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131-854: The Kew Herbarium (herbarium code: K ) is one of the world's largest and most historically significant herbaria , housed at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London , England. Established in the 1850s on the ground floor of Hunter House, it has grown to maintain approximately seven million preserved plant specimens, including 330,000 type specimens . The herbarium's collections, which include specimens dating back to 1700, represent about 95% of known vascular plant genera and 60% of described fungi , with specimens collected over 260 years of botanical exploration . The herbarium processes around 5,000 specimen loans annually and hosts approximately 3,000 visitor-days of research visits each year, supporting

262-505: A fungarium . A xylarium is a herbarium specialising in specimens of wood. The term hortorium (as in the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium ) has occasionally been applied to a herbarium specialising in preserving material of horticultural origin. The techniques for making herbaria have changed little over at least six centuries. They have been an important step in the transformation of the study of plants from

393-606: A referendum in 1993, where the populace voted for a multi-party democracy . In late 1993, a presidential council was formed, the life presidency was abolished and a new constitution was put into place, effectively ending the MCP's rule. In 1994 the first multi-party elections were held in Malawi, and Banda was defeated by Bakili Muluzi (a former Secretary General of the MCP and former Banda Cabinet Minister). Re-elected in 1999, Muluzi remained president until 2004, when Bingu wa Mutharika

524-408: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.74/10, ranking it 96th globally out of 172 countries. Malawi is among the world's least developed countries. Around 85% of the population lives in rural areas. The economy is based on agriculture, and more than one-third of GDP and 90% of export revenues come from this. In the past, the economy has been dependent on substantial economic aid from

655-532: A British Consul took up residence there in 1883. The Portuguese government was also interested in the area, so, to prevent Portuguese occupation, the British government sent Harry Johnston as British consul with instructions to make treaties with local rulers beyond Portuguese jurisdiction. In 1889, a British protectorate was proclaimed over the Shire Highlands, which was extended in 1891 to include

786-543: A President who is both Head of State and Head of Government , first and second Vice Presidents, and the Cabinet of Malawi . The President and Vice President are elected together every five years. A second Vice President may be appointed by the President if so chosen, although they must be from a different party. The members of the Cabinet of Malawi are appointed by the President and can be from either inside or outside of

917-748: A branch of medicine to an independent discipline, and to make available plant material from far away places and over a long period of time. The oldest traditions of making herbarium collections have been traced to Italy. The Bologna physician and botanist, Luca Ghini (1490–1556) reintroduced the study of actual plants as opposed to relying on classical texts, such as Dioscorides , which lacked sufficient accuracy for identification. At first, he needed to make available plant material, even in winter, hence his Hortus hiemalis (winter garden) or Hortus siccus (dry garden). He and his students placed freshly gathered plants between two sheets of paper and applied pressure to flatten them and absorb moisture. The dried specimen

1048-442: A couple perceived as homosexual (a man and a trans woman ) faced extensive jail time when convicted. The convicted pair, sentenced to the maximum of 14 years of hard labour each, were pardoned two weeks later following the intervention of United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon . In May 2012, then-President Joyce Banda pledged to repeal laws criminalising homosexuality. It was her successor, Peter Mutharika , who imposed

1179-552: A crucial modern application of the collections. DNA can be extracted from specimens hundreds of years old, helping construct plant family trees and rearrange taxonomic classifications. According to David Mabberley , former keeper of the Herbarium, this has led to significant reorganization of collections, with an estimated 10–12% of plants being reassigned to different families based on genetic evidence rather than physical appearances. The herbarium's role in modern species discovery

1310-473: A detailed statistical analysis conducted in 1970 revealed that these earlier estimates had been inflated. The study, which sampled 279 pigeonholes from a total of 64,199, established that the herbarium contained approximately 4,188,000 specimens, including about 275,000 type specimens . By 2024, the collection had grown to approximately seven million specimens. The Kew Herbarium houses approximately seven million preserved vascular plant specimens, making it one of

1441-430: A ground floor and two galleries connected by two spiral staircases and lit by forty-eight windows. A second hall of the same dimensions was completed around 1903. The facility underwent several further expansions between 1902 and 1969, including basement extensions. The facility has expanded periodically to house its growing collections, with extensions added approximately every 40 years. This pattern of growth continued with

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1572-497: A herbarium can represent the only record of the plant's original distribution. Environmental scientists make use of such data to track changes in climate and human impact. Herbaria have also proven very useful as source of plant DNA for use in taxonomy and molecular systematics . Even ancient fungaria represent a source for DNA-barcoding of ancient samples. Many kinds of scientists and naturalists use herbaria to preserve voucher specimens; representative samples of plants used in

1703-422: A lack of foreign exchange reserves erupted. The protests left 18 people dead and at least 44 others suffering from gunshot wounds. The Malawian flag was modified in 2010, altering three colored stripes with the white sun. It existed for a short while until 2012 when the colors of black-red-green of the old flag were restored. In April 2012, Mutharika died of a heart attack. Over a period of 48 hours, his death

1834-504: A larger complex with the adjacent Meyer's House (now Hanover House). In 1876, parts of Hunter House, including its drawing room, south room, kitchen and river frontage steps, were demolished to make way for the herbarium's first purpose-built wing. The following year saw the appointment of the first curator , Allan Black . The herbarium's collection includes specimens from many notable historical figures, illustrating its connection to exploration and scientific discovery. Among its treasures

1965-499: A low life expectancy and high infant mortality . HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples , Asians , and Europeans . Several languages are spoken, and there is an array of religious beliefs. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and

2096-663: A modern wing added in 2009. In 1969, a major reorganisation of British botanical collections took place when Kew transferred its bryophytes , algae , and most of its lichens to the British Museum (Natural History) on permanent loan, receiving in exchange the British Museum's fungal collections. By this time, the herbarium's holdings had grown substantially – from over 2,000,000 specimens mounted on 1,500,000 sheets in 1903 to its current size of approximately seven million specimens. The original 1877 Wing C exemplifies

2227-545: A moratorium in 2015 that suspended the country's anti-gay laws pending further review of the same laws. On 26 June 2021, the country's LGBT community held the first Pride parade in Lilongwe. Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa, bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique to the south, southwest, and southeast. It lies between latitudes 9° and 18°S , and longitudes 32° and 36°E . The Great Rift Valley runs through

2358-402: A nationwide fuel shortage, which was officially blamed on logistical problems, was more likely due to the hard currency shortage caused by the jet purchase. In addition, some setbacks have been experienced, and Malawi has lost some of its ability to pay for imports due to a general shortage of foreign exchange, as investment fell 23% in 2009. There are many investment barriers in Malawi, which

2489-477: A new constitution for Nyasaland, with a clause granting Africans the majority in the colony's Legislative Council. In 1961, Banda's Malawi Congress Party (MCP) gained a majority in the Legislative Council elections , and Banda became Prime Minister in 1963. The Federation was dissolved in 1963, and on 6 July 1964, Nyasaland became independent from British rule and renamed itself Malawi, and that

2620-780: A one-party state to a multi-party democracy strengthened Malawian ties with the United States. Significant numbers of students from Malawi travel to the US for schooling, and the US has active branches of the Peace Corps , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the Department of Health and Human Services , and the Agency for International Development in Malawi. Malawi maintained close relations with South Africa throughout

2751-465: A particular study to demonstrate precisely the source of their data, or to enable confirmation of identification at a future date. They may also be a repository of viable seeds for rare species. Many universities, museums, and botanical gardens maintain herbaria. Each is assigned an alphabetic code in the Index Herbariorum , between one and eight letters long. The largest herbaria in

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2882-515: A share of GDP) than any other African country: 28% of GDP. Beginning in 2006, the country began mixing unleaded petrol with 10% ethanol , produced in-country at two plants, to reduce dependence on imported fuel. In 2006, in response to low agricultural harvests, Malawi began a programme of fertilizer subsidies, the Fertiliser Input Subsidy Programme (FISP). It has been reported that this programme, championed by

3013-476: A sheet of paper (called exsiccatum , plur. exsiccata ) but, depending upon the material, may also be stored in boxes or kept in alcohol or other preservative. The specimens in a herbarium are often used as reference material in describing plant taxa ; some specimens may be types , some may be specimens distributed in series called exsiccatae . The same term is often used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi , otherwise known as

3144-429: A standard system of organizing their specimens into herbarium cases. Specimen sheets are stacked in groups by the species to which they belong and placed into a large lightweight folder that is labelled on the bottom edge. Groups of species folders are then placed together into larger, heavier folders by genus . The genus folders are then sorted by taxonomic family according to the standard system selected for use by

3275-523: A surgeon working for the East India Company in the 1690s. Browne collected plants around Madras (now Chennai) and collaborated with Tamil and Telugu speakers to record local plant names and uses. The early herbarium grew rapidly through both government grants and private donations. In 1853, the herbarium received William Bromfield's Flora Vectensis . An expansion took place in 1854 when George Bentham donated his herbarium and library to

3406-578: A wide range of botanical research. The herbarium's development has been closely tied to British botanical exploration and colonial expansion , with contributions from influential directors like Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and major acquisitions including the Gay Herbarium. Research at the herbarium has contributed to botanical taxonomy , with publications such as the Index Kewensis , initiated with funding from Charles Darwin in 1882, and

3537-428: Is a resource for botanical research in taxonomy, conservation , ecology , and climate science . Its specimens offer data that aid in tracking environmental changes, studying plant diseases , and identifying new species, as demonstrated by the 2022 discovery of Victoria boliviana , the world's largest water lily species, which had remained unrecognised in the collection for almost two centuries. The herbarium's future

3668-477: Is a specimen of Faroa nyasica collected by David Livingstone in the 1860s during his explorations of what is now Malawi . While the collection includes a 4,000-year-old olive tree branch from Tutankhamun 's tomb, its oldest officially catalogued specimen is Indigofera astragalina , collected by Daniel du Bois at Fort St. George in India in 1700. Other early specimens are those collected by Samuel Browne ,

3799-472: Is at 457 metres (1,500 ft) above sea level, with a maximum depth of 701 metres (2,300 ft), which means the lake bottom is over 213 metres (700 ft) below sea level at some points. In the mountainous sections of Malawi surrounding the Rift Valley, plateaus rise generally 914 to 1,219 metres (3,000 to 4,000 ft) above sea level, although some rise as high as 2,438 metres (8,000 ft) in

3930-586: Is based upon the English model and consists of a Supreme Court of Appeal, a High Court divided into three sections (general, constitutional, and commercial), an Industrial Relations Court and Magistrates Courts, the last of which is divided into five grades and includes Child Justice Courts. The judicial system has been changed several times since Malawi gained independence in 1964. Conventional courts and traditional courts have been used in varying combinations, with varying degrees of success and corruption. Malawi

4061-471: Is commemorated as the nation's Independence Day, a public holiday . Under a new constitution, Malawi became a republic with Banda as its first president. The new document also formally made Malawi a one-party state with the MCP as the only legal party. In 1971, Banda was declared president-for-life . For almost 30 years, Banda presided over a rigidly totalitarian regime, which ensured that Malawi did not suffer armed conflict. Opposition parties, including

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4192-490: Is composed of three regions (the Northern, Central, and Southern regions), which are divided into 28  districts , and further into approximately 250 traditional authorities and 110 administrative wards. Local government is administered by central government-appointed regional administrators and district commissioners. For the first time in the multi-party era, local elections took place on 21 November 2000, with

4323-760: Is currently subject to debate, with controversial plans announced in 2023 to relocate the collection to Thames Valley Science Park , prompting discussion about the balance between preservation needs, research accessibility, and maintaining the historic connection between the herbarium and Kew's living collections. Prior to the establishment of Kew's herbarium, botanical specimens in London were primarily studied at Sir Joseph Banks ' collection in Soho Square . This changed after William Jackson Hooker became Kew's Director in 1841, when he began allowing researchers to access his substantial private collection at his residence near

4454-455: Is encouraging farmers away from tobacco towards more profitable crops, including spices such as paprika . The move away from tobacco is further fueled by likely World Health Organisation moves against the particular type of tobacco that Malawi produces, burley leaf . It is seen to be more harmful to human health than other tobacco products. India hemp is another possible alternative, but arguments have been made that it will bring more crime to

4585-452: Is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany . It is also rich in types of Australian plants from the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown , and contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The large herbaria have many exsiccata series included in their collections. Most herbaria utilize

4716-457: Is estimated at 10% (2009). The country makes no significant use of natural gas. As of 2008 , Malawi does not import or export any electricity but does import all its petroleum, with no production in the country. In 2008, Malawi began testing cars that ran solely on ethanol, and the country is continuing to increase its use of ethanol. As of 2009, Malawi exports an estimated US$ 945 million in goods per year. Tobacco's world prices declined, and

4847-508: The Index Kewensis , initiated in 1882 through funding from Charles Darwin , marked an important development in botanical taxonomy. The project was conceived to create a comprehensive index of all published names of seed-bearing plants, as Darwin had found Steudel's Nomenclator (the only existing work of this type) useful but outdated. The first volumes, published between 1893 and 1895, were compiled by Benjamin Daydon Jackson under

4978-485: The hortus siccus (1566) of Petrus Cadé. While most of the early herbaria were prepared with sheets bound into books, Carl Linnaeus came up with the idea of maintaining them on free sheets that allowed their easy re-ordering within cabinets. Commensurate with the need to identify the specimen, it is essential to include in a herbarium sheet as much of the plant as possible (e.g., roots, flowers, stems, leaves, seed, and fruit), or at least representative parts of them in

5109-404: The 2020 Malawian presidential election and he became the new president. Malawi is divided into 28 districts within three regions: Central Region Northern Region Southern Region Former President Hastings Banda established a pro-Western foreign policy that continued into early 2011. It included good diplomatic relationships with many Western countries. The transition from

5240-614: The Apartheid era, which strained Malawi's relationships with other African countries. Following the collapse of apartheid in 1994, diplomatic relationships were made and maintained into 2011 between Malawi and all other African countries. In 2010, however, Malawi's relationship with Mozambique became strained, partially due to disputes over the use of the Zambezi River and an inter-country electrical grid. In 2007, Malawi established diplomatic ties with China, and Chinese investment in

5371-599: The International Plant Names Index (IPNI). In 1974, Kew Herbarium launched the Kew Record of Taxonomic Literature , an annual bibliography aimed at providing comprehensive coverage of taxonomic literature on vascular plants worldwide. The publication catalogued all new plant names (except cultivars ) and relevant taxonomic papers, organising them systematically rather than alphabetically. This addressed limitations of existing resources such as

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5502-425: The Kew Record . The facility has undergone several major expansions since its first purpose-built wing was constructed in 1877, with Victorian architecture that includes spiral staircases , iron columns, and vast handcrafted wooden cupboards. In 2022, the herbarium initiated a £29 million digitisation project to produce high-resolution images of its collection, with a target completion date of 2026. The herbarium

5633-553: The Shire Highlands south of the lake as an area suitable for European settlement. As the result of Livingstone's visit, several Anglican and Presbyterian missions were established in the area in the 1860s and 1870s; the African Lakes Company Limited was established in 1878 to set up a trade and transport concern, a small mission and trading settlement were established at Blantyre in 1876, and

5764-582: The UNESCO World Heritage List . Lake Malawi National Park was first listed in 1984, and the Chongoni Rock Art Area was listed in 2006. Malawi's climate is hot in the low-lying areas in the south of the country and temperate in the northern highlands. The altitude moderates what would otherwise be an equatorial climate. Between November and April, the temperature is warm with equatorial rains and thunderstorms, with

5895-810: The United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU). Malawi is one of the world's least-developed countries . The economy is heavily based on agriculture , and it has a largely rural and growing population. Key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008. Malawi has

6026-676: The World Bank , the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other countries. Malawi was ranked the 119th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings. The Malawian government faces challenges in developing a market economy, improving environmental protection, dealing with the rapidly growing HIV/AIDS problem, improving the education system, and satisfying its foreign donors to become financially independent. In December 2000,

6157-543: The flora of an area. A large collection from a single area is used in writing a field guide or manual to aid in the identification of plants that grow there. With more specimens available, the author or the guide will better understand the variability of form in the plants and the natural distribution over which the plants grow. Herbaria also preserve a historical record of change in vegetation over time. In some cases, plants become extinct in one area or may become extinct altogether. In such cases, specimens preserved in

6288-486: The governor of Senegal (1821–1826), who played an important role in furthering botanical research in the region. The first purpose-built wing of the herbarium was constructed in 1877, prompted by the need for additional space to accommodate botanical specimens collected during exploration of the British Empire. Around 1878, a large hall was added – a quadrangular structure eighty-six feet by forty-three feet, with

6419-499: The 16th century. In 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate , and it was renamed Nyasaland in 1907. In 1964, Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda , and was renamed Malawi . Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Banda

6550-477: The 1920s and 1930s. The Kew Herbarium has contributed to a wide range of botanical research. Beyond its traditional importance in taxonomic studies, the collections underpin research in conservation, ecology, sustainable development , and climate science. The specimens offer information on plant morphology, distribution, environmental niches, phenology (flowering and fruiting times), and even genetic material that can be extracted for DNA studies. The creation of

6681-681: The 19th century in some ways". The use of traditional methods alongside new technologies allows researchers to study current field guides and specimens from regions like Oman and Thailand in conjunction with historical collections from these areas. The specimens offer data for historical environmental research . They provide evidence for tracking chemical changes in soil and air through analysis of heavy metals absorbed by plants. Historical carbon dioxide levels can be studied by examining leaf structures, as plants take up carbon dioxide through holes in their leaves. The specimens also enable researchers to compare historical and current flowering times, track

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6812-413: The 19th century, specimens were typically mounted on high-quality rag paper using traditional materials like wheat starch paste and animal glue . By the mid-20th century, newer materials such as polyvinyl acetate adhesives and plastic mountants were introduced, though some of these later proved problematic for long-term preservation. The basic preservation process has remained largely unchanged since

6943-656: The Africans of Nyasaland to promote local interests to the British government. In 1953, Britain linked Nyasaland with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in what was the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , often called the Central African Federation (CAF), for mainly political reasons. Even though the Federation was semi-independent, the linking provoked opposition from African nationalists, and

7074-607: The Australian Lepiota specimens at Kew to revise this genus of mushroom -forming fungi in Australia, clarifying species boundaries and establishing new combinations. For aquatic plants , Horn af Rantzien examined tropical African Najas specimens at Kew to describe new species and better understand species relationships in this challenging genus. The herbarium also enables research on plant-insect interactions through preserved evidence on specimens. Welch examined

7205-685: The Australian Section of the Herbarium, later becoming Deputy Keeper and editor of the Kew Bulletin . In this role, he cleared the mounting backlog of manuscripts and restored the publication to a regular schedule. After retirement in 1982, he continued his research as an Honorary Research Fellow, contributing accounts of the Oleaceae to various floras including the Flora of China and Flora of Thailand . Bernard Verdcourt (1925–2011)

7336-649: The Dutch mycologist Emily Kits van Waveren was able to study 28 historical type specimens, allowing him to determine that some specimens actually belonged to different genera ( Lacrymaria , Conocybe , Panaeolus ) and establish that some historic names were synonyms of already-known species. Similarly, Meinhard Moser 's studies of Cortinarius collections at Kew helped resolve the taxonomy of this notoriously difficult genus of mushrooms. The collections have been particularly important for studying plant groups from former British colonies and protectorates. Aberdeen used

7467-478: The IMF stopped aid disbursements due to corruption concerns, and many individual donors followed, resulting in an almost 80% drop in Malawi's development budget. However, in 2005, Malawi was the recipient of over US$ 575 million in aid. Many analysts believe that economic progress for Malawi depends on its ability to control population growth. A 2009 purchase of a private presidential jet followed almost immediately by

7598-974: The Index Kewensis, which only covered generic and specific names and was published quinquennially. The Kew Record organised its content into systematic groups, with entries placed under relevant plant families and genera where possible. The publication also included sections on floristics, organised by geographical regions corresponding to the herbarium's own specimen organisation system. Additional sections covered topics such as nomenclature, chromosome surveys, chemotaxonomy , anatomy and morphology , palynology , embryology , and reproductive biology . The herbarium's collections have supported landmark taxonomic revisions and continue to enable researchers to resolve taxonomic problems. For example, mycological studies using Kew's specimens have helped clarify species concepts in various fungal groups. In his examination of Berkeley and Broome's Psathyrella specimens at Kew,

7729-655: The Kew Data Portal. By July 2024, 3.4 million specimens had been digitised. Prior to this project, all 330,000 type specimens had already been digitised and made available through platforms such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and JSTOR Global Plants . The digitisation project involves specialist teams including imaging experts, data managers, quality assurance specialists, and curator-botanists. The process has revealed various conservation challenges within

7860-489: The Kew Herbarium's cultivated Quercus collection to document historical occurrences of gall wasps ( Cynipinae ) on non-British oak species, finding evidence of galls on specimens dating back to the 19th century. The herbarium's specimens support diverse scientific investigations beyond traditional taxonomy. The collection provides plant information useful for multiple research purposes. DNA analysis has become

7991-551: The Malawi Freedom Movement of Orton Chirwa and the Socialist League of Malawi , were founded in exile. Malawi's economy, while Banda was president, was often cited as an example of how a poor, landlocked, and heavily populated country deficient in mineral resources could achieve progress in both agriculture and industrial development. Under pressure for increased political freedom , Banda agreed to

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8122-613: The Malawian economy but have also drawn significant inflows of aid from other countries. Donors to Malawi include the United States, Canada, and Germany, as well as international institutions such as the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , the European Union , the African Development Bank , and UN organizations. Malawi is a member of several international organizations, including the Commonwealth ,

8253-549: The NAC gained popular support. An influential opponent of the CAF was Hastings Banda , a European-trained doctor working in Ghana who was persuaded to return to Nyasaland in 1958 to assist the nationalist cause. Banda was elected president of the NAC and worked to mobilize nationalist sentiment before being jailed by colonial authorities in 1959. He was released in 1960 and asked to help draft

8384-680: The UDF party winning 70% of the available seats. There was scheduled to be a second round of constitutionally mandated local elections in May 2005, but these were cancelled by the government. In February 2005, President Mutharika split with the United Democratic Front and began his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party , which had attracted reform-minded officials from other parties and won by-elections across

8515-735: The UN and some of its child agencies, the IMF, the World Bank, the African Union , and the World Health Organization . The country was the first in southern Africa to receive peacekeeping training under the African Crisis Response Initiative . Malawi is the 79th most peaceful country in the world (of 163), according to the 2024 Global Peace Index . As of 2017 , international observers noted issues in several human rights areas. Excessive force

8646-410: The United States followed suit, freezing a US$ 350 million grant, citing concerns regarding the government's suppression and intimidation of demonstrators and civic groups, as well as restriction of the press and police violence. Malawi has been seen as a haven for refugees from other African countries, including Mozambique and Rwanda , since 1985. These influxes of refugees have placed a strain on

8777-458: The botanical community have strongly opposed the plan. Over 15,000 people, including plant scientists worldwide and former Kew director Sir Ghillean Prance , signed a petition opposing the move. Critics argue that separating the herbarium from Kew's gardens would disrupt crucial interactions between the collection and the living plants, and impede research collaboration. They maintain that the current building could be retrofitted to safely accommodate

8908-406: The case of large specimens. To preserve their form and colour, plants collected in the field are carefully arranged and spread flat between thin sheets, known as flimsies (equivalent to sheets of newsprint), and dried, usually in a plant press , between blotters or absorbent paper. During the drying process the specimens are retained within their flimsies at all times to minimize damage, and only

9039-504: The collection, including detached plant parts and labels, deteriorated sheets, evidence of pest and mould damage, and wear from repeated handling over centuries. In response, the herbarium appointed its first dedicated Project Conservator in 2024. The collections being digitised are especially valuable as they include over 95% of known vascular plant genera and 60% of described fungi, representing more than 260 years of botanical exploration. In 2023, Kew announced controversial plans to relocate

9170-491: The collections not only for taxonomic studies but also for research in conservation planning, agricultural development, environmental science, and climate studies. The herbarium processes approximately 5,000 specimen loans annually and facilitates around 3,000 researcher visits each year, supporting botanical research worldwide. The preservation of specimens is a central aspect of the herbarium's work. Historically, various methods have been used to mount and preserve specimens. In

9301-415: The collections. While various chemical treatments have historically been used to prevent insect attack, the institution now primarily relies on deep-freezing for pest control. Documentation has similarly evolved from handwritten labels to computer-generated ones including GPS data, though historical specimens preserve important contextual details from collectors like A.F.G. Kerr 's detailed Thai specimens from

9432-689: The continental average, it was lower than the regional average for southern Africa. Its highest scores were for safety and rule of law, and its lowest scores were for sustainable economic opportunity, with a ranking of 47th on the continent for educational opportunities. Malawi's governance score had improved between 2000 and 2011. Malawi held elections in May 2019, with President Peter Mutharika winning re-election over challengers Lazarus Chakwera, Atupele Muluzi, and Saulos Chilima. In 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court annulled President Peter Mutharika's narrow election victory last year because of widespread fraud and irregularities. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won

9563-652: The country from north to south, and to the east of the valley lies Lake Malawi (also called Lake Nyasa ), making up over three-quarters of Malawi's eastern boundary. Lake Malawi is sometimes called the Calendar Lake as it is about 365 miles (587 km) long and 52 miles (84 km) wide. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 400 kilometres (250 mi) farther south in Mozambique . The surface of Lake Malawi

9694-628: The country has continued to increase since then, despite concerns regarding the treatment of workers by Chinese companies and competition of Chinese business with local companies. In 2011, a document was released in which the British ambassador to Malawi criticised President Mutharika. Mutharika expelled the ambassador from Malawi, and in July 2011, the UK announced that it was suspending all budgetary aid because of Mutharika's lack of response to criticisms of his government and economic mismanagement. On 26 July 2011,

9825-474: The country in 2006. In 2008, President Mutharika had implemented reforms to address the country's major corruption problem, with at least five senior UDF party members facing criminal charges. In 2012, Malawi was ranked 7th of all countries in sub-Saharan Africa in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance , an index that measures several variables. Although the country's governance score was higher than

9956-426: The country through its resemblance to varieties of cannabis used as a recreational drug and the difficulty in distinguishing between the two types. The cultivation of Malawian cannabis, known as Malawi Gold , as a drug has increased significantly. Malawi is known for growing "the best and finest" cannabis in the world for recreational drug use , according to a recent World Bank report, and cultivation and sales of

10087-673: The country's president, is causing Malawi to become a net exporter of food to nearby countries. The FISP ended with President Mutharika's death. In 2020, the programme was replaced with the Affordable Inputs Program (AIP), which extends the subsidy on maize seed and fertiliser to sorghum and rice seed. The main agricultural products of Malawi include tobacco , sugarcane , cotton , tea , corn , potatoes, sorghum, cattle, and goats. The main industries are tobacco, tea, and sugar processing, sawmill products, cement, and consumer goods . The industrial production growth rate

10218-615: The crop may contribute to corruption within the police force. Other exported goods are cotton, peanuts, wood products, and apparel . The main destination locations for the country's exports are South Africa, Germany, Egypt, Zimbabwe, the United States, Russia, and the Netherlands. Malawi currently imports an estimated US$ 1.625 billion in goods per year, with the main commodities being food, petroleum products, consumer goods, and transportation equipment. The main countries that Malawi imports from are South Africa, India, Zambia, Tanzania,

10349-454: The direction of Joseph Hooker. The original work contained approximately 375,000 species names. The Index has been regularly updated through supplements since its initial publication, with the herbarium staff at Kew scanning the scientific literature to document new plant names and taxonomic changes. The work evolved from providing taxonomic judgments in its early volumes to becoming a straightforward index of published names. It now forms part of

10480-583: The disabled, youth, and women. The Malawi Congress Party is the ruling party together with several other parties in the Tonse Alliance led by Lazarus Chakwera while the Democratic Progressive Party is the main opposition party. Suffrage is universal at 18 years of age, and the central government budget for 2021/2022 is $ 2.4 billion from $ 2.8 billion for the 2020/2021 financial year. The independent judicial branch

10611-539: The east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 21,240,689 (as of 2024). Malawi's capital and largest city is Lilongwe . Its second-largest is Blantyre , its third-largest is Mzuzu , and its fourth-largest is Zomba , the former capital. The part of Africa now known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by migrating Bantu groups. They formed various kingdoms such as Maravi kingdom and Nkhamanga Kingdom , among others that flourished from

10742-421: The elections (coming third) and was replaced by Peter Mutharika , the brother of ex-President Mutharika. In the 2019 Malawian general election president Peter Mutharika was narrowly re-elected. In February 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court overturned the result because of irregularities and widespread fraud. In May 2020 Malawi Supreme Court upheld the decision and announced a new election was held on July 2. This

10873-399: The flora of the south-western Pacific. During his tenure, he reorganised the herbarium's sectional structure to be based on systematic rather than geographical responsibilities. Green also played a crucial role in establishing the management of the Herbarium and Library as a single unit, which later evolved into the Herbarium, Library, Art & Archives department. Green joined Kew in 1966 in

11004-704: The galleried interior and woodwork of Wing C. The newer wings show the evolution of herbarium design – Wing E (2009) replaced the traditional wooden cupboards with wheel-operated compactor shelves and substituted windows for modern climate control systems maintaining a constant 18°C. The facility includes two cavernous basements housing specialised collections. These storage areas feature custom-made boxes designed for preserving particular specimen types, with shelving extending deep into climate-controlled storage areas. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817–1911) served as Assistant Director (1855–1865) and then Director (1865–1885) of Kew Gardens. During his tenure, he substantially expanded

11135-460: The gardens. The herbarium officially began in 1852 when the ground floor of Hunter House, an early 18th-century Queen Anne style building on Kew Green , was allocated to store both Hooker's collection and the herbarium and library of William Arnold Bromfield . Hunter House had previously been the residence of the Duke of Cumberland (later King of Hanover ) until his death in 1851, and formed part of

11266-425: The government has failed to address, including high service costs and poor infrastructure for power, water, and telecommunications. As of 2017 , it was estimated that Malawi had a purchasing power parity (PPP) of $ 22.42 billion, with a per capita GDP of $ 1200, and inflation estimated at 12.2% in 2017. Agriculture accounts for 35% of GDP, industry for 19%, and services for the remaining 46%. Malawi has one of

11397-768: The government is seen as a major issue, despite the Malawi Anti-Corruption Bureau's (ACB) attempts to reduce it. Corruption within security forces is also an issue. Malawi had one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. In 2015, Malawi raised the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18. Societal issues found included violence against women , human trafficking , and child labour . Other issues that have been raised are lack of adequate legal protection of women from sexual abuse and harassment, very high maternal mortality rate, and abuse related to accusations of witchcraft . As of 2010 , homosexuality has been illegal in Malawi. In one 2010 case,

11528-404: The grand Victorian architecture that characterises much of the herbarium. Its interior features a soaring rectangular warehouse design with three-story spiral staircases beside tall red iron columns, in what staff affectionately call a "jailhouse style." The space is flooded with natural light from enormous windows - a deliberate 19th-century design choice to minimize the use of gas lanterns around

11659-536: The growing collection. Kew management asserts that expansion at the current site is limited due to Kew's World Heritage Site status, and cites risks from flooding from the nearby River Thames and potential fire hazards. They propose redeveloping the current herbarium building, which is not open to the public, as a science quarter to display historically important specimens, including those donated by Charles Darwin. The controversy raises broader questions about herbarium access and equity in botanical science, highlighting

11790-487: The herbarium and placed into pigeonholes in herbarium cabinets. Locating a specimen filed in the herbarium requires knowing the nomenclature and classification used by the herbarium. It also requires familiarity with possible name changes that have occurred since the specimen was collected, since the specimen may be filed under an older name. Herbarium collections can have great significance and value to science, and have many uses. Herbaria have long been essential for

11921-584: The herbarium approximately 60 kilometres away to Thames Valley Science Park , owned by the University of Reading . The proposed move, estimated to cost £200 million and take a decade to complete, aims to address space constraints (the herbarium receives about 20,000 to 25,000 new specimens annually) and concerns about fire and flood risks in the current historic building. The new purpose-built facility would include labs for DNA extraction and digital imaging , with space for over 150 researchers. Some members of

12052-582: The herbarium's collections each year. About a quarter of these new accessions come from Kew staff working with international partners, while the remainder arrive through exchanges with other herbaria worldwide. Specimens are typically collected when plants are in flower or fruit to aid identification. Field collection methods have remained largely unchanged since the herbarium's founding - plants are pressed and dried between sheets in traditional flower presses before being shipped to Kew. Specimens typically arrive wrapped in newspaper from their country of origin, which

12183-982: The herbarium's collections through his own extensive botanical expeditions and by establishing a wide network of scientific exchanges. Hooker conducted several major collecting expeditions, including voyages to Antarctica and the South Pacific (1839–1843), India and the Himalayas (1847–1851), and the western United States (1877). His Indian expedition alone yielded over 150,000 specimens representing around 7,000 species. During his travels in Sikkim, he collected specimens of 25 previously unknown species of rhododendron. His botanical artwork and field sketches from these expeditions are preserved in Kew's art collection. A prolific author, Hooker formally described over 12,000 new plant species during his career. His major publications included

12314-487: The herbarium's founding, though methods have evolved over time. New acquisitions follow a specific protocol: specimens are collected and dried between sheets of paper in presses, then undergo deep-freezing to eradicate pests before awaiting examination by specialist taxonomists. After verification of plant identification, specimens are mounted on acid-free papers using appropriate adhesives that allow for future examination, then imaged, digitised, and finally incorporated into

12445-681: The idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged. The first name given to what is known now as Malawi was Nyasaland , a combination of the Lomwe word nyasa "lake" and the English word "land". The combined name was formed by David Livingstone , a Scottish explorer and missionary who led the Zambezi Expedition through the area in the mid-1800s. The current name Malawi , meaning "flames" in Chichewa and Chitumbuka ,

12576-457: The importance of maintaining accessibility for researchers. This is particularly relevant given that only 30% of the world's estimated 400 million herbarium specimens have been described online, and just 10% have been digitised. 51°29′6″N 0°17′28″W  /  51.48500°N 0.29111°W  / 51.48500; -0.29111 Herbaria The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on

12707-405: The international community increases pressure to limit tobacco production. Malawi's dependence on tobacco is growing, with the product jumping from 53% to 70% of export revenues between 2007 and 2008. The country also relies heavily on tea, sugar, and coffee, with these three plus tobacco making up more than 90% of Malawi's export revenue. Due to a rise in costs and a decline in sales prices, Malawi

12838-473: The largest herbaria in the world. The institution's internationally recognised herbarium code is K , and it is used when citing housed specimens. The collections are highly representative of global plant diversity, containing about 95% of known vascular plant genera. Of particular scientific importance are the 330,000 type specimens, which serve as nomenclatural standards for plant identification and taxonomy. Approximately 30,000 to 50,000 new specimens are added to

12969-471: The legislature. The legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly of 193 members who are elected every five years, and although the Malawian constitution provides for a Senate of 80 seats, one does not exist in practice. If created, the Senate would provide representation for traditional leaders and a variety of geographic districts, as well as special interest groups, including

13100-485: The lowest per capita incomes in the world, although economic growth was estimated at 9.7% in 2008 and strong growth is predicted by the International Monetary Fund for 2009. The poverty rate in Malawi is decreasing through the work of the government and supporting organisations, with people living under the poverty line decreasing from 54% in 1990 to 40% in 2006, and the percentage of "ultra-poor" decreasing from 24% in 1990 to 15% in 2007. In January 2015, southern Malawi

13231-403: The method of preservation, detailed information on where and when the plant and fungus was collected, habitat, color (since it may fade over time), and the name of the collector is usually included. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of types , that is, the original specimens on which the study of a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum , which

13362-434: The military. By 1700, however, the empire had broken up into areas controlled by many individual ethnic groups. The Indian Ocean slave trade reached its height in the mid-1800s, when approximately 20,000 people per year were believed to have been enslaved and transported from Nkhotakota to Kilwa where they were sold. Missionary and explorer David Livingstone reached Lake Malawi (then Lake Nyasa ) in 1859 and identified

13493-412: The multi-volume Flora of British India and Genera Plantarum , the latter written with George Bentham establishing a systematic structure for plant classification that remained in use at Kew for over 130 years. Peter Shaw Green (1920–2009) served as Keeper of the Herbarium and Deputy Director of Kew Gardens from 1975 to 1982. He was particularly known for his expertise in the taxonomy of Oleaceae and

13624-755: The nation, on condition they would be housed at Kew and remain accessible to botanists. After William Hooker's death in 1865, the government purchased his herbarium and library in 1866. Many significant historical collections were incorporated during this early period, including Allan Cunningham 's Australasian specimens, William John Burchell 's collections from Saint Helena and South Africa, Robert Brown 's British specimens, Hewett Watson 's British collections, Amelia Griffiths 's algae, William Wright and Johan Peter Rottler 's Indian specimens, and several general herbaria. The extensive Indian collections of Hooker and Thomas Thomson that reached Kew in 1851 contained an estimated 8,000 species. Another valuable acquisition

13755-502: The new species, which can produce leaves up to 3.2 meters in diameter – larger than any other water lily species. Despite modern technological advances like GPS devices and digital cameras, many fundamental research practices at the herbarium remain unchanged from Victorian times. As herbarium researcher André Schuiteman noted in 2013, "We still look at plants stuck to a piece of paper... We still go to faraway places and collect samples. We keep up with our times, but we also still keep to

13886-488: The north. To the south of Lake Malawi lies the Shire Highlands , gently rolling land at approximately 914 metres (3,000 ft) above sea level. In this area, the Zomba and Mulanje mountain peaks rise to respective heights of 2,134 and 3,048 metres (7,000 and 10,000 ft). Malawi's capital is Lilongwe , and its commercial centre is Blantyre , with a population of over 500,000 people. Malawi has two sites listed on

14017-419: The paper specimens. Vast handcrafted wooden cupboards are arranged in rows, creating what staff call small "cells" between the stacks that point toward the centre of the room. The historic wing has a unique atmosphere, marked by the scent of old paper and preserved specimens. Subsequent wings retained similar architectural features to the original design through the early 20th century, with Wing B (1902) matching

14148-431: The past 250 years. In 2022, Kew began an ambitious four-year digitisation project to create a complete digital catalogue of its herbarium and fungarium collections, which together comprise approximately 8.5 million specimens. Estimated to cost £29 million, it is the largest project in Kew's history, with the goal of completion by 2026. The project aims to make high-resolution images and specimen data freely available through

14279-751: The plant, altitude, and special habitat conditions. The sheet is then placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect attack, the pressed plant is frozen or poisoned, and the case disinfected. Certain groups of plants and fungi are soft, bulky, or otherwise not amenable to drying and mounting on sheets. For these plants, other methods of preparation and storage may be used. For example, conifer cones and palm fronds may be stored in labelled boxes. Representative flowers or fruits may be pickled in formaldehyde to preserve their three-dimensional structure. Small specimens, such as saprophytic and plant parasitic microfungi , mosses and lichens , are often air-dried and packaged in small paper envelopes. No matter

14410-581: The richest lake fish faunas in the world , being the home for some 200 mammals, 650 birds, 30+ mollusk, and 5,500+ plant species. Seven terrestrial ecoregions lie within Malawi's borders: Central Zambezian miombo woodlands , Eastern miombo woodlands , Southern miombo woodlands , Zambezian and mopane woodlands , Zambezian flooded grasslands , South Malawi montane forest-grassland mosaic , and Southern Rift montane forest-grassland mosaic . There are five national parks , four wildlife and game reserves and two other protected areas in Malawi. The country had

14541-808: The spread of invasive species , and study changes in biodiversity in specific locations over time. In agricultural applications, the collections support plant breeding programs by helping identify genetic traits controlling characteristics like height and colour. They also aid in understanding plant diseases – for example, historical specimens helped trace the progression of the 1840s potato blight . The collections continue to be used by researchers to identify threatened species , study biodiversity patterns, and inform conservation planning. Historical specimens provide baseline data for studying environmental and climate change. The collections are also valuable for fields beyond botany – historians use them as records of discovery, exploration, and scientific collaborations over

14672-543: The storms reaching their peak severity in late March. After March, the rainfall rapidly diminishes, and from May to September, wet mists float from the highlands into the plateaus, with almost no rainfall during these months. Animal life indigenous to Malawi includes mammals such as elephants, hippos, antelopes, buffaloes, big cats, monkeys, rhinos, and bats; a great variety of birds , including birds of prey, parrots, and falcons; waterfowl and large waders; and owls and songbirds. Lake Malawi has been described as having one of

14803-688: The study of plant taxonomy , the study of geographic distributions, and the stabilizing of nomenclature. Most of Carl Linnaeus 's collections are housed at the Linnaean Herbarium , which contains over 4,000 types and now belongs to the Linnean Society in England. Modern scientists continue to develop novel, non-traditional uses for herbarium specimens that extend beyond what the original collectors could have anticipated. Specimens housed in herbaria may be used to catalogue or identify

14934-529: The thicker, absorbent drying sheets are replaced. For some plants it may prove helpful to allow the fresh specimen to wilt slightly before being arranged for the press. An opportunity to check, rearrange and further lay out the specimen to best reveal the required features of the plant occurs when the damp absorbent sheets are changed during the drying/pressing process. The specimens, which are then mounted on sheets of stiff white paper, are labelled with all essential data, such as date and place found, description of

15065-582: The tribes had established several kingdoms such as the Maravi that reached from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River and from Lake Malawi to the Luangwa River in what is now Zambia and the Nkhamanga. Soon after 1600, with the area mostly united under one native ruler, native tribesmen began encountering, trading with and making alliances with Portuguese traders and members of

15196-643: The whole of present-day Malawi as the British Central Africa Protectorate . In 1907, the protectorate was renamed Nyasaland , a name it retained for the remainder of its time under British rule. In an example of what is sometimes called the "Thin White Line" of colonial authority in Africa, the colonial government of Nyasaland was formed in 1891. The administrators were given a budget of £10,000 (1891 nominal value) per year, which

15327-535: The world, in approximate order of decreasing size, are: Malawi Malawi ( / m ə ˈ l ɑː w i / ; lit.   ' flames ' in Chichewa and Chitumbuka ), officially the Republic of Malawi and formerly known as Nyasaland , is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa . It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to

15458-570: Was elected . Although the political environment was described as "challenging", it was stated in 2009 that a multi-party system still existed in Malawi. Multiparty parliamentary and presidential elections were held for the fourth time in Malawi in May 2009, and President Mutharika was successfully re-elected, despite charges of election fraud from his rival. President Mutharika was seen by some as increasingly autocratic and dismissive of human rights, and in July 2011 protests over high costs of living, devolving foreign relations, poor governance and

15589-641: Was a prolific taxonomist who worked at Kew from 1964 to 2008, first as Principal Scientific Officer and later as an Honorary Research Fellow. He made substantial contributions to the Flora of Tropical East Africa, authoring over one-fifth of this major work which covered 12,500 species. Verdcourt published extensively on the taxonomy of various plant families , including Rubiaceae , Leguminosae , Convolvulaceae and Annonaceae . During his career, he contributed more than 1,220 scientific papers and books, focusing not only on botany but also on malacology and entomology. He

15720-502: Was chosen by the first president of Malawi , Kamuzu Banda , after the country achieved its independence from Great Britain in 1964. The area of Africa now known as Malawi had a very small population of hunter-gatherers before waves of Bantu peoples began emigrating from the north around the 10th century CE. Although most of the Bantu peoples continued south, some remained and founded ethnic groups based on common ancestry. By 1500,

15851-590: Was declared President for life in 1971. Independence were characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship. After the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda lost the 1994 general election . Today, Malawi has a democratic , multi-party republic headed by an elected president. According to the 2024 V-Dem Democracy indices , Malawi is ranked 74th electoral democracy worldwide and 11th electoral democracy in Africa . The country maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations , including

15982-522: Was demonstrated in 2022 when specimens in its collection helped identify Victoria boliviana , the world's largest water lily species. Despite samples being in Kew's collection for almost two centuries, the species went unrecognised until Carlos Magdalena  [ ast ] , one of Kew's water lily experts, collaborated with Bolivian institutions to study seeds from specimens suspected to be of novel species. The subsequent research combined traditional botanical examination with genetic testing to confirm

16113-488: Was enough to employ ten European civilians, two military officers, seventy Punjabi Sikhs and eighty-five Zanzibar porters . These few employees were then expected to administer and police a territory of around 94,000 square kilometres with between one and two million people. That same year, slavery came to its complete cessation. In 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was formed by

16244-624: Was hit by floods. These floods affected more than a million people across the country, including 336,000 who were displaced, according to UNICEF . Over 100 people were killed, and an estimated 64,000 hectares of cropland were washed away. The economy of Malawi is predominantly agricultural. Over 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming, even though agriculture only contributed to 27% of GDP in 2013. The services sector accounts for more than half of GDP (54%), compared to 11% for manufacturing and 8% for other industries, including natural uranium mining. Malawi invests more in agriculture (as

16375-481: Was kept secret, including an elaborate flight with the body to South Africa, where the ambulance drivers refused to move the body, saying they were not licensed to move a corpse. After the South African government threatened to reveal the information, the presidential title was taken over by Vice-President Joyce Banda (no relation to Hastings Banda). In the 2014 Malawian general election , Joyce Banda lost

16506-506: Was particularly known for his meticulous attention to detail in plant taxonomy and his willingness to assist younger botanists. His taxonomic work was recognised with several honours, including the Kew Medal in 1986 and the Linnean Society's Gold Medal in 2000. The size of the collection has been a subject of historical interest. In 1953, for the herbarium's centenary, it was estimated to contain approximately 6 million specimens. However,

16637-458: Was seen to be used by police forces and security forces with impunity, mob violence was occasionally seen, and prison conditions continued to be harsh and sometimes life-threatening. However, the government was seen to make some effort to prosecute security forces who used excessive force. Other legal issues included limits on free speech and freedom of the press , lengthy pretrial detentions, and arbitrary arrests and detentions. Corruption within

16768-481: Was the first time an election in the country was legally challenged. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won the 2020 Malawian presidential election and he was sworn in as the new president of Malawi. Malawi is a unitary presidential republic under the leadership of President Lazarus Chakwera . The current constitution was put into place on 18 May 1995. The branches of the government consist of executive , legislative , and judicial . The executive includes

16899-525: Was the herbarium of Jacques Gay, which arrived at Kew in 1868. This collection included early specimens from Senegal collected in the 1820s by Claude Richard, the founder of the Richard Tol botanical gardens, and by Döllinger (who collected in Senegal during 1823, particularly around Richard Tol). Many of these specimens were originally sent to Gay by Baron Jacques François Roger  [ fr ] ,

17030-525: Was then glued onto a page in a book and annotated. This practice was supplemented by the parallel development of the Hortus simplicium or Orto botanico ( botanical garden ) to supply material, which he established at the University of Pisa in 1544. Although Ghini's herbarium has not survived, the oldest extant herbarium is that of Gherardo Cibo from around 1532. and in the Lower Countries

17161-703: Was used to dry them in the field. Each specimen includes a collector's label with provisional identification and contextual information, often accompanied by field notes, maps, and notebooks that provide valuable details about the time and place of collection. Once received, specimens require specialised preservation methods depending on their type, with facilities like custom storage boxes for delicate specimens such as cacti. The herbarium regularly supports international research through specimen loans and visiting researchers. Around 10,000 specimens are sent out annually as loans or exchanges to scientists worldwide. The facility hosts hundreds of visiting researchers each year, who use

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