump with high speed over a few millimetres. Many species have neurons surrounded by myelin (for increased conduction speed), which is very rare among invertebrates (other examples are some annelids and malacostracan crustaceans like palaemonid shrimp and penaeids ). Even rarer, the myelin is highly organized, resembling the well-organized wrapping found in vertebrates ( Gnathostomata ). Despite their fast escape response, copepods are successfully hunted by slow-swimming seahorses , which approach their prey so gradually, it senses no turbulence, then suck
620-636: A result of well-defined chloroplasts . At maturity, the trophont ruptures and Blastodinium spp. are released from the copepod anus as free dinospore cells. Not much is known about the dinospore stage of Blastodinium and its ability to persist outside of the copepod host in relatively high abundances. The copepod Calanus finmarchicus , which dominates the northeastern Atlantic coast , has been shown to be greatly infected by this parasite. A 2014 study in this region found up to 58% of collected C. finmarchicus females to be infected. In this study, Blastodinium -infected females had no measurable feeding rate over
682-463: A rounded or beaked head, although considerable variation exists in this pattern. The head is fused with the first one or two thoracic segments, while the remainder of the thorax has three to five segments, each with limbs. The first pair of thoracic appendages is modified to form maxillipeds , which assist in feeding. The abdomen is typically narrower than the thorax, and contains five segments without any appendages, except for some tail-like "rami" at
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#1732802527900744-472: A saltwater aquarium, copepods are typically stocked in the refugium . Copepods are sometimes found in public main water supplies, especially systems where the water is not mechanically filtered, such as New York City , Boston , and San Francisco . This is not usually a problem in treated water supplies. In some tropical countries, such as Peru and Bangladesh , a correlation has been found between copepods' presence and cholera in untreated water, because
806-431: A symptom of myocardial infarctions ('heart attack'). If this condition is present in the body, discomfort will be felt in the chest that is similar to a heavy weight placed on the body. Sweating, shortness of breath, lightheadedness , and irregular heartbeat may also be experienced. If a heart attack occurs, the bulk of the damage is caused during the first six hours, so getting the proper treatment as quickly as possible
868-447: A teardrop-shaped body and large antennae . Like other crustaceans, they have an armoured exoskeleton , but they are so small that in most species, this thin armour and the entire body is almost totally transparent. Some polar copepods reach 1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 in). Most copepods have a single median compound eye , usually bright red and in the centre of the transparent head. Subterranean species may be eyeless, and members of
930-401: Is blocked and traps air. The blockage may be caused by something inside the bronchus , such as a plug of mucus, a tumour , or an inhaled foreign object such as a coin, piece of food, or a toy. It is possible for something outside of the bronchus to cause the blockage. Pneumothorax is the condition where air or gas can build up in the pleural space. It can occur without a known cause or as
992-404: Is generally felt when deep breaths are taken or during a cough. Another non-cardiac cause of chest pain is atelectasis . It is a condition that occurs when a portion of the lung collapses from being airless. When bronchial tubes are blocked, this condition develops and causes patients to feel shortness of breath. The most common cause of atelectasis is when a bronchi that extends from the windpipe
1054-526: Is important. Some people, especially those who are elderly or have diabetes, may not have typical chest pain but may have many of the other symptoms of a heart attack. It is important that these patients and their caregivers have a good understanding of heart attack symptoms. Just like with a heart attack, not all chest pain is caused by conditions involving the heart . Chest wall pain can be experienced after an increase in activity. Persons who add exercise to their daily routine generally feel this type of pain at
1116-476: Is usually the main time-averaged source of propulsion, beating like oars to pull the animal through the water. However, different groups have different modes of feeding and locomotion, ranging from almost immotile for several minutes (e.g. some harpacticoid copepods ) to intermittent motion (e.g., some cyclopoid copepods ) and continuous displacements with some escape reactions (e.g. most calanoid copepods ). Some copepods have extremely fast escape responses when
1178-430: The carbon cycle . They are usually the dominant members of the zooplankton , and are major food organisms for small fish such as the dragonet , banded killifish , Alaska pollock , and other crustaceans such as krill in the ocean and in fresh water. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on earth. Copepods compete for this title with Antarctic krill ( Euphausia superba ). C. glacialis inhabits
1240-406: The class Copepoda within the superclass Multicrustacea in the subphylum Crustacea . An alternative treatment is as a subclass belonging to class Hexanauplia . They are divided into 10 orders . Some 13,000 species of copepods are known, and 2,800 of them live in fresh water. Copepods vary considerably, but are typically 1 to 2 mm ( 1 ⁄ 32 to 3 ⁄ 32 in) long, with
1302-458: The "thoracic skeleton" is a component of the axial skeleton . It consists of the ribs and sternum . The ribs of the thorax are numbered in ascending order from 1–12. 11 and 12 are known as floating ribs because they have no anterior attachment point in particular the cartilage attached to the sternum, as 1 through 7 are, and therefore are termed "floating". Whereas ribs 8 through 10 are termed false ribs as their costal cartilage articulates with
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#17328025279001364-579: The Middle Jurassic of France , around 168 million years old. Live copepods are used in the saltwater aquarium hobby as a food source and are generally considered beneficial in most reef tanks. They are scavengers and also may feed on algae, including coralline algae . Live copepods are popular among hobbyists who are attempting to keep particularly difficult species such as the mandarin dragonet or scooter blenny . They are also popular to hobbyists who want to breed marine species in captivity. In
1426-550: The Norwegian Sea into the Barents Sea. Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the secondary productivity of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean carbon sink than krill, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of
1488-834: The ability to either breathe deeply or to cough is considered a chest disease or condition. Injury to the chest (also referred to as chest trauma, thoracic injury, or thoracic trauma) results in up to 1 / 4 of all deaths due to trauma in the United States. The major pathophysiologies encountered in blunt chest trauma involve derangements in the flow of air, blood, or both in combination. Sepsis due to leakage of alimentary tract contents, as in esophageal perforations, also must be considered. Blunt trauma commonly results in chest wall injuries (e.g., rib fractures). The pain associated with these injuries can make breathing difficult, and this may compromise ventilation. Direct lung injuries, such as pulmonary contusions (see
1550-429: The beginning. It is important to monitor the pain to ensure that it is not a sign of something more serious. Pain can also be experienced in persons who have an upper respiratory infection . This virus is also accompanied by a fever and cough. Shingles is another viral infection that can give symptoms of chest or rib pain before a rash develops. Injuries to the rib cage or sternum is also a common cause of chest pain. It
1612-421: The cause of the pain. While cardiac issues cause feelings of sudden pressure in the chest or a crushing pain in the back, neck, and arms, pain that is felt due to noncardiac issues gives a burning feeling along the digestive tract or pain when deep breaths are attempted. Different people feel pains differently for the same condition. Only a patient truly knows if the symptoms are mild or serious. Chest pain may be
1674-418: The chest does not correspond to that part of the thoracic skeleton that encloses the heart and lungs . All the breadth of the shoulders is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axillae and the heads of the humeri . In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse ridge can be felt, which is known as the sternal angle and this marks
1736-509: The chest, and one of the most common symptoms is chest pain . The word thorax comes from the Greek θώραξ thṓrax " breastplate , cuirass , corslet " via Latin : thorax . In humans and other hominids , the thorax is the chest region of the body between the neck and the abdomen , along with its internal organs and other contents. It is mostly protected and supported by the rib cage , spine , and shoulder girdle . The contents of
1798-628: The cholera bacteria attach to the surfaces of planktonic animals. The larvae of the guinea worm must develop within a copepod's digestive tract before being transmitted to humans. The risk of infection with these diseases can be reduced by filtering out the copepods (and other matter), for example with a cloth filter . Copepods have been used successfully in Vietnam to control disease-bearing mosquitoes such as Aedes aegypti that transmit dengue fever and other human parasitic diseases . The copepods can be added to water-storage containers where
1860-419: The copepod host ingests the unicellular dinospore of the parasite. The dinospore is not digested and continues to grow inside the intestinal lumen of the copepod. Eventually, the parasite divides into a multicellular arrangement called a trophont. This trophont is considered parasitic, contains thousands of cells, and can be several hundred micrometers in length. The trophont is greenish to brownish in color as
1922-419: The copepod into their snout too suddenly for the copepod to escape. Several species are bioluminescent and able to produce light. It is assumed this is an antipredatory defense mechanism. Finding a mate in the three-dimensional space of open water is challenging. Some copepod females solve the problem by emitting pheromones , which leave a trail in the water that the male can follow. Copepods experience
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1984-550: The copepod takes on the adult form. The entire process from hatching to adulthood can take a week to a year, depending on the species and environmental conditions such as temperature and nutrition (e.g., egg-to-adult time in the calanoid Parvocalanus crassirostris is ~7 days at 25 °C (77 °F) but 19 days at 15 °C (59 °F). Copepods jump out of the water - porpoising. The biophysics of this motion has been described by Waggett and Buskey 2007 and Kim et al 2015. Planktonic copepods are important to global ecology and
2046-418: The costal cartilage of the rib above. The thorax bones also have the main function of protecting the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels in the thorax area, such as the aorta . The anatomy of the chest can also be described through the use of anatomical landmarks . The nipple in the male is situated in front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little external to a line drawn down from
2108-546: The deep sea. About half of the estimated 14,000 described species of copepods are parasitic and many have adapted extremely modified bodies for their parasitic lifestyles. They attach themselves to bony fish, sharks, marine mammals, and many kinds of invertebrates such as corals, other crustaceans, molluscs, sponges, and tunicates. They also live as ectoparasites on some freshwater fish. In addition to being parasites themselves, copepods are subject to parasitic infection. The most common parasites are marine dinoflagellates of
2170-511: The edge of the Arctic icepack, especially in polynyas where light (and photosynthesis) is present, in which they alone comprise up to 80% of zooplankton biomass. They bloom as the ice recedes each spring. The ongoing large reduction in the annual ice pack minimum may force them to compete in the open ocean with the much less nourishing C. finmarchicus , which is spreading from the North Sea and
2232-420: The eggs have a tough shell and can lie dormant for extended periods if the pond dries up. Eggs hatch into nauplius larvae, which consist of a head with a small tail , but no thorax or true abdomen. The nauplius moults five or six times, before emerging as a "copepodid larva". This stage resembles the adult, but has a simple, unsegmented abdomen and only three pairs of thoracic limbs. After a further five moults,
2294-447: The equivalent to about a million times their own body volume of water every day to cover their nutritional needs. Some of the larger species are predators of their smaller relatives. Many benthic copepods eat organic detritus or the bacteria that grow in it, and their mouth parts are adapted for scraping and biting. Herbivorous copepods, particularly those in rich, cold seas, store up energy from their food as oil droplets while they feed in
2356-460: The extant harpacticoid family Canthocamptidae , suggesting that copepods had already substantially diversified by this time. Possible microfossils of copepods are known from the Cambrian of North America. Transitions to parasitism have occurred within copepods independently at least 14 different times, with the oldest record of this being from damage to fossil echinoids done by cyclopoids from
2418-414: The extinct trilobites , the thorax is one of the three main divisions of the creature's body, each of which is in turn composed of multiple segments. It is the area where the wings and legs attach in insects, or an area of multiple articulating plates in trilobites. In most insects, the thorax itself is composed of three segments; the prothorax , the mesothorax , and the metathorax . In extant insects,
2480-434: The functional thorax is composed of four segments, and is therefore typically called the mesosoma to distinguish it from the "thorax" of other insects. Each thoracic segment in an insect is further subdivided into various parts, the most significant of which are the dorsal portion (the notum ), the lateral portion (the pleuron ; one on each side), and the ventral portion (the sternum ). In some insects, each of these parts
2542-403: The genera Copilia and Corycaeus possess two eyes, each of which has a large anterior cuticular lens paired with a posterior internal lens to form a telescope. Like other crustaceans, copepods possess two pairs of antennae; the first pair is often long and conspicuous. Free-living copepods of the orders Calanoida, Cyclopoida, and Harpacticoida typically have a short, cylindrical body, with
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2604-467: The genus Blastodinium , which are gut parasites of many copepod species. Twelve species of Blastodinium are described, the majority of which were discovered in the Mediterranean Sea . Most Blastodinium species infect several different hosts, but species-specific infection of copepods does occur. Generally, adult copepod females and juveniles are infected. During the naupliar stage,
2666-492: The guinea worm is endemic. The presence of copepods in the New York City water supply system has caused problems for some Jewish people who observe kashrut . Copepods, being crustaceans, are not kosher, nor are they quite small enough to be ignored as nonfood microscopic organisms, since some specimens can be seen with the naked eye. Hence, large specimens are certainly non-Kosher. However, some species are visible to
2728-445: The image below), are frequently associated with major chest trauma and may impair ventilation by a similar mechanism. Chest pain can be the result of multiple issues, including respiratory problems, digestive issues, and musculoskeletal complications. The pain can trigger cardiac issues as well. Not all pain that is felt is associated with the heart, but it should not be taken lightly either. Symptoms can be different depending on
2790-591: The intermediate host of the Guinea worm ( Dracunculus medinensis ), the nematode that causes dracunculiasis disease in humans. This disease may be close to being eradicated through efforts by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization . Despite their modern abundance, due to their small size and fragility, copepods are extremely rare in the fossil record. The oldest known fossils of copepods are from
2852-402: The junction between the manubrium and body of the sternum . Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, and when these are found the lower ribs can often be counted. At the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins, and above this there is often a depression known as the pit of the stomach . The bones of the thorax, called
2914-456: The late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ) of Oman , around 303 million years old, which were found in a clast of bitumen from a glacial diamictite . The copepods present in the bitumen clast were likely residents of a subglacial lake which the bitumen had seeped upwards through while still liquid, before the clast subsequently solidified and was deposited by glaciers. Though most of the remains were undiagnostic, at least some likely belonged to
2976-514: The lung or as a shortness of breath. In mammals , the thorax is the region of the body formed by the sternum , the thoracic vertebrae , and the ribs . It extends from the neck to the diaphragm , and does not include the upper limbs . The heart and the lungs reside in the thoracic cavity , as well as many blood vessels . The inner organs are protected by the rib cage and the sternum. Thoracic vertebrae are also distinguished in birds , but not in reptiles . In insects , crustaceans , and
3038-411: The male copepod grips the female with his first pair of antennae, which is sometimes modified for this purpose. The male then produces an adhesive package of sperm and transfers it to the female's genital opening with his thoracic limbs. Eggs are sometimes laid directly into the water, but many species enclose them within a sac attached to the female's body until they hatch. In some pond-dwelling species,
3100-406: The middle of the clavicle ; in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the breast , which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line laterally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by
3162-484: The mosquitoes breed. Copepods, primarily of the genera Mesocyclops and Macrocyclops (such as Macrocyclops albidus ), can survive for periods of months in the containers, if the containers are not completely drained by their users. They attack, kill, and eat the younger first- and second- instar larvae of the mosquitoes. This biological control method is complemented by community trash removal and recycling to eliminate other possible mosquito-breeding sites. Because
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#17328025279003224-489: The naked eye, but are small enough that they only appear as little white specks. These are problematic, as it is a question as to whether they are considered visible enough to be non-Kosher. When a group of rabbis in Brooklyn, New York , discovered these copepods in the summer of 2004, they triggered such debate in rabbinic circles that some observant Jews felt compelled to buy and install filters for their water. The water
3286-470: The oceans are believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tons of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of human carbon emissions , thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink (by changing oils into more dense fats) into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons , faecal pellets, and respiration at depth all bring carbon to
3348-417: The prothorax never has wings, though legs are always present in adults; wings (when present) are restricted to at least the mesothorax, and typically also the metathorax, though the wings may be reduced or modified on either or both segments. In the apocritan Hymenoptera , the first abdominal segment is fused to the metathorax, where it forms a structure known as the propodeum . Accordingly, in these insects,
3410-413: The result of a lung disease or acute lung injury. The size of the pneumothorax changes as air or gas builds up, so a medical procedure can release the pressure with a needle. If it is untreated, blood flow can be interrupted and cause a drop in blood pressure known as tension pneumothorax. It is possible for smaller cases to clear up on their own. Symptoms of this condition are often felt only on one side of
3472-536: The sediments), several species have parasitic phases , and some continental species may live in limnoterrestrial habitats and other wet terrestrial places, such as swamps, under leaf fall in wet forests, bogs, springs, ephemeral ponds, puddles, damp moss, or water-filled recesses of plants ( phytotelmata ) such as bromeliads and pitcher plants . Many live underground in marine and freshwater caves, sinkholes , or stream beds. Copepods are sometimes used as biodiversity indicators . As with other crustaceans, copepods have
3534-664: The spring and summer on plankton blooms . These droplets may take up over half of the volume of their bodies in polar species. Many copepods (e.g., fish lice like the Siphonostomatoida ) are parasites, and feed on their host organisms. In fact, three of the 10 known orders of copepods are wholly or largely parasitic, with another three comprising most of the free-living species. Most nonparasitic copepods are holoplanktonic, meaning they stay planktonic for all of their lifecycles, although harpacticoids, although free-living, tend to be benthic rather than planktonic. During mating,
3596-453: The thorax include the heart and lungs (and the thymus gland); the major and minor pectoral muscles, trapezius muscles , and neck muscle; and internal structures such as the diaphragm , the esophagus , the trachea , and a part of the sternum known as the xiphoid process . Arteries and veins are also contained – ( aorta , superior vena cava , inferior vena cava and the pulmonary artery ); bones (the shoulder socket containing
3658-483: The tip. Parasitic copepods (the other seven orders) vary widely in morphology and no generalizations are possible. Because of their small size, copepods have no need of any heart or circulatory system (the members of the order Calanoida have a heart, but no blood vessels ), and most also lack gills . Instead, they absorb oxygen directly into their bodies. Their excretory system consists of maxillary glands. The second pair of cephalic appendages in free-living copepods
3720-414: The upper part of the humerus , the scapula , sternum , thoracic portion of the spine , collarbone , and the rib cage and floating ribs ). External structures are the skin and nipples . In the human body , the region of the thorax between the neck and diaphragm in the front of the body is called the chest. The corresponding area in an animal can also be referred to as the chest. The shape of
3782-463: The water in these containers is drawn from uncontaminated sources such as rainfall, the risk of contamination by cholera bacteria is small, and in fact no cases of cholera have been linked to copepods introduced into water-storage containers. Trials using copepods to control container-breeding mosquitoes are underway in several other countries, including Thailand and the southern United States . The method, though, would be very ill-advised in areas where
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#17328025279003844-559: Was ruled kosher by posek Yisrael Belsky , chief posek of the OU and one of the most scientifically literate poskim of his time. Meanwhile, Rabbi Dovid Feinstein , based on the ruling of Rabbi Yosef Shalom Elyashiv - the two widely considered to be the greatest poskim of their time - ruled it was not kosher until filtered. Several major kashrus organizations (e.g OU Kashrus and Star-K ) require tap water to have filters. The Nickelodeon television series SpongeBob SquarePants features
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