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145-458: In the 6th century, the historian Procopius wrote the name Kastoria was used for the lake. The first reference to the town of Kastoria is by historian John Skylitzes writing about the late 10th century. The toponym Kastoria means "place of beavers" and is derived from kastori (καστόρι), the Greek word for beaver and an animal whose local habitat was along the shores of lake Kastoria. The name of

290-606: A captured sea monster as evidence of the narrative's feasibility. Battle of Pelagonia The Battle of Pelagonia or Battle of Kastoria took place in early summer or autumn 1259, between the Empire of Nicaea and an anti-Nicaean alliance comprising Despotate of Epirus , Kingdom of Sicily and the Principality of Achaea . It was a decisive event in the history of the Eastern Mediterranean , ensuring

435-508: A "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their ekklesía had been a popular assembly . The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church. Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after Eusebius . However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This

580-486: A Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975 which discusses his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the province of Palaestina Prima . He would have received a conventional upper class education in the Greek classics and rhetoric , perhaps at the famous school at Gaza . He may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut ) or Constantinople (now Istanbul ), and became

725-561: A blow of the lance was he who was called Duke of Carinthia, and striking him on the chest, where his shield was raised for protection, he flung him lifeless onto the ground together with his horse. After that he slew two others who were the Duke’s kinsmen. The lance which he held shattered into three pieces, and so he quickly drew his sword and began to do battle in earnest with the Germans, and all those who came to fight him he mowed down like hay in

870-582: A few local Jews, several other Kastorians, and officials. The Kastoria Jewish diaspora in Israel and the US supported moves to reclaim the properties. The Central Board managed to gain control of a few communal properties after purchasing them from their Jewish owners. The Jewish community had dwindled to one family, and during the 1980s, relatives and business were factors which influenced Jews to remain in Kastoria. By

1015-514: A field. Geoffrey of Briel kills the ' Duke of Carinthia ', Chronicle of the Morea , Greek version, vv. 4017–4032 Whatever the true course of events, on the next morning, when the Epirote flight was discovered by their Latin allies, they too tried to withdraw, but it was too late. The Nicaeans fell upon them, and in addition, according to Pachymeres, John Doukas and his Vlachs attacked from

1160-568: A heroic albeit doomed combat, exaggerating the number of the Nicaean troops, avoiding any mention of the Sicilian contingent, and stressing the role of Nicaean agents in spreading dissension among the allies. Gregoras and Pachymeres, while following the earlier account of Akropolites in the main, contain elements also found in the Chronicle , including the role of a Nicaean agent, and praise for

1305-492: A kindergarten and school. In 1928, Kastorian Jews numbered 1,000. In 1928, a Zionist association was formed in Kastoria, and some of the town's Jewish children were sent to study and live in Mandate Palestine . In World War Two, Kastoria and its Jewish population came under Italian, and later, German occupation. The Jewish community numbered 900 people in 1940 and 1943. Some Jews became partisans, and others fled to

1450-415: A lawyer ( rhetor ). He evidently knew Latin , as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor Justinian   I , he became the legal adviser ( adsessor ) for Belisarius , a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire. Procopius was with Belisarius on

1595-728: A nearby village. In late March 1944, 763 Kastorian Jews residing in the Jewish neighbourhood were taken prisoner, while 50 went into hiding, and the Greek Orthodox Archbishop secured the release of 30–40 Jews. During April 1944, the German army sent the town's Jews first to Thessaloniki , and later to the Auschwitz concentration camp where they were gassed. In 1945, the Kastoria Jewish community numbered 35 people;

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1740-426: A place whose name is Borilla Longos. They allowed them neither to march freely in the daytime nor to rest at night. For they clashed with them in the day when they were watering their horses—if someone should distance himself to water his horse—and they fell upon them also on the road and, drawing near their carts and beasts of burden, they plundered their loads, while those who were guarding yielded. Description of

1885-409: A portrayal of Justinian and Theodora as caricatural villains. The Buildings ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Περὶ Κτισμάτων , Perì Ktismáton ; Latin : De Aedificiis , "On Buildings") is a panegyric on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire. The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that

2030-574: A potential claimant to the Principality. Akropolites emphasizes the Nicaeans' use of strategy, and his account describes "a series of skirmishes on the road rather than a confrontation of two armies on a battlefield", giving the impression that "the defeat of the allies at the hands of the Nicene forces came quickly and ingloriously", whereas the Chronicle is at pains to portray the fight as

2175-621: A powerful coalition that, according to the Byzantinist Donald Nicol , "seemed likely to threaten the possession not only of Thessalonica but even of Constantinople itself". Michael Palaiologos did not tarry. Already in the autumn of 1258, his army crossed over into Europe, under his brother John Palaiologos , who held the quasi-imperial rank of sebastokrator , and the megas domestikos (commander-in-chief) Alexios Strategopoulos , and wintered in Macedonia, where it

2320-750: A reduction of 95 percent due to the Holocaust . The Jewish population of Kastoria was 38 in 1948, 27 in 1959, two in 1973, and five in 1983. Post war, heirless Jewish properties of Kastoria were 22 dwellings, three shops, and 35 land lots, and were administered by the OPAIE (The Heirless Property and Jewish Rehabilitation Fund). In the early 1970s, the Central Board of Jewish Communities, an organisation representing Jewish communities in Greece, attempted to liquidate Jewish properties in Kastoria with support from

2465-591: A result, the Epirotes abandoned the Latins on the eve of the battle, while Michael II's bastard son John Doukas defected to the Nicaean camp. The Latins were then set upon by the Nicaeans and routed, while many nobles, including Villehardouin, were taken captive. The battle cleared the last obstacle to the Nicaean reconquest of Constantinople in 1261 and the re-establishment of the Byzantine Empire under

2610-442: A sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty

2755-533: A town located near a lake in Orestis and mentioned by historian Livy in reference to the events of 199 BC. Celetrum surrendered to Publius Sulpicius Galba during the Roman war (200–197 BC) against Philip V of Macedon . The ancient town was possibly located on a hill above the town's current location. The Roman Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305 AD) founded the town of Diocletianopolis (Διοκλητιανούπολις) in

2900-409: A weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius. Justinian and Theodora are portrayed as the antithesis of "good" rulers, with each representing

3045-490: Is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon: And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while

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3190-413: Is fulsome. Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius's Buildings , historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor Justin I . By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius

3335-443: Is named Aristotelis Airport . The Ottoman fiscal register of 1445 showed a total population of 4,518, of which 3,977 were Chritians, 431 were Jews, and 110 were Muslims. In 1519, the town had 4,815 people, of which 4,480 were Christians and 335 were Muslims, divided into 732 Christian households and 67 Muslim households. Muslims were a minority in Kastoria, and would remain a minority for the duration of Ottoman rule. According to

3480-418: Is run by Kastorian Greeks, such as Castor Furs; a business involved in the fashion industry . Other industries include the sale and distribution of locally grown produce; particularly wheat , apples , wine , and fish . Recently a large shopping center has been built in the city of Kastoria. Kastoria has 16 local radio stations, two TV stations, five daily newspapers, and seven weekly ones. The town's airport

3625-422: Is supported by Whitby 's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and its cathedral in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics. Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's vicegerent , making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric. Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself and, if he had, he would probably have followed

3770-668: The illustres . Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in Constantinople's senate , which was restricted to the illustres under Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560, a major Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site of the Temple Mount . It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians—including Howard-Johnson , Cameron , and Geoffrey Greatrex—date his death to 554, but there

3915-465: The Chronicle focuses not on Prince William of Villehardouin, but on his nephew Geoffrey of Briel, whose deeds in the battle are presented in length, and in a style reminiscent of contemporary epic poems on Achilles or Digenes Akritas , whereas William is almost mentioned in passing. Briel was the only male grandchild of the first Villehardouin Prince of Achaea, Geoffrey I of Villehardouin , and hence

4060-543: The Exarchate . He supported close interaction among local Turks and Greeks, but only when it was needed. Greece sent more funds, men and arms to individuals such as Karavangelis in Macedonia. When the Greek fighter and officer Pavlos Melas was killed in action in 1904, Karavangelis arranged to have his body buried within the Metropolis of Kastoria , after first having threatened to mobilize the town's Greek population if

4205-774: The Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna , in 540. Both the Wars and the Secret History suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths , now led by the able king Totila , Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff. As magister militum , Belisarius

4350-464: The Great Vlachia region of Thessaly. The Aragonese Chronicle of the Morea gives the totals of 8,000 heavily-armed and 12,000 lightly-armed troops for William's army, including twenty dukes, counts, and barons; and 8,000 heavily-armed and 18,000 lightly-armed troops for the Epirote army. These numbers are universally considered as much exaggerated by modern historians. On the Nicaean side,

4495-554: The Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, there was Greek revolutionary activity in Kastoria as throughout the towns and villages of western Macedonia . John Papareskas was a notable Greek revolutionary from Kastoria. Revolutinary activity attracted the attention of the Ottoman authorities and the Ottoman commander Mehmet Emin took several Greek notables as hostages from towns in western Macedonia, including Kastoria. Following

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4640-628: The Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths . Procopius includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd sieges of Rome . He also includes an account of the rise of the Franks (see Arborychoi ). The last book describes the eunuch Narses 's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along

4785-639: The Latin Prince of Achaea , William of Villehardouin ( r.  1246–1278 ), who was also overlord of the other Latin states of southern Greece, the Duchy of Athens and the Triarchs of Negroponte . Michael II also secured the backing of the Serbian king, Stephen Urosh I ( r.  1243–1276 ), while Vatatzes' son and successor, Theodore II Laskaris ( r.  1254–1258 ), in turn sought

4930-557: The Monuments Museum are also located in the city. During the Ottoman times, Kastoria attracted a multitude of people from across the Balkans and beyond, resulting in a diverse, multi-ethnic community. As a result, the city plan was radically transformed. The different ethnic communities, Bulgarian , Turkish , Greek , and Jewish , became centred around separate neighbourhoods or 'quarters'. Two old Greek lakeside quarters,

5075-669: The New Lands in Greece , administered as part of the Church of Greece . Kastoria originally had 72 Byzantine and medieval churches, of which 54 have survived; including Panagia Koumpelidiki and St Athanasius of Mouzaki . Some of these have been restored and provide useful insight into trends in Late Byzantine styles of architecture and fresco painting. The Museum of Byzantine History located on Dexamenis Square houses many examples of Byzantine iconography. The Costume Museum and

5220-575: The Nicaeans to recapture it following the Battle of Pelagonia (1259). In the early 14th century, Kastoria was part of the domain of John II Doukas , " doux of Great Vlachia and Kastoria". After his death, the town became part of the semi-autonomous domain of Stephen Gabrielopoulos . After the latter's death in 1332/3, the Byzantine emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos took over the town, but in

5365-438: The Secret History was written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime. The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor Justinian   I . Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the Secret History that claims to report

5510-476: The Secret History would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora. Researcher Anthony Kaldellis suggests that the Secret History is a tale of the dangers of "the rule of women". Procopius's perspective was that women's vices vanquished men's virtuous leadership. For Procopius, it was not that women could not lead an empire, but only women demonstrating masculine virtues were suitable as leaders. Rather than Theodora's true possession of strength, it

5655-565: The United States , and by the early twentieth century those from Kastoria had formed a Kastoria Society. In the modern period, the community still uses the name Kastoria for burial plots. Under Ottoman rule, the Jews of Kastoria had close ties with the Jewish community of Monastir (modern Bitola ). The levels of Jewish education increased in Kastoria after the organisation Alliance Israélite Universelle provided funding and support in 1903. In

5800-779: The Vatican Library in Rome and published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623. Its existence was already known from the Suda , which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of The History of the Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558. In

5945-423: The "Doltso" (Dolcho) and "Apozari" neighbourhoods, are among the best-preserved and last remaining traditional quarters of the city. These neighbourhoods are characterised by the rich stock of old houses preserved in the shape of autonomous historic buildings, such as the important private mansions or the more humble folk dwellings ('accessory' buildings) built between the 17th and 19th centuries. During this time,

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6090-429: The "Duke of Karantana" is a fictitious character symbolizing a brave warrior, and the name was chosen possibly under the influence of a corruption of the name Karytaina. It is also likely that Latin troops fought on the Nicaean side, although they are not explicitly mentioned: they were a prominent element of previous Nicaean armies, and Michael Palaiologos had relied on their support for his usurpation. The total size of

6235-593: The 13th and 14th centuries, the town became contested between several powers and changed hands often. The Second Bulgarian Empire held the city under Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II . Under the Bulgarians, Kastoria had a significant Romaniote Jewish community, with prominent individuals such as scholar Tobiah ben Eliezer . Later, it was recovered by the Despotate of Epirus . The Nicaean Empire captured it in ca. 1252, but lost it again to Epirus in ca. 1257, only for

6380-518: The 1980s they numbered 25,000 in the New York area, and worked as furriers; younger generations worked as lawyers and doctors. A Kastorian Greek diaspora numbering 10,000 in the 1980s established itself in Frankfurt after it replaced Leipzig as Germany's new fur industry centre, following its post–war division . Nowadays Kastoria is a prosperous provincial town, its economy being mainly driven by

6525-718: The Albanian Muzaka family , until it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1380s. The Ottoman Turks conquered Kastoria around 1385, but it is unclear whether by force or by an agreement with its Albanian rulers. Following the conquest and depopulation of Constantinople , the Romaniote Jews from Kastoria were forcefully resettled by the Ottomans in Balat district as part of efforts to repopulate

6670-417: The Balkans, including Constantinople itself; and the enforced residence of his half-sister, Constance , the widow of Vatatzes, at the Nicaean court, only aggravated his feelings towards Nicaea. Thus, when Michael II offered to hand over Albania and Corfu as the dowry of his eldest daughter Helena , Manfred accepted. Michael II now formed a wider anti-Nicaean alliance, by giving his second daughter, Anna , to

6815-549: The Duchy of Athens up to Thebes , while Alexios Strategopoulos and John Raoul Petraliphas were tasked with reducing Epirus proper. Strategopoulos and Petraliphas crossed the Pindus Mountains , bypassed Ioannina , which they left under siege, and captured the Epirote capital, Arta , forcing Michael II to flee to the island of Cephalonia . At Arta they found and released many Nicaean prisoners, including Akropolites. In

6960-554: The Epirote ruler immediately fled his camp with as many men as he could gather, while the rest of the Epirote army too dispersed after his flight became known. Pachymeres offers a completely different version, highlighting the discord present among the allies even before they met with the Nicaean army, allegedly as the result of some Achaean knights coveting John Doukas' beautiful Vlach wife. Matters were made worse when William of Villehardouin not only did not punish his men, but also insulted John Doukas for his illegitimate birth, infuriating

7105-721: The Epirotes reportedly lost many men in the dangerous mountain passes, while the Nicaean generals captured Ohrid and Deavolis and other cities. The Epirote ruler had lost much of his territory, but soon his Latin allies came to his aid. Manfred, preoccupied with his conflicts against the Guelphs in central Italy, did not come in person–although his presence is erroneously reported by near-contemporary sources like Nikephoros Gregoras and Matteo Spinelli —but sent 400 superbly outfitted German knights, who probably landed at Avlona to join Michael II's forces. William of Villehardouin on

7250-796: The Franks as a result of the Fourth Crusade and the oppression of the Orthodox Greeks by the Roman Catholic clergy in the Frankish states, while the Franks despised the Greeks as cowardly, devious and schismatic . The sebastokrator John Palaiologos followed a deliberate strategy of attrition to wear down his opponents and impact their morale, while avoiding a direct confrontation. Akropolites ascribes this to advice given from

7395-561: The German army sent the town's Jews first to Thessaloniki and later to the Auschwitz concentration camp where they were gassed. In 1945, the Kastoria Jewish community numbered 35 people, a reduction of 95 percent due to the Holocaust . Kastoria was liberated from German rule by the guerrillas of the Greek People's Liberation Army . Following the Greek Civil War , large numbers of Kastorian Greeks migrated abroad, where in

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7540-478: The Germans were led by the "Duke of Karentana", usually identified with Carinthia . The duke at the time was Ulrich III , but he ruled for many years after 1259, and was probably not at the battle, where the Chronicle maintains that he was killed at the hand of Geoffrey of Briel , the Baron of Karytaina . The modern editor of the Greek version of the chronicle, Petros P. Kalonaros  [ el ] , opined that

7685-475: The Jewish community. Jews with Italian and Spanish origins from Vlorë , later went to Berat , and by 1740 had resettled in Kastoria due to several epidemics. Several blood libels were made toward the Jewish community during the 19th century. In 1873, a Jewish school was founded in the town. Bandits took 70 Jews hostage in 1887, and their release was secured by the Jewish community. Some Kastorian Jews migrated to Salonika . Ladino-speaking Jews immigrated to

7830-408: The Morea offers a variant account, but confuses the leading personages, claiming that "Theodore Doukas" (an error for John Doukas) was the commander of the Nicaean forces, and placing Nikephoros at the head of the Epirote army. According to the Chronicle , the Nicaean commander tried to frighten his opponents by lighting many camp fires and using cattle to simulate marching troops, and sent an agent to

7975-561: The Morea . Following the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the two main Byzantine Greek contenders for the imperial legacy of Byzantium were the Empire of Nicaea in western Asia Minor , and the Despotate of Epirus in western Greece. This engendered a persistent rivalry between the two states as to which would first recover Constantinople . Nicaea gained an important advantage following

8120-753: The Muslim minority). The 1920 Greek census recorded 6,280 people in the town, and 829 inhabitants (242 families) were Muslim in 1923. The Muslim minority of Kastoria was sent to Turkey during the Greek–Turkish population exchange (1923), and resettled in places such as Bor , Kahramanmaraş , and Yozgat in Turkey. Following the exchange, there were 101 Greek refugee families from Asia Minor , 19 from East Thrace , and one from Pontus in 1926. The 1928 Greek census recorded 10,308 inhabitants. In 1928, Greek refugee families numbered 137 (588 people). A Jewish presence in

8265-520: The Nicaean army is nowhere reported, except for a reference in the Greek Chronicle that it comprised 27 regiments ( allagia ). However, according to the historian Deno John Geanakoplos, "the statements of the Chronicle of the Morea are often exaggerated", and "one gets a clear impression from the sources [...] that the allied forces surpassed those of Nicaea in size". The main Byzantine sources, George Akropolites, Nikephoros Gregoras, and George Pachymeres , offer considerably divergent accounts on

8410-404: The Nicaean domains, capturing the fortress of Prilep and the local Nicaean governor, and future historian, George Akropolites . Michael II's advance on Thessalonica was interrupted, however, when Manfred of Sicily ( r.  1258–1266 ) landed his own troops in Albania and captured most of it, as well as Corfu . Like the earlier Norman kings of Sicily, Manfred had his own ambitions in

8555-405: The Nicaean hit-and-run strategy of attrition by George Akropolites , The History , §81 Akropolites puts the location of the first clashes between the two armies at Boril's Wood. In view of their numerical disadvantage, the Nicaeans had no choice but to employ strategy to overcome their opponents, aiming at the cohesion of the enemy alliance. Like all Greeks, the Epirotes mistrusted and hated

8700-417: The Ottoman authorities did not surrender Melas' body. Ottoman rule ended in Kastoria after it was taken by the Greek Army in the First Balkan War (1912). In 1913, the town was annexed and the treaties of London and Bucharest formally recognised Kastoria and the wider area as part of Greece. During both World War II and the Greek Civil War , the town was repeatedly fought over and heavily damaged in

8845-401: The Ottoman conquest. The defeat at Pelagonia also ended the supremacy of the Principality of Achaea in the affairs of Frankish Greece, and the Nicaean/Byzantine offensive that followed further curtailed its political independence. No longer able to confront the resurgent Byzantines, Prince William turned to the successors of Manfred of Sicily, the Angevins of Naples, for aid, as, faced with

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8990-536: The Ottomans in Balat district as part of efforts to repopulate the city. A synagogue named after Kastoria was built and still stands in modern Istanbul . Toward the end of the 15th century, Jews expelled from Italy, Sicily, Portugal and Spain settled in Kastoria and became an important part of the population. In the late seventeenth century, the Jewish messianic Sabbatean movement had some prominent supporters in Kastoria, although most remained as practicing Jews. An epidemic during 1719–1720 resulted in 62 deaths among

9135-404: The Palaiologos dynasty . It also led to the brief conquest of Epirus and Thessaly by Nicaean forces, although Michael II and his sons rapidly managed to reverse these gains. In 1262, William of Villehardouin was released in exchange for three fortresses on the southeastern tip of the Morea peninsula. This foothold would be gradually expanded, and would over the next century become the Despotate of

9280-446: The Principality to him; and while Villehardouin refused this offer, after the fall of Constantinople he finally agreed to hand over a number of fortresses and swear an oath of allegiance to Palaiologos in exchange for his freedom. This was ratified by the so-called "Parliament of Ladies" (as most of the male nobles of Achaea were prisoners), and in early 1262 Villehardouin was released, and the forts of Monemvasia and Mystras , as well as

9425-465: The Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the Secret History . The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a set. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brought the history to 553. The first two books—often known as The Persian War ( Latin : De Bello Persico )—deal with

9570-462: The allied camp to persuade the Despot of the vastly superior size of the Nicaean force. The stratagem worked in so far as the Epirote troops fled during the night, while the Nicaeans, emboldened by this, moved to confront the Achaeans. The Achaeans, with Geoffrey of Briel leading the van, managed to rout the German knights who were the Nicaeans' first line; but the sebastokrator ordered his Hungarian and Cuman horse archers to shoot indiscriminately at

9715-430: The area is recorded as early as late antiquity, when a Jewish community resided in Emperor Justinian's settlement. At the time of the First Bulgarian Empire, Kastoria had a significant Romaniote Jewish community, with prominent individuals such as scholar Tobiah ben Eliezer . Following the conquest and depopulation of Constantinople , the Romaniote Jews from Kastoria led by Matthias Tamar, were forcefully resettled by

9860-422: The army comprised not only native Greek contingents from Asia, Macedonia and Thrace , but also many mercenaries; according to the Chronicle of the Morea , 300 German knights, "all select, all hand-picked", 1,500 Hungarian "choice mounted archers ", 600 Serbian horsemen, likewise "all good archers", and even Bulgarian cavalry, as well as 1,500 Turkish and 2,000 Cuman cavalry. The Chronicle mentions that

10005-413: The battle has been disputed, as the only clear toponym given in the sources is Boril's Wood ( Βορίλλα λόγγος ), which has been variously placed by modern researchers close to Prilep, Kastoria, or Bitola (then known as Pelagonia). Using the sources and the topography to reconstruct the movements of the armies, the modern scholars Freiderikos Rochontzis and Robert Mihajlovski have independently suggested as

10150-430: The battle, including its precise date and location, are disputed as the primary sources give contradictory information; modern scholars usually place it either in July or in September, somewhere in the plain of Pelagonia or near Kastoria . It appears that the barely concealed rivalries between the Epirote Greeks and their Latin allies came to the fore in the lead-up to the battle, possibly fanned by Palaiologos' agents. As

10295-403: The battlefield the plain between Florina and Kaimakchalan , north of Kastoria, near the modern settlement of Vevi (formerly known as Banitsa); a strategically important location where the Battle of Lyncestis had been fought in 423 BC and the Battle of Vevi was fought in 1941. [The Nicaeans] engaged the enemy, striking them with arrows from a distance. They began to attack the enemy from

10440-500: The brothers Panagiotis and John Emmanuel. When they were arrested by the Austrian authorities and handed over to the Ottomans, John Emmanuel admitted that he had smuggled a copy of Feraios' revolutionary song "Thourios" ( Greek : Θούριος ) into Kastoria and sang it there many times. Theocharis escaped execution thanks to his Austrian citizenship, but those of Feraios' companions that did not possess foreign citizenship were executed. When

10585-652: The capture of Carthage , and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor Solomon the Eunuch when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536 , although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny in and around Carthage . He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced

10730-405: The cemetery in the next decade and turned the site into military barracks. Several stones were preserved. Some tombstones were repurposed for the storage room floor, and most stones were reused to construct the pathways of the site and barracks. During the Ottoman era, a Muslim minority resided in Kastoria and constructed various public, private and religious buildings. Kastoria had seven mosques in

10875-486: The city, as well as structural degradation from poor levels of conservation. These sites were included on the 7 Most Endangered list of Europe's most at-risk monuments and sites in 2014. During the late fifteenth century, a synagogue in Kastoria was built and was one of several in the region with the name Aragon. Kastoria had four synagogues (Italian, Portuguese, Romaniot and Spanish) in the early 18th century. Fire destroyed three synagogues between 1719 and 1720. A synagogue

11020-465: The city. Toward the end of the 15th century, Jews expelled from Italy, Sicily, Portugal and Spain settled in Kastoria. In 1519, Kastoria was a zeamet of Chamberlain Mehmed Bey, and the infantry commander of Thessaloniki, Hızır. The town also had Voynuks . The establishment of Ottoman rule resulted in the demise of the local Greek landowning class, and funding of the arts and culture in Kastoria

11165-576: The conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia , Syria , Armenia , Lazica , and Iberia (present-day Georgia ). It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah Kavadh   I , the 532 'Nika' revolt , the war by Kavadh's successor Khosrau   I in 540, his destruction of Antioch and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague that devastated

11310-464: The conquest of Macedonia by the Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes ( r.  1222–1254 ). Following Vatatzes' conquests, the region of Pelagonia in western Macedonia became a border zone between the Nicaean and Epirote domains. When Vatatzes died in 1254, the ruler of Epirus, Michael II Komnenos Doukas ( r.  1230–1268 ), sponsored a rebellion against Nicaea in Albania , and invaded

11455-423: The death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of the emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonina: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that

11600-420: The destruction of Moscopole (late eighteenth century), some Aromanian refugees attempted to settle in Kastoria, and their efforts were unsuccessful due to concerns by local Kastorians over economic competition from newcomers. Later, Aromanians with origins from Moscopole, Nikolicë , Vithkuq and other locations settled in Kastoria, and by the mid–nineteenth century the upper class of the town's Greek community

11745-529: The district of Mani , were handed over to the Byzantines. From there the Byzantines would launch repeated attempts to conquer Achaea, and although these failed for the moment, they were extremely costly to the Achaeans. In the longer term, the foothold gained by the Byzantines in the region would form the nucleus of the Despotate of the Morea , where Byzantine culture enjoyed its last flowering before

11890-472: The early twentieth century, the Kastorian Jews were Sephardim and numbered some 1,600. In Kastoria, the Jewish community had a chief rabbi , three yeshivot (Jewish religious schools), and several synagogues. In 1906 the Jewish population numbered 1,600, and in 1908 a blood libel occurred. Throughout the 1920s, the Jewish community had two synagogues, two welfare organisations, a society for burials,

12035-619: The eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general Mundus repressed with a massacre in the Hippodrome there. In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the Vandal kingdom in North Africa , took part in

12180-463: The empire from 542. The Persian War also covers the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some detail. The Wars ’ next two books—known as The Vandal War or Vandalic War ( Latin : De Bello Vandalico )—cover Belisarius's successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom that had occupied Rome's provinces in northwest Africa for the last century. The final four books—known as The Gothic War ( Latin : De Bello Gothico )—cover

12325-404: The empire's eastern borders as well. The Wars proved influential on later Byzantine historiography. In the 570s Agathias wrote Histories , a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style. Procopius's now famous Anecdota , also known as Secret History ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία , Apókryphe Historía ; Latin : Historia Arcana ), was discovered centuries later at

12470-581: The eventual reconquest of Constantinople and the end of the Latin Empire in 1261. The rising power of Nicaea in the southern Balkans , and the ambitions of its ruler, Michael VIII Palaiologos , to recover Constantinople, led the formation of a coalition between the Epirote Greeks, under Michael II Komnenos Doukas , and the chief Latin rulers of the time, the Prince of Achaea, William of Villehardouin , and Manfred of Sicily . The details of

12615-598: The exact course of events before and during the battle, while the Western sources, chiefly the Greek and French versions of the Chronicle of the Morea and the history of the Venetian Marino Sanudo Torcello , in turn differ from the Byzantine sources and from each other. The narrative of the Chronicle is generally considered less reliable, being riddled with errors and mix-ups, but often provides details not appearing elsewhere. The account of

12760-529: The expedition. The Achaean host crossed the Gulf of Corinth at Naupaktos and marched to the Epirote capital of Arta , before crossing the Pindus at joining the forces of the other Frankish states at Thalassionon (possibly Elassona in northern Thessaly ). Michael of Epirus in turn was accompanied by his elder son Nikephoros and further aided by his bastard son John Doukas , who brought with him many Vlachs from

12905-416: The eyes of many scholars, the Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife Theodora , the general Belisarius , and his wife Antonina . The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it

13050-410: The findings of Vasil Kanchov , at the turn of the 20th century, the town had 3,000 Greek Christians, 1,600 Turkish Muslims, 750 Jews, 300 Bulgarian Christians, 300 Albanian Christians, and 240 Roma , for a total of 6,190 inhabitants. According to the findings of Dimitri Mishev, the town had a population of 4,000 Greek Christians , 400 Bulgarian Patriarchist Grecomans and 72 Vlachs in 1905 (excluding

13195-455: The first heavy defeat it had ever suffered, and at a stroke lost most of its soldiers and a greater part of its nobles. Alongside the Prince, his close relatives Anselin of Toucy and Geoffrey of Briel were also captured. As a result, the entire Morea peninsula was also opened up to Michael Palaiologos' ambitions. The emperor offered to set free Villehardouin and his nobles and provide for comfortable retainers for them, if they were to hand over

13340-419: The fur industry and tourism, the latter due to the town's physical attractiveness and many historical Byzantine churches. Kastoria is a popular tourist destination and an international centre of fur trade, having taken so the nickname the city of the fur traders . Tourism and the fur industry dominate the local economy. Indeed, (as mentioned above) the town was possibly named after one of the former staples of

13485-399: The horses of the Franks and the Germans, bringing the knights down and forcing them to surrender. According to Geanakoplos, although differing in details, the various accounts can be reconciled to form a more complete picture of the battle. Certainly the crucial turning point, Michael II's flight on the eve of the battle, is easy to explain even without a Nicaean stratagem: the Epirote ruler

13630-522: The interwar period, local Jews were involved in the textile, agricultural, and raw material sectors of Kastoria's economy. In modern Kastoria, there are more than 300 small and big dealers in fur. Abroad, early twentieth century immigration to New York from Kastoria by Greeks involved in fur production expanded the local US industry, as demand for fur clothing increased, with most small businesses owned by Kastorian Greeks. The modern fur industry in New York

13775-761: The knights taken prisoner in Pelagonia, and whose house was in the city walls , had promised to open a gate for the emperor's troops. He failed to do so, and Palaiologos launched an unsuccessful assault on Galata instead. Constantinople was finally captured , almost by chance, by Alexios Strategopoulos on 25 July 1261, allowing for the re-establishment of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty . The Nicaean victory at Pelagonia also led to immediate, but short-lived, territorial expansion in Greece: John Palaiologos invaded Thessaly and

13920-585: The late 10th century during the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars . The town was in Bulgarian hands until 1018, when it was conquered by Basil II . Kastoria was occupied by the Normans under Bohemond I in 1082/83. In October 1083, emperor Alexios I Komnenos forced the garrison to surrender, recovering thus the town and convincing many Norman troops, including Peter Aliphas , to enter his services. During

14065-407: The late Ottoman period. Several mosques were constructed on sites or used, as had been Muslim practice, earlier Christian churches. Gazi Ervenos Mosque or Gula Mosque was the earliest built in the town after the Ottoman conquest. After 1912, Greek troops in Kastoria demolished the minaret and in 1926 the remaining mosque was demolished and replaced with a reservoir. Kule Mosque or Mosque of Dioikitiriou

14210-555: The late twentieth century the Jewish presence in Kastoria had disappeared due to deaths and migration. Members from the Kastorian Jewish diaspora produced Trezoros: The Lost Jews of Kastoria , a documentary about the Jews of Kastoria. Kastoria is an important religious centre for the Greek Orthodox Church , and is the seat of a metropolitan bishop . The Metropolis of Kastoria is one of the metropolises of

14355-623: The latter. John Doukas then entered into contact with John Palaiologos, and after extracting promises that his father and half-brother would not be harmed, persuaded them to withdraw during night. Pachymeres' account of William insulting John the Bastard is further confirmed by Marino Sanudo. The first battalion [the Nicaeans] had was that of the Germans, and when the renowned lord of Karytaina saw them, he immediately rushed at them, and they couched their lances. The first he met and to whom he dealt

14500-562: The main location for the Greek movement in west Macedonia during this period. As a largely Greek town in west Macedonia at the turn of the 20th century, Kastoria featured prominently in the Greek efforts during the Macedonian Struggle . A notable figure was Germanos Karavangelis , who served as the Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Bishop of Kastoria from 1900 until 1907. Karavangelis thought that

14645-445: The morale of the Epirote army withered, and Michael II with his troops withdrew towards Prilep , while John Doukas deserted the allied cause and went over to the Nicaeans. Gregoras, however, reports that Michael II's flight was precipitated by John Palaiologos, who sent a false deserter to the Epirote camp, claiming that the Franks had secretly agreed with the sebastokrator to betray the Epirotes in exchange for money. Persuaded,

14790-419: The more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the Secret History is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments: Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on

14935-408: The municipal unit 57.318 km. The municipal unit consists of the town Kastoria and the settlements Aposkepos , Kefalari and Chloi. Kastoria has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ). As a result of the moderating effect of the lake, it records less extreme temperatures than the rest of Western Macedonia . Kastoria was the site of previous settlements, the first being Celetrum (or Keletron),

15080-401: The next year, however, the Nicaean successes were largely undone: John Doukas defected back to his father, and Michael II with an Italian mercenary army landed at Arta, and the Epirote population rallied to his cause. The Epirotes routed the Nicaeans, and Strategopoulos himself was captured and briefly held prisoner. The battle was a particularly heavy blow to the Principality of Achaea. It was

15225-458: The opposite side of emotional spectrum. Justinian was of "approachable and kindly" temperament, even while ordering property confiscations or people's destruction. Conversely, Theodora was described as irrational and driven by her anger, often by minor affronts. Procopius is believed to be aligned with many of the senatorial ranks that disagreed with Justinian and Theodora's tax policies and property confiscations ( Secret History 12.12-14). On

15370-608: The other hand campaigned at the head his forces. The Greek and French versions of the Chronicle of the Morea mention troops from Achaea, the Duchy of Athens, the Triarchy of Negroponte , and the Duchy of the Archipelago under William's command, implying a general feudal levy from the Frankish states of Greece, which were vassals of the Prince of Achaea. Many of the most distinguished nobles of Frankish Greece also took part in

15515-436: The other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared the Secret History as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, which—as a kind of court historian—might be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct,

15660-453: The outset of the campaign by Michael Palaiologos to his brother. According to this plan, John distributed his men, leaving the heavily armed troops to occupy strong defensive positions on the hills, while his lighter Cuman, Turkish and Greek troops harassed the allied army with hit-and-run attacks, striking at their horses when they were being watered and plundering their supply trains. Faced with this constant harassment, Akropolites reports that

15805-478: The possible abandonment of the location. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus made an anachronistic mention of Diocletianopolis in his work De Thematibus (10th century). The origins of Kastoria are from the 9th century, as its surrounding walls and oldest churches, such as St. Stephan and the Taxiarchs, date from the era. The first mention of the settlement of Kastoria was by Skylitzes in relation to events of

15950-676: The post-Ottoman future of Macedonia would be decided by Balkan states, and viewed Bulgarian influence in the area as the greatest threat to Greek interests. He formed the earliest Greek armed groups fighting for the region. During the Macedonian struggle, Karavangelis, an imposing figure, traveled in rural areas and directed the Greek response toward supporters of the Bulgarian cause, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO) and

16095-487: The process. It was nearly captured by the Communist Democratic Army of Greece in 1948, and the final battles of the civil war took place on the nearby Mount Gramos in 1949. In 1940, Kastoria came under Italian occupation. In 1943, the judicial courts of Kastoria were destroyed by fire, including the town archive. Italy surrendered in late 1943, and Kastoria came under German control. In April 1944

16240-451: The processing and exporting of animal furs to Europe created wealth, and city mansions, of particular architectural and decorative value, were built. This interconnected nexus of churches and private houses constitutes a rare example of a Byzantine and post-Byzantine township , and remains inhabited to this day. The traditional buildings and manor houses of the "Doltso" and "Apozari" neighbourhoods are threatened by modern development in

16385-451: The rear. Many Latins were killed, while most of the survivors were taken prisoner. Gregoras reports that the 400 Germans surrendered to only four Nicaeans (possibly high-ranking commanders), while the forces of William of Villehardouin scattered. The Prince himself was discovered hiding in a pile of hay (Akropolites) or a shrub (Pachymeres) near Kastoria, and some thirty of his most senior barons were likewise taken captive. The Chronicle of

16530-516: The rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it. Similarly, the Theodora of the Secret History is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among

16675-465: The rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written. Some historians have criticized Propocius's description of some barbarians, for example, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was however, inline with Byzantine ethnographic practice in late antiquity. A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. Count Belisarius

16820-423: The scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife. Consequently publication was delayed until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation. Procopius's Wars or History of the Wars ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι , Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi , "Words on the Wars"; Latin : De Bellis , "On

16965-590: The school of late antique historians who continued the traditions of the Second Sophistic . They wrote in Attic Greek . Their models were Herodotus , Polybius and in particular Thucydides . Their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to

17110-409: The social order of men standing over women. In Averil Cameron's view, Procopius is more aptly described as a reporter rather than a historian, providing a black-and-white description of events, rather than a deeper analysis of the causes and motives. Cameron argues that his intense political focus and exaggeration of the imperial couple's vices prevent a balanced and holistic perspective, resulting in

17255-426: The stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat. Furthermore, Secret History portrays Belisarius as

17400-465: The support of Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria ( r.  1257–1277 ) giving him his own daughter Irene in marriage. Before he could campaign against Epirus, however, he died and was succeeded his young son John IV Laskaris ( r.  1258–1261 ). Very soon, power was seized by the ambitious aristocrat Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r.  1259–1282 ), first as regent and then as senior co-emperor. Michael Palaiologos found himself faced with

17545-610: The town is sometimes written as Castoria , especially in older works. The town is known as Kesriye in Turkish , Kostur ( Cyrillic : Костур) in Bulgarian and Macedonian , Kosturi in Albanian and Kusturea in Aromanian . The municipality Kastoria was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 9 former municipalities, that became municipal units: The municipality has an area of 763.330 km,

17690-608: The town with wider Europe. Merchants settled in Germany and Russia . In the seventeenth century, Kastoria was the European fur industry centre and marketplace, and various fur products on offer were imports (such as pelts from Russian sable ), with a majority of Kastorian Jews being wealthy dealers in the fur trade. By the late 18th century, Kastoria had developed a strong Hellenic commercial culture. In Kastoria, Jews participated in trade and tanning production . The Jewish community

17835-494: The trade – the European beaver ( kastóri in Greek), now extinct in the area. Trading in mink fur now predominates and every year an international showcase of fur takes place in the city. Involvement with fur began in the early middle ages, when Kastoria supplied ermine pelts for the robes of Byzantine courtiers. The fur industry was established in Kastoria during the sixteenth century, and extensive trade links emerged connecting

17980-525: The valiant conduct of the Achaean nobles. As a result of the differences in the sources, numerous details of the battle remain unclear, from the exact date (proposed dates range from June to November), the location (Pelagonia or Kastoria), or the exact roles the various leaders played in the events. The two main suggestions for the date are by Donald Nicol , in early summer (July), and Deno Geanakoplos, in early fall (around September). The exact location of

18125-479: The very next year (1334) it was surrendered briefly to the Serbs by the renegade Syrgiannes Palaiologos . The Serbian ruler Stephen Dushan finally captured Kastoria in 1342/3, taking advantage of the ongoing Byzantine civil war , and made it part of his Serbian Empire . After Dushan's death, Kastoria became the seat of Symeon Uroš . The town came later under the Epirote ruler Thomas Preljubović , and then under

18270-562: The vicinity of mosques or in Muslim cemeteries, such as one in Kursum Mosque's courtyard, later destroyed. The turbe of Aydin Baba and the turbe of Kasim Baba were located on a hill above Kastoria, both destroyed. Muslim cemeteries were expropriated and demolished. Procopius Procopius of Caesarea ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς Prokópios ho Kaisareús ; Latin : Procopius Caesariensis ; c.  500 –565)

18415-402: The vicinity. After Diocletianopolis was destroyed by barbarians, Emperor Justinian relocated it on a promontory projecting into Lake Orestiada , the town's current location, and Procopius writes the emperor "gave it an appropriate name", perhaps indicating that he renamed it Justinianopolis (Ίουστινιανούπολις). References to Justinian's settlement cease during the 7th and 8th centuries, due to

18560-463: The work postdates the building of the bridge over the Sangarius in the late 550s. Historians consider Buildings to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions. Buildings was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes

18705-487: Was Justinian's lack of it that created the impression of strength in her. According to researcher Averil Cameron, the definition of "feminine" behavior in the sixth century would be described as "intriguing" and "interfering". She argues Procopius's intent in including her speech during the Nika riots in the Wars may be to demonstrate that Theodora does not stay in her appropriate role. At his core, Procopius wanted to preserve

18850-640: Was a decisive event for the subsequent history of the Balkans. With the collapse of the Epirote–Latin league, Michael Palaiologos was free to pursue the reconquest of Constantinople and the revival of the Byzantine Empire: the rump Latin Empire was now cut off from any aid, and the capture of Villehardouin deprived it, in the words of Donald Nicol, "of its only capable defender". Already in 1260, Michael Palaiologos attacked Constantinople, as one of

18995-634: Was a prominent late antique Greek scholar and historian from Caesarea Maritima . Accompanying the Roman general Belisarius in Emperor Justinian 's wars, Procopius became the principal Roman historian of the 6th century, writing the History of the Wars , the Buildings , and the Secret History . Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life is an entry in the Suda ,

19140-530: Was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor . This had actually been carried out under Anastasius I , who reigned before Justin. Procopius belongs to

19285-482: Was an "illustrious man" ( Latin : vir illustris ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : ἰλλούστριος , illoústrios ); being his adsessor , Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" ( vir spectabilis ). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order ( ordo senatorius ). However, the Suda , which is usually well-informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of

19430-410: Was an urban prefect of Constantinople ( praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae ) who was called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect. In fact, some scholars have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of his Secret History that he planned to publish it after

19575-474: Was constructed in 1750, and destroyed during 1828. In 1830, another synagogue named Aragon was erected by the Jewish community. Following World War Two, the Aragon synagogue was sold by the Central Board of Jewish Communities, and the new owners demolished it. The Jewish cemetery of Kastoria was neglected from the late interwar period, and had by the 1970s become overgrown with vegetation. The Greek army expropriated

19720-462: Was disquieted by the presence of such a strong Frankish army, and feared that in the event of an allied victory, he would be likely to lose his own territory to the Latins, fears which would have been confirmed with the clash between his son John Doukas and William of Villehardouin in the days leading up to the battle. Conversely, if the Nicaeans won, not only his rule, but his own life would be in danger, leading him to choose flight instead. The battle

19865-524: Was encamped at Kastoria , was caught off guard by the rapidity of their advance, and when the Nicaeans crossed the pass of Vodena to face him, he was forced to hastily retreat with his troops across the Pindus mountains to the vicinity of Avlona , held by his ally Manfred. There the final negotiations for the marriage between Manfred and Helena were concluded: the wedding took place at Trani on 2 June 1259. In their retreat, which continued even during night,

20010-468: Was formed mostly by Aromanian families. In the late Ottoman period, Kastoria was the seat of a kaza belonging to the sanjak of Görice, within the Vilayet of Monastir. The older presence of Greek cultural tradition led to the establishment of strong Greek national feeling among town inhabitants in an era of conflict arising from nationalism (late 19th and early 20th centuries). As a result, Kastoria became

20155-652: Was involved in the fur industry, and its merchants worked closely with craftsmen who were mainly from the Greek community. The town economy was successful, in particular during the nineteenth century, due to both Jews and Greeks working well together. Slavophone peasants from the wider area would go to Kastoria on market days. By the early twentieth century, Jewish merchants were involved in the trade of fur and tobacco. The Muslim population of Kastoria in 1913 worked as fishermen (30 percent) in Lake Kastoria, in agriculture (13 percent), or were large landowners (16 percent). In

20300-465: Was joined by local levies. At the same time, Michael Palaiologos sent separate embassies to each of the three main allies, hoping to pry them apart by diplomacy. These efforts failed, as the three allies stood to gain much from a successful offensive against Nicaea. In spring 1259, the Nicaeans went on the offensive, and advanced quickly westwards along the Via Egnatia . Michael II of Epirus, who

20445-515: Was repurposed following the population exchange into a grain warehouse, later a notary office. In 1950, Kastoria Municipality expropriated and demolished the building. Prodromou Mosque was declared preserved during 1925, later the National Bank sold it and was demolished. Tabahane Mosque was also declared preserved in 1925 and later demolished in unknown circumstances. Hasan Kadi Mosque and Giahli or Giali Mosque were both destroyed. Gazi Mosque

20590-624: Was undergoing restoration work. The Bektashi tekke was dedicated to Kasim Baba , a Sufi holy man. It was demolished. Another tekke belonged to the Hayati, an offshoot of the Halveti Order . Three tekkes, one used by Sufis as a hermitage, another by dervishes and a third affiliated with the Mevlevi Order were all demolished. Another three tekkes were destroyed following the population exchange. Burial monuments (turbes) were located in

20735-502: Was undertaken by its wealthy merchants. The Greek merchants Georgios Kyritses and Manolakis Kastorianos financed Greek education in Kastoria. Greek schools were established in Kastoria, with the oldest in the town and Macedonia being founded in 1614; a second was founded in 1705, and a third in 1715, funded by Kyritses. In 1797–1798, the Greek revolutionary Rigas Feraios was partly based in Kastoria. Among his co-conspirators were several Kastorian Greeks, such as Georgios Theocharis , and

20880-401: Was used by the metropolitan and is well preserved. Kursum Mosque , named for its lead roof was declared preserved during 1925. Prior to Muslims leaving Kastoria, its last imam sold the mosque and under Greece has been used as a museum and as an antiquities warehouse, closed to the public. It is the only surviving mosque in Kastoria in a moderate state of preservation and in the early to mid 2020s

21025-626: Was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in Felix Dahn 's A Struggle for Rome and in L. Sprague de Camp 's alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall . The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the Secret History . The narrator in Herman Melville 's novel Moby-Dick cites Procopius's description of

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