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67-729: Kasatochi Island is a member of the Aleutian Islands, which lie above a narrow ridge that separates the Bering Sea from the North Pacific . It lies at the Atka Pass northwest of the western tip of Atka Island and east of Great Sitkin Island . It is at 52.177° N latitude and 175.508° W longitude, with a summit elevation of 314 m (1030 ft.) It has a land area of 1.9503 sq mi (5.051 km). Kasatochi Island has

134-415: A 6-hr period that produced ash-poor eruption clouds, a 10-hr period of continuous ash-rich emissions initiated by an explosive pulse and punctuated by two others, and a final 8-hr period of waning ash emissions." Pyroclastic flows continuously fell over the island and buried most of it in deposits ranging from decimeters to tens of meters. Before the 2008 eruption, there had been little documented activity on

201-695: A founder of the Ecological Society of America , were promoting a " balance of nature " theory – the idea that predators were an important part of the larger ecosystem and should not be eradicated. In 1924, at a conference organized by the American Society of Mammologists (ASM), the debate generated a public split between those in the Survey, promoting eradication, and those from the ASM who promoted some sort of accommodation. Edward A. Goldman, from

268-642: A national figure for improving the scientific understanding of birds and mammals in the United States. In 1934, the Division of Biological Survey was reorganized as the Bureau of Biological Survey and Jay Norwood Darling was appointed its chief;. The same year, Congress passed the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA), one of the oldest federal environmental review statutes. Under Darling's guidance,

335-409: A steep-walled caldera surrounding a lake. The crater is about 4,000 feet (1,200 m) in diameter, with its lake's surface lying only about 60 m above sea level. In all areas surrounding the crater, the island is characterized by steep sea-cliffs, talus slopes, and small, boulder-filled beaches. These many habitat possibilities set the stage for the numerous species that took residence there. Before

402-401: A unique landscape that makes it an ideal home for many types of species. Some of these aspects that created such a beneficial habitat reflected strictly on the island's geology . Before 2008, the island was about 3 km in diameter and stood about 314 m high on the highest side. The island is steeper to the northern side than the southern side, and slightly north of the center of the island is

469-499: A violation of law occurred in its death, and to identify and compare physical evidence to link suspects to the crime scene and the animal's death. United States Fish and Wildlife Service Refuge Law Enforcement consists of professional law enforcement officers entrusted with protecting natural resources and public safety. Federal Wildlife Officers promote the survival of species and health of the environment by ensuring that wildlife laws are followed. They also welcome visitors and are often

536-588: Is a U.S. federal government agency within the United States Department of the Interior which oversees the management of fish , wildlife , and natural habitats in the United States. The mission of the agency is "working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people." Among the responsibilities of

603-697: The United States Fish Commission , created in 1871 by the United States Congress with the purpose of studying and recommending solutions to a noted decline in the stocks of food fish . Spencer Fullerton Baird was appointed to lead it as the first United States Commissioner of Fisheries. In 1903, the Fish Commission was reorganized as the United States Bureau of Fisheries and made part of

670-816: The Clark R. Bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory , the only forensics laboratory in the world devoted to wildlife law enforcement . By treaty, it also is the official crime laboratory for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) and the Wildlife Group of Interpol . The laboratory identifies the species or subspecies of pieces, parts, or products of an animal to determine its cause of death, help wildlife officers determine if

737-650: The Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 22), and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act , the USFWS administers the National Eagle Repository and the permit system for Native American religious use of eagle feathers. These exceptions often only apply to Native Americans that are registered with the federal government and are enrolled with a federally recognized tribe. In the late 1990s and early 2000s,

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804-571: The Endangered Species Act ; mitigating the loss of fisheries resulting from U.S. Government water projects; and providing fish to benefit Native Americans and National Wildlife Refuges. The NFHS also engages in outreach, education, and research activities. The National Fish Passage Program provides financial and technical resources to projects that promote the free movement of fish and aquatic life. Common projects include dam removal and fishway construction. Between 1999 and 2023,

871-799: The Landscape Conservation Cooperatives , a network of 22 autonomous cooperatives sponsored by the Department of the Interior which function as regional conservation bodies covering the entire United States and adjacent areas. The Office of Law Enforcement enforces wildlife laws, investigates wildlife crimes, regulates wildlife trade, helps people in the United States understand and obey wildlife protection laws, and works in partnership with international, state, and tribal counterparts to conserve wildlife resources. It also trains other U.S. Government, U.S. state, tribal, and foreign law enforcement officers. The USFWS operates

938-618: The National Fish Hatchery System (NFHS), which includes 70 National Fish Hatcheries and 65 Fish and Wildlife Conservation Offices. Originally created to reverse declines in lake and coastal fish stocks in the United States, the NFHS subsequently expanded its mission to include the preservation of the genes of wild and hatchery-raised fish; the restoration of native aquatic populations of fish, freshwater mussels , and amphibians including populations of species listed under

1005-455: The United States Department of Agriculture , have taken steps to be more inclusive of tribes, native people, and tribal rights. This has marked a transition to a relationship of more co-operation rather than the tension between tribes and government agencies seen historically. Today, these agencies work closely with tribal governments to ensure the best conservation decisions are made and that tribes retain their sovereignty. From 1940 to 1970,

1072-452: The United States Department of Commerce and Labor . When the Department of Commerce and Labor was split into the United States Department of Commerce and the United States Department of Labor in 1913, the Bureau of Fisheries was made part of the Department of Commerce. Originally focused on fisheries science and fish culture , the Bureau of Fisheries also assumed other duties; in 1906,

1139-596: The United States government . Therefore, the USFWS works closely with private groups such as Partners in Flight and the Sport Fishing and Boating Partnership Council to promote voluntary habitat conservation and restoration. The Fish and Wildlife Service was created in 1940 through the combination of two previous bureaus within the Department of the Interior. Its current director is Martha Williams , who

1206-402: The primary succession of species back onto the island. This opportunity was due to the fact that rarely does such a devastating natural disaster occur in an environment where there had been extensive research on preexisting species and vegetation. By enhancing their understanding of the process on Kasatochi, they hoped to be able to apply gained knowledge to similar situations in the future. In

1273-590: The 2008 eruption, the Kasatochi Island landscape was steep and rugged, home to dense vegetation and different species of flora . Except crater walls and sea-cliffs, nearly the entire island was vegetated with grasses and herbaceous plants. This terrestrial vegetation created the habitat for many of the species unique to Kasatochi Island. The coastal and marine habitat flourished with their own species of vegetation as well, including many different types of sea grasses, kelp, corals, sponges, and roots (namely along

1340-702: The 2008 eruption. Before 2008, little was known about the eruptive history or probability of future eruptions on Kasatochi Island. There were no monitoring devices on the island, but devices on two nearby islands had indicated detectable seismic activity on Kasatochi for several years. Because of the lack of necessary technology, predicting the following eruption would have been an extremely unlikely feat. Thus, it happened quite rapidly and without much warning. On 7 August 2008, Kasatochi began erupting explosively with an ash plume maintaining an altitude of 35,000 feet and reaching 45,000 feet. The eruption lasted for 24 hours and included "two initial explosive pulses and pauses over

1407-838: The Animal Damage Control Agency, responsible for predator control, was transferred from the USFWS to the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Division of Wildlife Services. USFWS manages the National Wildlife Refuge System, which consists of 570 National Wildlife Refuges , encompassing a full range of habitat types, including wetlands , prairies , coastal and marine areas, and temperate, tundra , and boreal forests spread across all 50 U.S. states . It also manages thousands of small wetlands and other special management areas covering over 150,000,000 acres (61,000,000 ha). The USFWS governs six National Monuments : The USFWS shares

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1474-518: The BOF having decommissioned the last one, USFS  Albatross II , in 1932; only in the late 1940s did the FWS begin to commission new research ships. Although between 1871 and 1940 the Fish Commission and BOF had never had more than three fisheries research ships in commission at the same time — and had three in commission simultaneously only in two years out of their entire combined history — by March 1950,

1541-471: The Bureau began an ongoing legacy of protecting vital natural habitat throughout the United States. In 1939, the Bureau of Biological Survey moved from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of the Interior. On June 30, 1940, the Bureau of Fisheries and the Bureau of Biological Survey were combined to form the Department of the Interior's Fish and Wildlife Service . In 1956, the Fish and Wildlife Service

1608-406: The Department of Commerce on October 3, 1970, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries merged with the salt-water laboratories of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife to form today's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), an element of NOAA. The remainder of the USFWS remained in place in the Department of the Interior in 1970 as the foundation of the USFWS as it is known today, although in 1985

1675-532: The Department of Commerce to the Department of the Interior. The other ancestor of the USFWS began as the Section of Economic Ornithology , which was established within the United States Department of Agriculture in 1885 and became the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy in 1886. In 1896 it became the Division of Biological Survey . Clinton Hart Merriam headed the Division for 25 years and became

1742-472: The FWS (from 1956 the USFWS) operated a fleet of seagoing vessels. The fleet included fisheries science research ships , fishery patrol vessels, and cargo liners . The Fish Commission operated a small fleet of research ships and fish-culture vessels. The Bureau of Fisheries inherited these in 1903, and then greatly expanded its fleet of seagoing vessels, including both patrol vessels for fishery enforcement in

1809-468: The FWS fleet included 11 seagoing fisheries research and exploratory fishing vessels either in service or under construction, and its fishery enforcement force in the Territory of Alaska included 29 patrol vessels and about 100 speedboats , as well as 20 airplanes. In the 1956 reorganization that created the USFWS, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF) assumed the responsibility within the USFWS for

1876-663: The Pribilof tender until the BCF's seagoing fleet was transferred to the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), an element of NOAA, upon the creation of NOAA on October 3, 1970. Although the NMFS continued to operate the Pribilof tender until 1975, the rest of the ships were transferred from the NMFS to a unified NOAA fleet during 1972 and 1973. The modern NOAA fleet therefore traces its ancestry in part to

1943-487: The Survey, made perfectly clear their position in a paper that with the arrival of Europeans in North America, the balance of nature had been "violently overturned, never to be reestablished". He concludes with the idea that "Large predatory mammals, destructive to livestock and to game, no longer have a place in our advancing civilization." The Survey subsequently placed over 2 million poisoned bait stations across

2010-483: The Territory of Alaska and a cargo liner — known as the "Pribilof tender " — to provide transportation for passengers and haul cargo to, from, and between the Pribilof Islands. In the 1930s, the Bureau of Biological Survey operated a vessel of its own, Brown Bear . Upon its creation in 1940, the FWS inherited the BOF's fleet and Brown Bear . By 1940, no fisheries research vessels remained in commission,

2077-456: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , to evacuate. Their research was stopped and later replaced with the research currently ongoing on the island. There were also nearby islands that were affected by the eruption. An ashfall advisory was issued at the time for Adak Island , a populated island in the Aleutian chain. Later, up to 6 cm of ash was found on Adak and other neighboring islands,

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2144-590: The U.S. Congress assigned it the responsibility for the enforcement of fishery and fur seal -hunting regulations in the Territory of Alaska , and in 1910 for the management and harvest of northern fur seals , foxes , and other fur-bearing animals in the Pribilof Islands , as well as for the care, education, and welfare of the Aleut communities in the islands. In 1939, the Bureau of Fisheries moved from

2211-574: The USFWS are enforcing federal wildlife laws; protecting endangered species; managing migratory birds ; restoring nationally significant fisheries; conserving and restoring wildlife habitats, such as wetlands; helping foreign governments in international conservation efforts; and distributing money to fish and wildlife agencies of U.S. states through the Wildlife Sport Fish and Restoration Program. The vast majority of fish and wildlife habitats are on state or private land not controlled by

2278-402: The USFWS began to incorporate the research of tribal scientists into conservation decisions. This came on the heels of Native American traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) gaining acceptance in the scientific community as a reasonable and respectable way to gain knowledge of managing the natural world. Additionally, other natural resource agencies within the United States government, such as

2345-458: The USFWS fleet operated by the BCF. Both before and after the FWS became the USFWS in 1956, ships of its fleet used the prefix "US FWS" while in commission. The BOF usually named its ships after aquatic birds, and ships the FWS inherited from the BOF in 1940 retained those names in FWS service. However, the FWS/USFWS thereafter usually named vessels it acquired after people who were notable in

2412-437: The USFWS's international responsibilities under about 40 treaties , as well as U.S. laws and regulations. It oversees programs which work with private citizens, local communities, other U.S. Government and U.S. state agencies, foreign governments, non-governmental organizations , scientific and conservation organizations, industry groups. and other interested parties on issues related to the implementation of treaties and laws and

2479-565: The United States. By 1905 with funding scarce, the Survey included in its mission the eradication of wolves, coyotes and other large predators. This garnered them the support of ranchers and western legislators resulting, by 1914, in a $ 125,000 congressionally approved budget for use "on the National Forests and the public domain in destroying wolves, coyotes and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry". Meanwhile, scientists like Joseph Grinnell and Charles C. Adams,

2546-403: The conservation of species around the world. The USFWS's National Conservation Training Center trains USFWS employees and those of USFWS partners in the accomplishment of the USFWS's mission. At its founding in 1896, the work of the Division of Biological Survey focused on the effect of birds in controlling agricultural pests and mapping the geographical distribution of plants and animals in

2613-460: The crater was extended hundreds of meters by pyroclastic deposits, destroying a large amount of the marine habitat that resided near the edge of the island. All apparent life on the island appeared to be destroyed after the 2008 eruption. The pyroclastic flows and volcanic ash buried the entire island in deposits, rendering even the soil on the island almost useless. Almost all terrestrial vegetation, including grasses, trees, and herbaceous plants,

2680-775: The ecosystem of Kasatochi returns to a new equilibrium and comparing the data to similar islands are helping further scientists' understanding of terrestrial-marine interactions and allowing for new knowledge of ecosystem reassembly after a devastating natural disaster. Bering Sea Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 548154864 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 05:46:56 GMT Fish and Wildlife Service The United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS or FWS )

2747-652: The first U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service employees encountered by the public on refuges. Federal Wildlife Officers (FWO) are entrusted with protecting natural resources, visitors and employees on National Wildlife Refuge System lands. The USFWS issues an annual Federal Duck Stamp , a collectable adhesive stamp required to hunt for migratory waterfowl . It also allows access to National Wildlife Refuges without paying an admission fee. The USFWS International Affairs Program coordinates domestic and international efforts to protect, restore, and enhance wildlife and its habitats, focusing on species of international concern, fulfilling

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2814-463: The island's shoreline after the eruption. Directly following the eruption, it was believed that there were no present surviving species on the island. The organisms were either killed or forced to flee as their habitat was destroyed around them. Nearly all of the marine and avian mammal breeding habitat was covered by volcanic ash, including the rookery on the north side of the island for the endangered Steller sea lions that previously resided there. It

2881-453: The island. The last confirmed activity on Kasatochi was in 1899, but that was not believed to be an eruption. Mild degassing was reported to the AVO in 2005, but that could not be confirmed. A significant number of people were affected by the 2008 eruption, from the eruption and its secondary consequences. As the eruption became imminent, it forced the only humans on the island, two biologists from

2948-680: The island. This was a rare opportunity to study this type of succession, as it is not often that data on an area exists after a disaster of this magnitude. Prior to the 2008 eruption, Kasatochi Island was a part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge (ANMWR). The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service had studied marine birds and mammals here since 1996, where they learned much about

3015-600: The late 1960s and early 1970s resulted in Nixon banning post- World War II -era poisons in 1972 and the passage of the Endangered Species Act in 1973. Also in 1972, the Nixon administration rewrote the Animal Damage Control Act, effectively repealing it in favor of turning the mission of predator control over to the states. The loss of federally fund to protect their livestock was too much for ranching and agricultural communities and by 1980 Reagan had reversed

3082-583: The operation of the seagoing vessels of the fleet. The USFWS continued fishery enforcement in Alaska until after Alaska became a state in January 1959, but by 1960 had turned over enforcement responsibilities and some of the associated vessels to the Government of Alaska as the latter assumed the responsibility for fishery enforcement in its waters. The USFWS continued to operate fisheries research ships and

3149-530: The poison killing ban and transferred the responsibility for predator control to the Wildlife Services program under the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service . The Program's mission has evolved to protect "agriculture, wildlife and other natural resources, property, and human health and safety". Pursuant to the eagle feather law , Title 50, Part 22 of

3216-655: The pre-eruption ecology of the island. The eruption in 2008 basically destroyed all signs of life on Kasatochi. This situation may have seemed similar to many other eruptions throughout history, including Surtsey in Iceland, Krakatau in Indonesia, Usu in Japan, Ksudach in Russia, and Mount St. Helens in the United States. However, the eruption of Kasatochi specifically gave scientists an extremely rare opportunity to study

3283-524: The program has worked with over 2,000 local partners to open 61,000 mi (98,000 km) of upstream habitat by removing or bypassing 3,400 aquatic barriers. The Division of Migratory Bird Management runs the Migratory Bird Program, which works with partners of the USFWS to protect, restore, and conserve bird populations and their habitats by ensuring the long-term ecological sustainability of all migratory bird populations, increasing

3350-435: The recolonization efforts on Kasatochi. Erosion became noticed as a significant driving force of the redevelopment of the island ecosystem by removing deposits from the slopes. While for an extended period of time the island was considered devoid of plants, the greatest amount of plant diversity later on was found where erosion had removed new material and allowed old soil to come to the surface. In these rare places where soil

3417-471: The responsibility for administering the Endangered Species Act of 1973 with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), an element of NOAA, with the NMFS responsible for marine species , the FWS responsible for freshwater fish and all other species, and the two organizations jointly managing species that occur in both marine and non-marine environments. The USFWS publishes the quarterly Endangered Species Bulletin . The USFWS's Fisheries Program oversees

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3484-419: The rest falling into the surrounding sea. At the time there were about 300 people living on the island, and while there were no immediate deaths or injuries, the long-term effects of this population being so close to the eruption are still unknown. The geological setting of Kasatochi was greatly impacted by the eruption. Where there had been beaches, forests, and soils once, there were now meters of deposits from

3551-531: The rocky coasts). Kasatochi Island was the home of many species, but most notable were the populations of diverse seabirds, avian predators and marine invertebrates. Ocean currents, productivity, and the habitable island geology created the ideal conditions for these select groups of fauna . The island differentiated itself from many of the others in the Aleutian chain by supporting a large diverse group of seabirds, most famously for their colony of more than 100,000 crested auklets and 150,000 least auklets , which

3618-870: The socioeconomic benefit of birds, improving the experience of hunting, bird watching, and other outdoor activities related to birds, and increasing the awareness of the aesthetic, ecological , recreational and economic significance of migratory birds and their habitats. It conducts surveys; coordinates USFWS activities with those of public-private bird conservation partnerships; provides matching grants for conservation efforts involving USFWS partners; develops policies and regulations and administers conservation laws related to migratory birds; issues permits to allow individuals and organizations to participate in migratory bird conservation efforts; helps educate and engage children in wildlife conservation topics; and provides resources for parents and educators to assist them in helping children explore nature and birds. The USFWS partners with

3685-570: The summer of 2008, a team of researchers visited the island to observe and record the immediate consequences of the eruption on all present communities. The eruption had a massive effect on all aspects of the ecosystem, including soils, oceanic water, terrain, terrestrial plants, land, shore, and seabirds, arthropods, marine algae, and marine invertebrates. The goal was to recognize patterns of recolonization for each individual species and see how, if at all, they coincided with each other. There were many apparent patterns researchers noticed after studying

3752-426: The summer of 2009. Because of the intensity of this natural disturbance and the almost complete devastation of life on Kasatochi right after the eruption, the island became a textbook site for primary succession . Scientists took this opportunity and started a research project in 2009 to study ecosystem impact and long-term recovery. Their goal was to find the patterns and reasons for the returning of various species to

3819-503: The survival of these species depends on the ability of the island to stabilize its present ecosystem. At present, it is found that most immigrants(whether by wind, flight, water, etc.) fail to find suitable habitats, so while they are continually being introduced, the majority will die. These dispersal methods will lead to greater species diversity only when the terrestrial habitat stabilizes in response to abiotic and external forces. These few examples of learned patterns by monitoring how

3886-536: The terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Many other species were on the island, including various insects, arthropods, and fish. The abundance of fish and various marine life helped support the massive influx of auklets to the island every year. It was also noted for the presence of an endangered Steller sea lion rookery on the north half of the island. Near-shore benches were carved out of lava flows that could have been dated up to hundreds of years earlier. Approximately 1000 Steller sea lions occupied these rookeries before

3953-453: The volcanic ash and flows. The area of the island as a whole was increased by about 40%. The area of the crater was increased by about 28%, and was enlarged laterally by about 300 m. The crater rim was lowered about 60 m, moving nearer to the lake below. The water level in the lake on Kasatochi significantly decreased following the eruption; however, several streams flowing out of the lower crater walls slowly refilled it. The shoreline surrounding

4020-685: The west and by 1930 had "extirpated wolves from the Lower 48 and advised and assisted in erasing grey wolves from" Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks. The Survey then turned to the eradication of coyote, coordinated through the 1931 Animal Damage Control Act . With various agency reorganizations, the practice continued more or less apace through the early 1970s but though hundreds of thousands of coyotes were killed, their extreme adaptability and resilience led to little overall population reduction and, instead, their migration into an expanded habitat, including urban areas. Increasing environmental awareness in

4087-545: Was appointed by U.S. President Joe Biden on March 8, 2022. USFWS employs approximately 8,000 people and is organized into a central administrative office in Falls Church , Virginia , eight regional offices, and nearly 700 field offices distributed throughout the United States . The original ancestor of USFWS was the United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries , more commonly referred to as

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4154-473: Was destroyed by the high temperatures before being covered, which would become one of the main problems for recolonization on land. Several auklet rookeries that were located below lava flow cliffs were buried by the deposits, along with many of the Steller sea lion rookeries as well. Boulder-filled kelp beds, an important marine habitat surrounding the island, were buried by the pyroclastic deposits that extended

4221-420: Was exposed, it allowed for the new growth of plants and vegetation. This in turn allowed for the reemergence of nesting sites, encouraging the return of different species of seabirds. Another observation in the field was the surprising existence of "legacies" (remnants of an ecosystem that escape total destruction) on Kasatochi, whose eruption was thought to have destroyed every sign of life down to its soil. This

4288-430: Was not until weeks to years later that species began returning to the island. Approximately 200,000 auklets returned to the island in the summer of 2009, but as their rookeries were still covered with ash, they could not to be used for nesting. Surprisingly enough, sea lions were present on the island up to two weeks after the eruption. Their rookeries had been thickly buried as well, but coastal erosion had cleared them by

4355-465: Was one of only seven colonies in the Aleutian chain. Other species included seabirds such as the Fork-tailed petrel, the whiskered auklet , the ancient murrelet , gulls, guillemots, and cormorants. These seabirds attracted many avian predators as well, such as bald eagles and peregrine falcons . The birds of Kasatochi were the dominant vertebrates on the island and the most prominent link between

4422-418: Was previously not thought possible in a volcanic eruption of this magnitude. One specific example was the survival of arthropods, as most found during 2009 were either survivors of the disaster or their progeny. One of the greater contributing factors to recolonization on Kasatochi is the different methods of dispersal. These are the methods that are planned to bring back the largest amount of species; however,

4489-595: Was reorganized as the United States Fish and Wildlife Service — which remained part of the Department of the Interior — and divided its operations into two bureaus, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries , with the latter inheriting the history and heritage of the old U.S. Fish Commission and U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. Upon the formation of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) within

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