Misplaced Pages

#987012

70-604: The KdA served as the de facto militia of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany composed of party members and politically reliable working people , based on dictatorship of the proletariat principles, to be deployed locally to fight civil unrest or invasion . The KdA was a civil reserve force tied to the GDR's Ministry of the Interior and the Volkspolizei , reaching 211,000 personnel at its peak in 1980. The KdA

140-685: A national legislature from the Soviet Military Administration in Germany . This was granted by Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko . The Volkskammer then convened with the Länderkammer to elect Wilhelm Pieck as the first President of East Germany and Otto Grotewohl as the first Prime Minister of East Germany . From its founding in 1949 until the first competitive elections in March 1990 , all members of

210-526: A ballot paper; voters simply took the ballot paper and dropped it into the ballot box. Those who wanted to vote against the National Front list had to vote using a separate ballot box, without any secrecy. The table below shows an overview of the reported results of all parliamentary elections before 1990, with the resulting disposition of parliamentary seats. In 1976, the Volkskammer moved into

280-436: A couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975 . De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by

350-410: A court order awards custody, either sole or joint. A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed but the market is so completely dominated by one that the other players are unable to compete or even survive. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate. In finance,

420-427: A de facto national language but no official, de jure national language. Some countries have a de facto national language in addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco , Arabic is an official language (in addition to Tamazight in the case of Morocco), but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, the official languages are Māori and New Zealand Sign Language ; however, English

490-430: A power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead. In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed

560-477: A previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally. Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta , which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president until new elections were called, making him

630-425: A similar role to infantry to supplement the military and police as security in rear areas during wartime or in political emergencies , such as protests against the government. Units were closely tied to the workplaces they were recruited from such as factories, farms, the state and local administration offices, and other state-owned enterprises – their organizations and their employment generally did not extend beyond

700-647: A specially constructed building on Marx-Engels-Platz (now Schloßplatz again), the Palace of the Republic ( Palast der Republik ). Prior to this, the Volkskammer met at Langenbeck-Virchow-Haus  [ de ] in the Mitte district of Berlin. Initially, voters in East Berlin could not take part in elections to the Volkskammer, in which they were represented by indirectly elected non-voting members, but in 1979

770-672: A state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution , where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within a state. There must be a nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state. If an Australian de facto couple moves out of

SECTION 10

#1732790969988

840-604: A state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. This is unlike marriage and "matrimonial causes" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). A de facto relationship

910-457: A subsequent legitimate government. That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994 . Article 36 states: Two examples of de facto leaders are Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and general Manuel Noriega of Panama . Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or

980-551: A total of 136 hours annually, usually at a training camp in the wilderness. The KdA paramilitaries were often equipped like professional infantry, despite having somewhat less training. The KdA wore olive green uniforms different from that of the National People's Army, and were similar in pattern to that of the American Battle Dress Uniform or Soviet Afghanka . The soft kepi style cap has

1050-428: A visor, a circular top crown, a side crown with an outside crown band, and earflaps which fold up and secure over the top. The jacket has a straight cut bottom, with two breast and two skirt pockets plus a pocket on each upper sleeve. The trousers contain four standard type pockets and later versions had an internal cargo pocket on each thigh. The M1956 helmet used by the army was also worn. The KdA organizational patch

1120-465: Is a third de facto language. Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union , but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law, effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union prior to its dissolution in 1991. In Hong Kong and Macau ,

1190-438: Is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with de jure ('by law'). In jurisprudence , a de facto law (also known as a de facto regulation ) is a law or regulation that is followed but "is not specifically enumerated by a law." By definition, de facto 'contrasts' de jure which means "as defined by law" or "as a matter of law." For example, if a particular law exists in one jurisdiction, but

1260-416: Is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called "palimony agreements") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world. A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage , which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and

1330-406: Is followed in another where it has no legal effect (such as in another country), then the law could be considered a de facto regulation (a " de facto regulation" is not an officially prescribed legal classification for a type of law in a particular jurisdiction, rather, it is a concept about law(s). A de facto regulation may be followed by an organization as a result of the market size of

1400-459: Is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally." The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages . Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent , are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around

1470-531: Is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as "de jure standards"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard. In social sciences , a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem . Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have

SECTION 20

#1732790969988

1540-589: The Degtyaryov machine gun , and the MPi-41 submachine gun during the 1950s and 1960s. In later years, KdA troopers were gradually re-equipped with Eastern Bloc weaponry like the iMG-D , and East German-made MPi-K and MPi-KM rifles. The KdA did not have traditional military ranks but had "positional titles" as follows: There were a series of badges as well as service and merit medals awarded to KdA members. The KdA also wore distinctive red rank insignia on

1610-463: The Family Court or Federal Circuit Court . Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in

1680-570: The Group of Soviet Forces in Germany . The anti-government uprising threatened the Soviet -backed GDR and the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), who viewed it as a " counter-revolutionary " act. Initially, the official task of the KdA was to fight against saboteurs , class enemies , and other "enemies of socialism " within the GDR, especially as armed protection for valuable factories . The KdA

1750-597: The Peaceful Revolution in late 1989, which saw the decline of the SED and rapid political changes in the GDR, as many KdA members identified with the protesters and some even participated in the marches. On 9 November 1989, the GDR government announced the opening of the Berlin Wall and the free travel of East German citizens, rendering the purpose of the KdA no longer relevant or necessary. The Volkskammer ,

1820-458: The World Bank has a pertinent definition: A "de facto government" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation or suspension of the constitution. In engineering, de facto technology is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of

1890-422: The jurisdiction imposing the regulation as a proportion of the overall market; wherein the market share is so large that it results in the organization choosing to comply by implementing one standard of business with respect to the given de facto law instead of altering standards between different jurisdictions and markets (e.g. data protection, manufacturing, etc.). The decision to voluntarily comply may be

1960-462: The office of president . As such, on two occasions, the president of the People's Chamber served as acting president for brief periods in 1949 and 1960. The last president of the People's Chamber, Sabine Bergmann-Pohl , was also interim head of state during the last six months of East Germany's existence due to the State Council having been abolished. The presidency of the People's Chamber

2030-527: The special administrative regions of China , the official languages are English and Portuguese respectively, together with Chinese. However, no particular variety of Chinese referred to in law is specified. Cantonese ( Hong Kong Cantonese ) in traditional Chinese characters is the de facto standard in both territories. A de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by

2100-426: The 20th century, the phrase de facto state of war refers to a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war . A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australian law , a de facto relationship is a legally recognized, committed relationship of

2170-616: The Congolese People's Militia commander Michel Ngakala was present at a KdA-event in East Germany in 1982. Similar formations: De facto De facto ( / d eɪ ˈ f æ k t oʊ , d i -, d ə -/ day FAK -toh, dee -⁠, də -⁠ ; Latin: [deː ˈfaktoː] ; lit.   ' in fact ' ) describes practices that exist in reality, regardless of whether they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It

Combat Groups of the Working Class - Misplaced Pages Continue

2240-587: The District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted. De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time

2310-672: The GM of the Baltimore Orioles between 1999 and 2002. Bill Belichick , the former head coach of the New England Patriots in the NFL did not hold the official title of GM, but served as de facto general manager as he had control over drafting and other personnel decisions. Volkskammer The Volkskammer ( German: [ˈfɔlkskamɐ] , " People's Chamber ") was the supreme power organ of East Germany . It

2380-499: The KdA as part of their party obligation. Non-SED members were compelled to join by the Free German Trade Union Federation (FDGB), and recruitment was accomplished by the SED branches in the workplaces. Membership of the KdA peaked in the early 1980s, reaching a total of approximately 210,000 personnel including approximately 187,000 active members and the remainder in reserve. Some sources claim that

2450-565: The KdA had reached over 500,000 members in 1987. Training for KdA personnel was conducted by the Volkspolizei , the GDR's civil police force, to avoid the KdA being counted as part of the total strength of the armed forces under international treaties. The KdA was substantially cheaper to maintain than the official army, since members did not require accommodation, supplies and wages were the same as regulars , and members continued their civilian work while training in their spare time. A KdA member trained with his unit after work and on weekends for

2520-684: The KdA was involved in East German military aid to communist movements and governments in Africa . On May 23, 1980, Radio Brazzaville reported the visit of a KdA delegation in Brazzaville , People's Republic of the Congo , announcing they were willing to train Congolese people's militiamen in East Germany as well and supply them with equipment. Author Gunter Holzessig reports in that context, that

2590-399: The SED district ( Bezirk ) and county ( Kreise ) directorates in the areas of personnel and political suitability of members. Commanders were appointed by the SED party organization in the major factories or enterprises in the area and were confirmed by the SED county leadership ( Kreisleitung ) which received regular reports on the state of training, equipment and membership. Der Kämpfer

2660-417: The SED, and were required to accept the SED's " leading role " as a condition of their continued existence. The members of the People's Chamber were elected in multi-member constituencies , with four to eight seats. To be elected, a candidate needed to receive half of the valid votes cast in their constituency. If, within a constituency, an insufficient number of candidates got the majority needed to fill all

2730-404: The SED. By 1966 and 1967, the total strength of the KdA was 181,500 "fighters" ( Kämpfer ) which was divided between "asset security forces" and "operational reserves". Units whose districts bordered West Berlin and West Germany received better equipment and were directly subordinate to the district management of territorial defense. The KdA were not activated during the peaceful mass protests of

2800-605: The Soviet BTR-152 , had been phased out from the army arsenals in the mid sixties, it became the standard combat transport for KdA units. The early KdA was armed with surplus German and Soviet equipment from World War II or weapons which had been phased out by the regular East German army: In terms of small arms , KdA personnel were armed with the Mauser Kar98k rifle, the Mosin–Nagant Karabiner 44 ,

2870-478: The Two Sicilies ). The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes , de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which

Combat Groups of the Working Class - Misplaced Pages Continue

2940-599: The United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was not segregation by law (de jure). " Jim Crow laws ", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South . These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Most commonly used to describe large scale conflicts of

3010-586: The Volkskammer was the highest organ of state power in the GDR, and both constitutions vested it with great lawmaking powers. All other branches of government, including the judiciary, were responsible to it. By 1960, the chamber appointed the State Council (the GDR's collective head of state), the Council of Ministers (the GDR's government), and the National Defence Council (the GDR's collective military leadership). In practice, however, it

3080-544: The Volkskammer were elected via a single list from the National Front , a popular front / electoral alliance dominated by the SED. In addition, seats were also allocated to various organizations affiliated with the SED, such as the Free German Youth . Effectively, the SED held control over the composition of the Volkskammer. In any event, the minor parties in the National Front were largely subservient to

3150-440: The ages of 25 and 60 were eligible for armed service while women were eligible for other roles, mainly used in the medical and supply services. Men under 25-years-old, if they were not performing compulsory military service in the National People's Army, could join the paramilitary Society for Sport and Technology (GST) until reaching the age for KdA membership. Membership was voluntary , although SED members were required to join

3220-696: The annual May Day demonstration on May 1, 1954, and were visible in public during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 in case of a similar revolt in the GDR. A central school for KdA leaders was set up in Schmerwitz in 1957, and the organization received its official name Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse in 1959. The largest use of the KdA occurred during the construction of the Berlin Wall from 13 August 1961, with over 8,000 personnel (about 20% of all military units) mobilized to participate in

3290-505: The border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state . In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, People of Colour, and Indians dated back decades before. De facto racial discrimination and segregation in

3360-435: The case of the death of one of the partners. In April 2014, an Australian federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated "de facto relationship(s) may be described as 'marriage like' but it

3430-586: The convicted person to "live out the vast majority of their life in jail prior to their release." A de facto standard is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardization process, and may not have an official standards document. Technical standards are usually voluntary, such as ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, such as drinking water quality requirements. The term "de facto standard"

3500-690: The district level. The organization was similar reserve forces like the United States National Guard or British Territorial Army ; however, the KdA was strictly controlled by the SED itself and not the government. The KdA fell under the authority of the Central Committee (Zentralkomitee) (ZK) of the Socialist Unity Party with all directives and decisions made by the ZK's Politbüro , effectively making it

3570-537: The effort. The best-trained and most-politically reliable KdA units and members from Saxony , Thuringia , and East Berlin participated in the construction and guarding of the Berlin Wall in the summer and autumn of 1961. During the six-week deployment of the KdA to the East Berlin- West Berlin sector boundary, only eight members defected to the West , indicating a high state of morale and faith in

SECTION 50

#1732790969988

3640-530: The electoral law was changed to provide for 66 directly elected deputies with full voting rights. After the 1990 election , the disposition of the parties was as follows: The president of the People's Chamber was the third-highest state post in the GDR (after the chairman of the Council of Ministers and the chairman of the State Council) and was the ex officio vice president during the existence of

3710-629: The formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein 's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq . However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president ; he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , the de jure president. In Argentina , the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932 , 1943–1946 , 1955–1958 , 1966–1973 and 1976–1983 ,

3780-590: The hundred had a political deputy and a general deputy, plus a supply officer and a chief medical orderly . An inspector of the Volkspolizei assisted with training. Other personnel included the three platoon leaders, three deputy platoon leaders, eighty-one Kämpfer (fighters), and three medical orderlies (one per platoon). Three or four hundreds could form a Kampftruppe battalion. Heavy hundreds ( Schwere Hundertschaft ) were equipped with anti-tank , mortar and air-defense platoons, and were motorized using

3850-566: The last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress . The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments , a case law ( precedential ) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by

3920-809: The legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the "leaders" of their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Another example of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi Emperor and nephew Guangxu Emperor ), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia ), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII ), Queen Elisabeth of Parma (for her husband, King Philip V ) and Queen Maria Carolina of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of

3990-407: The parliament of the GDR, made the decision to disband the KdA on 14 December, with the processes of disarmament and demobilization beginning that month. The disarming of the KdA was supervised by the Volkspolizei and the National People's Army who consolidated and stored the weapons and equipment. The final 189,370 personnel in 2,022 units were completely demobilized by May 1990. The KdA served

4060-466: The party's personal army . The ZK also supervised the rest of the armed forces through its security commission ( Sicherheitskommission ), but exercised its power over the KdA through two chains-of-command. The first ran through the Ministry of the Interior ( Ministerium des Innern ) and then the Volkspolizei , which provided military training , equipment and operational expertise. The second was through

4130-486: The result of: a desire to simplify manufacturing processes & cost-effectiveness ( such as adopting a one size fits all approach ), consumer demand & expectation, or other factors known only to the complier. In prison sentences , the term de facto life sentence (also known as a "virtual" life sentence ) is used to describe a "non-life sentence" that is long enough to end after the convicted person would have likely died due to old age, or one long enough to cause

4200-765: The right arm of their uniforms. Honour gifts to the commanders of the fighting groups of the working class were testimonies of social honor in the German Democratic Republic. The oath of the Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse stated: I am ready, as a fighter of the Working Class to fulfill the directives of the Party to defend the German Democratic Republic and its Socialist achievements at any time with my weapon in my hand and to lay down my life for them. This I swear. There are indications that

4270-462: The seats, a second round was held within 90 days. If the number of candidates getting this majority exceeds the number of seats in the respective constituency, the order of the candidates on the election list decided who got to sit in the Volkskammer. Candidates who lost out on a seat because of this would become successor candidates who would fill casual vacancies which might occur during a legislative period. Only one list of candidates appeared on

SECTION 60

#1732790969988

4340-427: The technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a standard technology consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology. Examples of a de facto General Manager in sports include Syd Thrift who acted as

4410-545: The trucks of their enterprises or nationalized haulage firms. Three or four heavy hundreds formed a heavy battalion of which there were over 130 by 1973. They may also be equipped with wheeled armored personnel carriers and armoured cars such as the BTR-152 and Garant 30k SK-1 . Heavy hundreds designated Battalions of the Regional Reserve and could be employed outside their local and district areas. Men between

4480-656: The world. Because its early forms originated in England in the Middle Ages , this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire , while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law. Due to Australian federalism , de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within

4550-579: Was a rubber stamp parliament that did little more than ratify decisions already made by the SED Politburo. By the 1970s and before the Peaceful Revolution , the Volkskammer only met two to four times a year. In October 1949 the Volksrat ("People's Council"), charged with drafting the Constitution of East Germany , proclaimed itself the Volkskammer and requested official recognition as

4620-682: Was disbanded by the Volkskammer after the opening of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. The Combat Groups of the Working Class ( German : Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse or KdA ) was formed on September 29, 1953, in response to the Uprising of 1953 in the German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany) which had occurred three months earlier, and was violently suppressed by the Volkspolizei (civil police) and

4690-648: Was intended to mirror the People's Militias of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia which played a very important part in the consolidation of party's power in Czechoslovakia in 1948. The organization was designed to reflect the dictatorship of the proletariat – the ethos of the worker being the centre of power in the new socialist state – so membership was mainly drawn from workers from state enterprises . The KdA made its first public appearance at

4760-486: Was the monthly newspaper and voice of the KdA, printed by the SED's Neues Deutschland publishing house. The KdA were organized into units called Hundertschaften and battalions . Hundertschaften (hundreds) were the primary units of the KdA, made up of about 100 workers from large factories or even neighborhoods who sought to "defend the property of the people". Each hundred was organized into three platoons , each containing three groups (squads). The commander of

4830-511: Was the only branch of government in the state, and per the principle of unified power , all state organs were subservient to it. The Volkskammer was initially the lower house of a bicameral legislature . The upper house was the Chamber of States , or Länderkammer , but in 1952 the states of East Germany were dissolved, and the Chamber of States was abolished in 1958. Constitutionally ,

4900-457: Was worn on the left sleeve over the sleeve pocket and rank patches were worn on or below the pockets on both sleeves, later they were moved to the left breast above the pocket. The KdA had at their disposal many of the weapons that the police would use in riot situations, and also SK-1 armoured cars and SK-2 water cannon (both armoured and unarmoured versions). After the SPW 152 APC, a variant of

#987012