Misplaced Pages

#206793

141-571: The fort was originally constructed under the Flavians ( c. 90 AD) and rebuilt three times. The four building phases are indicated as a–d. The remains of the fort and the vicus , along with a reconstructed watchtower and reconstructed section of the Limes are located about one kilometer northeast of the village Taunusstein-Orlen, at the point where the Hühnerstraße—the present B 417—crosses

282-721: A centurion under Pompey during Caesar's Civil War . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I . Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to

423-508: A coup , but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor. The adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected, reliable general as his successor. Murison concludes that Nerva's real talents were in fact ill-suited to the emperorship: Nerva was, it would seem, the ultimate "committee" man. He was not, apparently, a great orator, and one has the impression that he functioned better in small groups, where his generally calm approach to problems will have impressed people. [...] What

564-486: A devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65, but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on

705-542: A "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion. Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore,

846-693: A highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside

987-624: A long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon , the Temple of Jupiter , the Diribitorium , parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown. Suetonius claims that Vespasian

1128-443: A major crisis, he desperately needed the support of a man who could restore his damaged reputation. The only candidate with sufficient military experience, consular ancestry, and connections was Trajan. Dio's claim that Trajan was of non-Italic origins is also rejected by scholars; it is known that Trajan's roots went back to Umbria , the same region where Nerva was born. Edward Gibbon 's famous assertion that Nerva hereby established

1269-454: A massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence. At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace, while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind

1410-412: A most happy age, [when] Nerva Caesar blended things once irreconcilable, sovereignty and freedom". The surviving histories speak equally positively of Nerva's brief reign, although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies. Both Cassius Dio and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and moderation, with Dio commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his heir. These views were later popularized by

1551-499: A number of measures to gain support among the Roman populace. As was custom by this time, a change of emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and money to the people and the army. Accordingly, a congiarium of 75 denarii per head was bestowed upon the citizens, while the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard received a donativum which may have amounted to as much as 5000 denarii per person. This

SECTION 10

#1732783970207

1692-401: A pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings. Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of

1833-537: A series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius. He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during

1974-592: A tradition of succession through adoption among the Five Good Emperors has found little support among some modern historians. On 1 January 98, at the start of his fourth consulship, Nerva suffered a stroke during a private audience. Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust, on 27 January. He was deified by the Senate, and his ashes were laid to rest in

2115-440: A young and popular general, as his successor. After barely fifteen months in office, Nerva died of natural causes on 27 January 98. Upon his death he was succeeded and deified by Trajan. Although much of his life remains obscure, Nerva was considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient historians . Nerva's greatest success was ensuring a peaceful transition of power after his death by selecting Trajan as his heir, thus founding

2256-615: Is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80, but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 , and the fire of Rome of 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult , deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become

2397-605: Is called the " Peter Principle ". His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary, if tumultuous stop-gap before the Trajanic-Antonine dynasties. Even the only major public work completed during his reign, the Forum of Nerva , ultimately became known as the Forum Transitorium , or transitional forum. Two modern statues which commemorate Nerva can be found in towns associated with him. There

2538-486: Is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site . On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture. During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64 , crucially sparing the many districts of insulae , Cassius Dio records

2679-402: Is well-known today, however, is that, more often than not, if the "super committee man" takes on an important administrative job, the result is quite dreadful. Rome was, indeed, spared catastrophe; but for all that near-contemporary writers were "careful" about what they said, Nerva's administration was fairly inept. It would not be unfair to say that he was a textbook illustration of what nowadays

2820-635: The Fiscus Iudaicus , the additional tax which all Jews throughout the Empire had to pay: some of his coins bear the legend FISCI IUDAICI CALUMNIA SUBLATA ( abolition of malicious prosecution regarding the Jewish tax ). Coins suggest he added new games in the Circus in honor of Neptune . Other coins refer to imperial ideals such as equity, justice, and liberty, which contrasted his reign with that of Domitian. Before long, Nerva's expenses strained

2961-535: The Arch of Titus . In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , most significantly through the restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill . The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during

SECTION 20

#1732783970207

3102-447: The Bay of Naples . The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava , killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort , while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again

3243-551: The Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot races , and competitions for oratory , music and acting. Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides

3384-609: The Flavian dynasty . Under Nero, he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Later, as a loyalist to the Flavians , he attained consulships in 71 and 90 during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian , respectively. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving members of the Praetorian Guard and several of his freedmen . On

3525-536: The Forum of Augustus to the Temple of Peace . Little remains, partly because the Via dei Fori Imperiali cuts across it. Despite Nerva's measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people, support for Domitian remained strong in the army , which had called for his deification immediately after the assassination. In an attempt to appease the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard , Nerva had dismissed their prefect Titus Petronius Secundus  – one of

3666-538: The Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, Casperius Aelianus, was dismissed upon Trajan's accession. Due to the lack of written sources on this period, much of Nerva's life has remained obscure. The most substantial surviving account of the reign of Nerva was written by the 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio . His Roman History , which spans nearly a millennium , from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until

3807-660: The Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian —successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously

3948-637: The Mausoleum of Augustus . He was the last Roman emperor to be interred there. Nerva was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan, who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm. According to Pliny the Younger , Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of Nerva, yet no trace of it has ever been found; nor was a commemorative series of coins for the Deified Nerva issued until ten years after his death. According to Cassius Dio, however,

4089-547: The Nerva–Antonine dynasty . He was the first of the Five Good Emperors . Marcus Cocceius Nerva born in the village of Narni , 50 kilometers north of Rome, as the son of Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suffect consul during the reign of Caligula (37–41), and Sergia Plautilla. He was born on 8 November, but the exact year is disputed. Ancient sources report the date as either 30 or 35. He had at least one attested sister, named Cocceia, who married Lucius Salvius Otho Titianus ,

4230-539: The Roman road system and the expansion of the aqueducts . The latter program was headed by the former consul Sextus Julius Frontinus , who helped to put an end to abuses and later published a significant work on Rome's water supply, De aquaeductu . The only major landmarks constructed under Nerva were a horreum (granary), known as the Horrea Nervae , and the Forum of Nerva begun by Domitian, which linked

4371-645: The Sarmatians , and the Dacians . Led by King Decebalus , the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, Oppius Sabinus . Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive , which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus , was killed, and the battle standard of

Kastell Zugmantel - Misplaced Pages Continue

4512-493: The Temple of Vespasian and Titus , which was finished by Domitian. After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on 13 September 81, and was deified by the Roman Senate . Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius . Domitian strengthened

4653-402: The gold and silver mines of Dacia. Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted , resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around

4794-502: The governors or generals in the Empire and it appears that, by 97, Nerva was considering to adopt Marcus Cornelius Nigrinus Curiatius Maternus , the powerful governor of Syria . This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular military commander Trajan , a general of the armies at the German frontier . In October 97, these tensions came to a head when the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to

4935-558: The revolt of Saturninus in 89. On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of a tribe of the Chatti . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . Within twenty-four days

5076-456: The 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . Gibbon considered Nerva the first of the Five Good Emperors , five successive rulers under whom the Roman Empire "was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue" from 96 until 180. Nevertheless, even Gibbon notes that, compared to his successors, Nerva may have lacked

5217-491: The 40s. It appears Vespasian befriended Nerva during his time as an imperial advisor, and may have asked him to watch over Vespasian's youngest son Domitian when Vespasian departed for the Jewish war in 67. The suicide of Nero on 9 June 68 brought the Julio-Claudian dynasty to an end, leading to the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors , which saw the successive rise and fall of the emperors Galba , Otho and Vitellius , until

5358-586: The Caledonians, led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control. The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as

5499-524: The Domitianic faction. According to Cassius Dio , the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, which indicates that he was at least aware of the plot. Suetonius by contrast does not mention Nerva, but he may have omitted his role out of tactfulness. Considering the works of Suetonius were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian , it would have been less than sensitive of him to suggest

5640-582: The Egyptians before departing. By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus , aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from

5781-406: The Egyptians. In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty , such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these

Kastell Zugmantel - Misplaced Pages Continue

5922-507: The Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for

6063-730: The Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul , against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi ,

6204-479: The Emperor's status as a de facto monarch. The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated. The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on

6345-539: The Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum . Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian

6486-538: The Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus . By all appearances, imperial favour for

6627-555: The Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66. From c.  57 to 59, Titus

6768-527: The Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius. In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo , begun under Nero as a statue of himself , was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum (probably after

6909-516: The Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius, Domitian's former chamberlain, were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair. Trajan later dispatched those commanders who had ordered

7050-594: The Limes between Orlen and Ehrenbach . Before and during the Roman era the Hühnerstraße was an important link between the densely populated Germanic Limburg basin and the Rheingau , with Aquae Mattiacorum, today's Wiesbaden , as the capital of the Civitas Mattiacorum and Mogontiacum , today Mainz , as the capital of the Roman province Germania Superior . Military surveillance was necessary for

7191-527: The Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Alternatively, Domitian may have selected Nerva as his colleague to emphasise the stability and status quo of the regime. The revolt had been suppressed, and the Empire could return to order. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy organised by court officials. The Fasti Ostienses , the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day

SECTION 50

#1732783970207

7332-493: The Praetorian Guard lost. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus , and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed. An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors. For

7473-442: The Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland , between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as

7614-423: The Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian. Nerva Nerva ( / ˈ n ɜːr v ə / ; born Marcus Cocceius Nerva ; 8 November 30 – 27 January 98) was a Roman emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became emperor when aged almost 66, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the succeeding rulers of

7755-618: The Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or

7896-427: The Senate in his government, but this was not entirely successful. He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors who were known and trusted, and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro-Domitianic faction of the Senate, he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least one conspiracy against his life. Since Suetonius says the people were ambivalent at Domitian's death, Nerva had to introduce

8037-489: The Senate nor Nerva appears to have been involved in the conspiracy against Domitian. Following the accession of Nerva as emperor, the Senate passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian: his statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs , were simply recarved to fit

8178-592: The Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. This was the first time the Roman Senate actually chose a new emperor rather than simply ratifying formally a choice made by either a previous emperor in his testament or an army or the Praetorian Guard . Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination, although his probable lack of involvement would have made him acceptable to

8319-403: The Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps , or first citizen, and toward imperator , or emperor. Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor; his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money

8460-465: The Temple during its destruction. Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of the Pax Romana . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century,

8601-571: The Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah . Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . The triumphal Arch of Titus , which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus. The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded

SECTION 60

#1732783970207

8742-476: The accession of Vespasian on 21 December 69. Virtually nothing is known of Nerva's whereabouts during 69, but despite the fact that Otho was his brother-in-law, he appears to have been one of the earliest and strongest supporters of the Flavians. For services unknown, he was rewarded with a consulship early in Vespasian's reign in 71. This was a remarkable honour, not only because he held this office early under

8883-542: The area today. Flavian dynasty The Flavian dynasty , lasting from AD 69 to 96, was the second dynastic line of emperors to rule the Roman Empire following the Julio-Claudians , encompassing the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian . The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of AD 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors ; after Galba and Otho died in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. His claim to

9024-442: The audience, inscribed with various prizes ( clothing , gold , or even slaves ), which could then be traded for the designated item. An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donativa , or congiaria , throughout Domitian's reign. He also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded

9165-585: The brother of the earlier Emperor Otho . Like Vespasian , the founder of the Flavian dynasty , Nerva was a member of a newer Italian nobility and plebian , rather than one of the patrician Julio-Claudians. Nevertheless, the Cocceii were among the most esteemed and prominent political families of the late Republic and early Empire, attaining consulships in each successive generation. The direct ancestors of Nerva on his father's side, all named Marcus Cocceius Nerva , were associated with imperial circles from

9306-512: The centre of power to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in

9447-506: The chief conspirators against Domitian – and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus . Likewise, the generous donativum bestowed upon the soldiers following his accession was expected to swiftly silence any protests against the violent regime change. The Praetorians considered these measures insufficient, however, and demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. Continued dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would ultimately lead to

9588-434: The civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships , the censorship , and perhaps most remarkably,

9729-423: The construction of a new public bath-house , which was to bear his name . Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre. The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme

9870-635: The consul Fronto to famously remark that Domitian's tyranny was ultimately preferable to Nerva's anarchy. Early in 97, a conspiracy led by the senator Crassus Frugi Licinianus failed, but once again Nerva refused to put the conspirators to death, much to the disapproval of the Senate. The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear successor, made more pressing because of Nerva's old age and sickness. He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives, who were unsuited for political office. A successor would have to be chosen from among

10011-401: The consulship under the Emperor Caligula. The Cocceii were connected with the Julio-Claudian dynasty through the marriage of Sergia Plautilla's brother Gaius Octavius Laenas , and Rubellia Bassa , the great-granddaughter of Tiberius. Not much of Nerva's early life or career is recorded, but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career. He was praetor -elect in

10152-431: The demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD. One such family were the Flavians , or gens Flavia , which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty . Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro , had served as

10293-522: The distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy. One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible, renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased

10434-511: The dynasty owed its accession to murder. On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history, but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health, Nerva

10575-450: The economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland , but in Dacia , Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians . On 18 September 96, Domitian

10716-725: The economy of Rome and, although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by Syme, necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce expenditures. The most superfluous religious sacrifices, games and horse races were abolished, while new income was generated from Domitian's former possessions, including the auctioning of ships, estates, and even furniture. Large amounts of money were obtained from Domitian's silver and gold statues, and Nerva forbade that similar images be made in his honor. Because he reigned only briefly, Nerva's public works were few, instead completing projects which had been initiated under Flavian rule. This included extensive repairs to

10857-545: The entire city garrison of Rome. Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum , however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus ,

10998-462: The excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of

11139-562: The failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between AD 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians . In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus . The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore

11280-462: The failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia , perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained

11421-600: The fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged

11562-529: The following year. The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried. The Forum , the baths , many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it

11703-479: The games. Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti. The precise cause for

11844-464: The governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor

11985-547: The gravest crisis of Nerva's reign. While the rapid transfer of power following Domitian's death had prevented a civil war from erupting, Nerva's position as emperor soon proved too vulnerable, and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his authority. Upon his accession, he had ordered a halt to treason trials, but at the same time allowed the prosecution of informers by the Senate to continue. This measure led to chaos , as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies, leading

12126-631: The guard to besiege Nerva in his home. Nerva realized that his position was no longer tenable without the support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people. Shortly thereafter, he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision all but abdicated . Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the consulship with Nerva in 98; in Cassius Dio's words: Thus Trajan became Caesar and later emperor, although there were relatives of Nerva living. But Nerva did not esteem family relationship above

12267-403: The guilty. Modern history has expanded upon this sentiment, characterizing Nerva as a well-intentioned but weak and ineffectual ruler. The Roman Senate enjoyed renewed liberties under his rule, but Nerva's mismanagement of the state finances and lack of authority over the army ultimately brought Rome near the edge of a significant crisis. The mutiny led by Casperius Aelianus was never intended as

12408-402: The history of Rome covering three decades from the suicide of emperor Nero in 69 until the death of Domitian in 96. However, a substantial part of the work has been lost, with only the first five books covering the Year of the Four Emperors remaining. In the introduction to his biography of Gnaeus Julius Agricola however, Tacitus speaks highly of Nerva, describing his reign as "the dawn of

12549-523: The imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Temple of Fortuna Redux , and completed

12690-636: The likeness of Nerva. This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material. In addition, the vast palace which Domitian had erected on the Palatine Hill , known as the Flavian Palace , was renamed the "House of the People", and Nerva himself took up residence in Vespasian's former villa in the Gardens of Sallust . The change of government was welcome particularly to

12831-415: The more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank. Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder , the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium . They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45). Domitilla

12972-472: The multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill . During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus

13113-407: The nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars . Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House , Titus also ordered

13254-430: The necessary qualifications for a successful reign: Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the torrent of public disorders which had multiplied under the long tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was respected by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more vigorous character, whose justice should strike terror into

13395-413: The new regime, but also because it was an ordinary consulship (instead of a less prestigious suffect consulship), making him one of the few non-Flavians to be honoured in this way under Vespasian. After 71 Nerva again disappears from historical record, presumably continuing his career as an inconspicuous advisor under Vespasian (69–79) and his sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). He re-emerges during

13536-433: The newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat , fights between wild animals ( elephants and cranes ), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races . During the games, wooden balls were dropped into

13677-492: The opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus. When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at

13818-475: The other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded

13959-549: The period such as Tacitus , Suetonius , Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural History to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus ,

14100-450: The public of rebellious Vindex . Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors, and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum. The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed, while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers. The ancient historians that lived through

14241-519: The rank of quaestor. In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire . Cestius Gallus , the legate of Syria , was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon . The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down

14382-441: The rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once

14523-830: The rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded. Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of

14664-415: The rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front of Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded. Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Nerva. Again, the honour suggested Nerva had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to what he did during

14805-475: The rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions . He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais , bringing with him the fifteenth legion . With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem. On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide , and with him

14946-428: The regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams. The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of

15087-400: The remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan , in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed

15228-458: The representative of the Flavian family in the Senate. Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria , the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason . In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from

15369-399: The reverse portraits. Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii , of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army. The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was

15510-484: The rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Within twenty-four days

15651-468: The safety of the State, nor was he less inclined to adopt Trajan because the latter was a Spaniard instead of an Italian or Italot, inasmuch as no foreigner had previously held the Roman sovereignty; for he believed in looking at a man's ability rather than at his nationality. Contrary to the view here popularized by Cassius Dio, however, Nerva had in fact little choice with regard to his successor. Faced with

15792-521: The same day, Nerva was declared emperor by the Roman Senate . As the new ruler of the Roman Empire , he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian. Nerva's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army . A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir. After some deliberation Nerva adopted Trajan ,

15933-434: The security of this territory. The remains of the fort are located at a height of about 455 metres (1,493 ft) on the outskirts of a larger forest. The southern and southeastern areas of the site were disturbed by the creation of a sports field and a commercial enterprise. Further disturbances were caused by modern expansion of the Hühnerstraße. An approximately 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) long nature trail leads through

16074-514: The senators, who had been harshly persecuted during Domitian's reign. As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters, Nerva publicly swore that no senators would be put to death as long as he remained in office. He called an end to trials based on treason , released those who had been imprisoned under these charges, and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled . All properties which had been confiscated by Domitian were returned to their respective families. Nerva also sought to involve

16215-430: The siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during

16356-500: The siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giscala . Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean . Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, and instead "disclaimed any such honor to himself, saying that it was not himself that had accomplished this exploit, but that he had merely lent his arms to God." Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus

16497-462: The soldiers of the Praetorian Guard —the imperial bodyguard —considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord , but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but

16638-547: The throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favor of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on 20 December, and the following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign. The reign of Titus

16779-518: The time of Emperor Augustus ( r.  27 BC – AD 14 ). His great-grandfather was consul in 36 BC (in replacement, and abdicated), and Governor of Asia in the same year. His grandfather became suffect consul in July of either 21 or 22, and was known as a personal friend of Emperor Tiberius ( r.   14–37), accompanying the emperor during his voluntary seclusion on Capri from 23 onwards, dying in 33. Nerva's father finally attained

16920-422: The title of Caesar , and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire. Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as

17061-415: The tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb " Pecunia non olet " ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets. Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced

17202-415: The view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's. Since

17343-516: The year 229, was composed more than one hundred years after Nerva had died. Further details are added by an abridged biography from the Epitome de Caesaribus , a work attributed to the 4th-century historian Aurelius Victor . A more comprehensive text, presumed to describe the life of Nerva in closer detail, is the Histories , by the contemporary historian Tacitus . The Histories is an account of

17484-449: The year 65 and, like his ancestors, moved in imperial circles as a skilled diplomat and strategist. As an advisor to Emperor Nero , he successfully helped detect and expose the Pisonian conspiracy of 65. His exact contribution to the investigation is not known, but his services must have been considerable, since they earned him rewards equal to those of Nero's guard prefect Tigellinus . He received triumphal honors  – which

17625-532: Was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva , who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty . Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating

17766-468: Was assassinated . He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva , who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty . The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family. Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to

17907-456: Was a military tribune in Germania , and later served in Britannia . His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65. Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after

18048-414: Was awarded a triumph . Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from

18189-415: Was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis , and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by

18330-497: Was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and childless. Furthermore, he had close connections with the Flavian dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate. Nerva had seen the anarchy which had resulted from the death of Nero; he knew that to hesitate even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict. Rather than decline the invitation and risk revolts , he accepted. The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither

18471-411: Was continuously met with conspiracies against him. Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus. According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of

18612-645: Was followed by a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most needy Romans. To the poorest, Nerva granted allotments of land worth up to 60 million sesterces . He exempted parents and their children from a 5% inheritance tax , and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5% to their municipality to support the children of needy families – alimenta schemes which were later expanded by Trajan , Antoninus Pius , and Marcus Aurelius . Furthermore, numerous taxes were remitted and privileges granted to Roman provinces. Namely, he abolished abuses of

18753-511: Was given command of the Praetorian Guard . Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81. Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. By moving

18894-473: Was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus , Suetonius , Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. In this role he

19035-462: Was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus. Among the most important new structures were an Odeum , a Stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill , known as the Flavian Palace , which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius . The most important building Domitian restored

19176-408: Was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum. Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquillus , Cassius Dio , and Pliny the Elder , present

19317-451: Was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, which saw the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum be completely buried under ash and lava . One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague . On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in AD 70, following

19458-530: Was the First Jewish-Roman War , which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum . Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and

19599-415: Was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus , and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In

19740-412: Was usually reserved for military victories – and the right to have his statues placed throughout the palace. According to the contemporary poet Martial , Nero also held Nerva's literary abilities in high esteem, hailing him as the " Tibullus of our time". Another prominent member of Nero's entourage was Vespasian , an old and respected general who had celebrated military triumphs during

19881-476: Was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, but

#206793