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108-509: Keiler is a river icebreaker commissioned in December 2011 to serve as the flagship of Lauenburg 's Water and Shipping Authority fleet of ten icebreakers, on the Elbe River . The vessel is 33.21 metres (109.0 ft) long and 8.45 metres (27.7 ft) wide. She has a crew of four, and has sleeping and dining accommodation for operations that take longer than a single shift. She is

216-858: A Yupik peoples , one of eight groups of Alaska Natives that inhabit the southern-central coast of the region. The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area. But, it is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island , and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound . Residents of Nanwalek , located on southern part of

324-592: A non-governmental organization (NGO), claims to represent 180,000 people. In the Eskaleut language family , the Eskimo branch has an Inuit language sub-branch, and a sub-branch of four Yupik languages . Two Yupik languages are used in the Russian Far East as well as on St. Lawrence Island , and two in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and western Southcentral Alaska . The extinct Sirenik language

432-582: A combined propulsion power of 34,000 kW (46,000 hp). In Canada, diesel-electric icebreakers started to be built in 1952, first with HMCS Labrador (was transferred later to the Canadian Coast Guard), using the USCG Wind -class design but without the bow propeller. Then in 1960, the next step in the Canadian development of large icebreakers came when CCGS  John A. Macdonald

540-670: A consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is difficult, since Alaska Natives do not use the word Inuit to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicable only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada like Paleo Inuit and Ancestral Inuit would not be acceptable. American linguist Lenore Grenoble has also explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to

648-555: A designation for all circumpolar Native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term. They voted to replace the word Eskimo with Inuit . Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all. As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit ( Inuk in singular). The ICC charter defines Inuit as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)". Despite

756-625: A heavy icebreaker must perform Operation Deep Freeze , clearing a safe path for resupply ships to the National Science Foundation ’s facility McMurdo in Antarctica. The most recent multi-month excursion was led by the Polar Star which escorted a container and fuel ship through treacherous conditions before maintaining the channel free of ice. Icebreakers are often described as ships that drive their sloping bows onto

864-535: A hull that is wider in the bow than in the stern. These so-called "reamers" increase the width of the ice channel and thus reduce frictional resistance in the aftship as well as improve the ship's maneuverability in ice. In addition to low friction paint, some icebreakers utilize an explosion-welded abrasion-resistant stainless steel ice belt that further reduces friction and protects the ship's hull from corrosion. Auxiliary systems such as powerful water deluges and air bubbling systems are used to reduce friction by forming

972-524: A lubricating layer between the hull and the ice. Pumping water between tanks on both sides of the vessel results in continuous rolling that reduces friction and makes progress through the ice easier. Experimental bow designs such as the flat Thyssen-Waas bow and a cylindrical bow have been tried over the years to further reduce the ice resistance and create an ice-free channel. Icebreakers and other ships operating in ice-filled waters require additional structural strengthening against various loads resulting from

1080-417: A nuclear-powered icebreaking cargo ship, Sevmorput , which had a single nuclear reactor and a steam turbine directly coupled to the propeller shaft. Russia, which remains the sole operator of nuclear-powered icebreakers, is currently building 60,000 kW (80,000 hp) icebreakers to replace the aging Arktika class. The first vessel of this type entered service in 2020. A hovercraft can break ice by

1188-539: A period of several centuries, its speakers migrated across northern Alaska, through Canada, and into Greenland. The distinct culture of the Thule people (drawing strongly from the Birnirk culture ) developed in northwestern Alaska. It very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo peoples, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them. The Eskimo–Aleut family of languages includes two cognate branches:

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1296-518: A short parallel midship to improve maneuverability in ice. However, the spoon-shaped bow and round hull have poor hydrodynamic efficiency and seakeeping characteristics, and make the icebreaker susceptible to slamming , or the impacting of the bottom structure of the ship onto the sea surface. For this reason, the hull of an icebreaker is often a compromise between minimum ice resistance, maneuverability in ice, low hydrodynamic resistance, and adequate open water characteristics. Some icebreakers have

1404-470: A snowshoe' in Innu, and Innu language speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound like eskimo . This interpretation is generally confirmed by more recent academic sources. In 1978, José Mailhot , a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that Eskimo meant 'people who speak a different language'. French traders who encountered

1512-641: A vertical axis. These thrusters improve propulsion efficiency, icebreaking capability and maneuverability of the vessel. The use of azimuth thrusters also allows a ship to move astern in ice without losing manoeuvrability. This has led to the development of double acting ships , vessels with the stern shaped like an icebreaker's bow and the bow designed for open water performance. In this way, the ship remains economical to operate in open water without compromising its ability to operate in difficult ice conditions. Azimuth thrusters have also made it possible to develop new experimental icebreakers that operate sideways to open

1620-499: A vise and causing damage. This vise-like action is caused by the force of winds and tides on ice formations. The first boats to be used in the polar waters were those of the Eskimos . Their kayaks are small human-powered boats with a covered deck, and one or more cockpits, each seating one paddler who strokes a single or double-bladed paddle . Such boats have no icebreaking capabilities, but they are light and well fit to carry over

1728-649: A voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present. The Eskimo sub-family consists of the Inuit language and Yupik language sub-groups. The Sirenikski language , which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family. Other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch. Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum , or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalakleet and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east to Greenland. Changes from western (Iñupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by

1836-593: A wide channel through ice. The steam-powered icebreakers were resurrected in the late 1950s when the Soviet Union commissioned the first nuclear-powered icebreaker , Lenin , in 1959. It had a nuclear-turbo-electric powertrain in which the nuclear reactor was used to produce steam for turbogenerators , which in turn produced electricity for propulsion motors. Starting from 1975, the Russians commissioned six Arktika -class nuclear icebreakers . Soviets also built

1944-676: A year, started being settled. The mixed ethnic group of the Karelians and the Russians in the North-Russia that lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean became known as Pomors ("seaside settlers"). Gradually they developed a special type of small one- or two-mast wooden sailing ships , used for voyages in the ice conditions of the Arctic seas and later on Siberian rivers. These earliest icebreakers were called kochi . The koch's hull

2052-540: Is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically. Differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any one of the Yupik languages are greater than between any two Yupik languages. Even the dialectal differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically. Despite

2160-466: Is sometimes claimed to be related. A variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo . According to Smithsonian linguist Ives Goddard , etymologically the word derives from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) word ayas̆kimew , meaning 'a person who laces a snowshoe ', and is related to husky (a breed of dog). The word assime·w means 'she laces

2268-552: Is that, in multiple Eskimo languages, there are, or have been in simultaneous usage, indeed fifty plus words for snow. Historically, Inuit cuisine , which is taken here to include Greenlandic , Yupʼik and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of

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2376-548: Is the preferred term, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit . The language is often called Inuktitut , though other local designations are also used. Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada . Although Inuit can be applied to all of

2484-451: Is to perform model tests in an ice tank . Regardless of the method, the actual performance of new icebreakers is verified in full scale ice trials once the ship has been built. In order to minimize the icebreaking forces, the hull lines of an icebreaker are usually designed so that the flare at the waterline is as small as possible. As a result, icebreaking ships are characterized by a sloping or rounded stem as well as sloping sides and

2592-611: Is understood that some or all of these ancient people migrated across the Chukchi Sea to North America during the pre-neolithic era, somewhere around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. It is believed that ancestors of the Aleut people inhabited the Aleutian Chain 10,000 years ago. The earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures ( Early Paleo-Eskimo ) date to 5,000 years ago. Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in

2700-411: The Aleut (Unangan) branch and the Eskimo branch. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to those of the Eskimo subfamily. Eskimo–Aleut languages possess voiceless plosives at the bilabial , coronal , velar and uvular positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops but retained the nasal . In the Eskimo subfamily

2808-583: The Aleut , who inhabit the Aleutian Islands , are generally excluded from the definition of Eskimo . The three groups share a relatively recent common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to the family of Eskaleut languages . These circumpolar peoples have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada , Nunavik , Nunatsiavut , and Greenland . Some Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider

2916-672: The Baltic Sea , the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence Seaway , and along the Northern Sea Route , the main function of icebreakers is to escort convoys of one or more ships safely through ice-filled waters. When a ship becomes immobilized by ice, the icebreaker has to free it by breaking the ice surrounding the ship and, if necessary, open a safe passage through the ice field. In difficult ice conditions,

3024-987: The Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula. Utqiaġvik , the northernmost city in the United States, is above the Arctic Circle and in the Iñupiat region. Their language is known as Iñupiaq . Their current communities include 34 villages across Iñupiat Nunaŋat (Iñupiaq lands) including seven Alaskan villages in the North Slope Borough , affiliated with the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation ; eleven villages in Northwest Arctic Borough ; and sixteen villages affiliated with

3132-863: The Bering Straits Regional Corporation . The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon - Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River ( Central Alaskan Yup'ik ); in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq ); and along the eastern coast of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik ). The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by

3240-623: The Greenlandic language and Danish. Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut ; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"); and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun . The word Eskimo is a racially charged term in Canada. In Canada's Central Arctic, Inuinnaq

3348-761: The Innu (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as Esquimau or Esquimaux in a transliteration. Some people consider Eskimo offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean 'eaters of raw meat' in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast. An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been askamiciw (meaning 'he eats it raw'); Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as askipiw (meaning 'eats something raw). Regardless,

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3456-697: The Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut ; the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"), and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun . The four Yupik languages , by contrast, including Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik , Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik , are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences. They demonstrate limited mutual intelligibility. Additionally, both Alutiiq and Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages – Siberian Yupik and Naukan Yupik – are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than

3564-537: The Northwest Territories , Nunavut , Quebec , and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals , and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on

3672-529: The St. Lawrence River . Icebreakers were built in order to maintain the river free of ice jam, east of Montréal . In about the same time, Canada had to fill its obligations in the Canadian Arctic. Large steam icebreakers, like the 80-metre (260 ft) CGS  N.B. McLean (1930) and CGS  D'Iberville (1952), were built for this dual use (St. Lawrence flood prevention and Arctic replenishment). At

3780-526: The United States Coast Guard , have a combined diesel-electric and mechanical propulsion system that consists of six diesel engines and three gas turbines . While the diesel engines are coupled to generators that produce power for three propulsion motors, the gas turbines are directly coupled to the propeller shafts driving controllable pitch propellers. The diesel-electric power plant can produce up to 13,000 kW (18,000 hp) while

3888-535: The Wind class . Research in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union led to a design that had a very strongly built short and wide hull, with a cut away forefoot and a rounded bottom. Powerful diesel-electric machinery drove two stern and one auxiliary bow propeller. These features would become the standard for postwar icebreakers until the 1980s. Since the mid-1970s, the most powerful diesel-electric icebreakers have been

3996-619: The 15th century the use of ice breakers in Flanders ( Oudenaarde , Kortrijk , Ieper , Veurne , Diksmuide and Hulst ) was already well established. The use of the ice breaking barges expanded in the 17th century where every town of some importance in the Low Country used some form of icebreaker to keep their waterways clear. Before the 17th century the specifications of icebreakers are unknown. The specifications for ice breaking vessels show that they were dragged by teams of horses and

4104-529: The 2000s, International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) has proposed adopting an unified system known as the Polar Class (PC) to replace classification society specific ice class notations. Since the Second World War , most icebreakers have been built with diesel-electric propulsion in which diesel engines coupled to generators produce electricity for propulsion motors that turn

4212-681: The 21st century, usage in North America has declined. Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit. In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term Eskimo is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term Inuit   or terms specific to a particular group or community. This has resulted in a trend whereby some non-Indigenous people believe that they should use Inuit even for Yupik who are non- Inuit . Greenlandic Inuit generally refer to themselves as Greenlanders ( Kalaallit or Grønlændere ) and speak

4320-527: The Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates Eskimo is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners." Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater ) and agreed with Frieson in using the Inuit tradition to replace Neo-Eskimo , although they noted replacement for Palaeoeskimo

4428-557: The Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language. It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children. About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak Naukanski. The Naukan originate on

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4536-424: The Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term Eskimo is still used because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik , who are not. The term Alaska Native is inclusive of (and under U.S. and Alaskan law, as well as the linguistic and cultural legacy of Alaska, refers to) all Indigenous peoples of Alaska, including not only

4644-520: The ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term Inuit , this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people. In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use Inuit and Paleo-Inuit instead of Eskimo or Paleo-Eskimo . In a 2015 commentary in the journal Arctic , Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use Paleo-Inuit instead of Paleo-Eskimo . In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and Arctic editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In

4752-806: The Iñupiat (Alaskan Inuit) and the Yupik, but also groups such as the Aleut, who share a recent ancestor, as well as the largely unrelated indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Alaskan Athabaskans , such as the Eyak people . The term Alaska Native has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating outside

4860-643: The Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia , speak what they call Sugpiaq. They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language. Yup'ik , with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language , who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to

4968-502: The Soviet Union. Two shallow-draft Taymyr -class nuclear icebreakers were built in Finland for the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. In May 2007, sea trials were completed for the nuclear-powered Russian icebreaker NS 50 Let Pobedy . The vessel was put into service by Murmansk Shipping Company, which manages all eight Russian state-owned nuclear icebreakers. The keel was originally laid in 1989 by Baltic Works of Leningrad , and

5076-1144: The Yukon–Alaska border in the west across the Arctic to northern Labrador. The Inuvialuit live in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region , the northern part of Yukon and the Northwest Territories , which stretches to the Amundsen Gulf and the Nunavut border and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands . The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement. The majority of Inuit live in Nunavut (a territory of Canada ), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec ) and in Nunatsiavut (Inuit settlement region in Labrador ). The Iñupiat are Inuit of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs and

5184-561: The Yupik branch. An overview of the Eskimo–Aleut languages family is given below: American linguist Lenore Grenoble has explicitly deferred to this resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch. There has been a long-running linguistic debate about whether or not the speakers of the Eskimo-Aleut language group have an unusually large number of words for snow. The general modern consensus

5292-596: The altered bow Pilot ' s design from Britnev to make his own icebreaker, Eisbrecher I . The first true modern sea-going icebreaker was built at the turn of the 20th century. Icebreaker Yermak , was built in 1899 at the Armstrong Whitworth naval yard in England under contract from the Imperial Russian Navy . The ship borrowed the main principles from Pilot and applied them to

5400-542: The beginning of the 20th century, several other countries began to operate purpose-built icebreakers. Most were coastal icebreakers, but Canada, Russia, and later, the Soviet Union , also built several oceangoing icebreakers up to 11,000 tons in displacement. Before the first diesel-electric icebreakers were built in the 1930s, icebreakers were either coal- or oil-fired steam ships . Reciprocating steam engines were preferred in icebreakers due to their reliability, robustness, good torque characteristics, and ability to reverse

5508-460: The bow altered to achieve an ice-clearing capability (20° raise from keel line). This allowed Pilot to push herself on the top of the ice and consequently break it. Britnev fashioned the bow of his ship after the shape of old Pomor boats, which had been navigating icy waters of the White Sea and Barents Sea for centuries. Pilot was used between 1864 and 1890 for navigation in the Gulf of Finland between Kronstadt and Oranienbaum thus extending

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5616-466: The contact between the hull of the vessel and the surrounding ice. As ice pressures vary between different regions of the hull, the most reinforced areas in the hull of an icegoing vessel are the bow, which experiences the highest ice loads, and around the waterline, with additional strengthening both above and below the waterline to form a continuous ice belt around the ship. Short and stubby icebreakers are generally built using transverse framing in which

5724-422: The creation of the first polar icebreaker, which was able to run over and crush pack ice . The ship displaced 5,000 tons, and her steam- reciprocating engines delivered 10,000 horsepower (7,500 kW). The ship was decommissioned in 1963 and scrapped in 1964, making her one of the longest serving icebreakers in the world. In Canada, the government needed to provide a way to prevent flooding due to ice jam on

5832-487: The dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another. Seward Peninsula dialects in western Alaska, where much of the Iñupiat culture has been in place for perhaps less than 500 years, are greatly affected by phonological influence from the Yupik languages. Eastern Greenlandic , at the opposite end of Inuit range, has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name avoidance. Ethnographically, Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups:

5940-628: The diesel-electric powertrain is the preferred choice for icebreakers due to the good low-speed torque characteristics of the electric propulsion motors, icebreakers have also been built with diesel engines mechanically coupled to reduction gearboxes and controllable pitch propellers . The mechanical powertrain has several advantages over diesel-electric propulsion systems, such as lower weight and better fuel efficiency. However, diesel engines are sensitive to sudden changes in propeller revolutions, and to counter this mechanical powertrains are usually fitted with large flywheels or hydrodynamic couplings to absorb

6048-407: The direction of rotation quickly. During the steam era, the most powerful pre-war steam-powered icebreakers had a propulsion power of about 10,000 shaft horsepower (7,500 kW). The world's first diesel-electric icebreaker was the 4,330-ton Swedish icebreaker Ymer in 1933. At 9,000 hp (6,700 kW) divided between two propellers in the stern and one propeller in the bow, she remained

6156-406: The dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., kumlu , meaning "thumb", changes to kuvlu , changes to kublu , changes to kulluk , changes to kulluq , ) and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on

6264-475: The end of the Age of Sail also featured the egg-shaped form like that of Pomor boats, for example the Fram , used by Fridtjof Nansen and other great Norwegian Polar explorers . Fram was the wooden ship to have sailed farthest north (85°57'N) and farthest south (78°41'S), and one of the strongest wooden ships ever built. An early ship designed to operate in icy conditions was a 51-metre (167 ft) wooden paddle steamer , City Ice Boat No. 1 , that

6372-500: The first North American surface vessels to reach the North Pole. The vessel was originally scheduled to be decommissioned in 2000; however, a refit extended the decommissioning date to 2017. It is now planned to be kept in service through the 2020s pending the introduction of two new polar icebreakers, CCGS  Arpatuuq and CCGS  Imnaryuaq , for the Coast Guard. Russia currently operates all existing and functioning nuclear-powered icebreakers. The first one, NS Lenin ,

6480-510: The first icebreaker built for the water authority in 24 years. In February 2012 the upper reaches of the Elbe were beset by the worst ice jams since 1987. The jams were 20 kilometers long, and upstream communities faced flooding as water built up behind the ice dams. The Keiler and sister ships Büffel , Widder , and Wisent were dispatched from their normal stations to attack the ice jam. They had to be careful blocks of ice they freed did not form jams downstream. This crisis represents

6588-407: The first time the water authorities icebreakers were used at night. Icebreaker For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack: a strengthened hull , an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice . Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into frozen-over water or pack ice . The bending strength of sea ice is low enough that

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6696-511: The fixed pitch propellers. The first diesel-electric icebreakers were built with direct current (DC) generators and propulsion motors, but over the years the technology advanced first to alternating current (AC) generators and finally to frequency-controlled AC-AC systems. In modern diesel-electric icebreakers, the propulsion system is built according to the power plant principle in which the main generators supply electricity for all onboard consumers and no auxiliary engines are needed. Although

6804-403: The formerly Soviet and later Russian icebreakers Ermak , Admiral Makarov and Krasin which have nine twelve-cylinder diesel generators producing electricity for three propulsion motors with a combined output of 26,500 kW (35,500 hp). In the late 2020s, they will be surpassed by the new Canadian polar icebreakers CCGS  Arpatuuq and CCGS  Imnaryuaq , which will have

6912-503: The gas turbines have a continuous combined rating of 45,000 kW (60,000 hp). The number, type and location of the propellers depends on the power, draft and intended purpose of the vessel. Smaller icebreakers and icebreaking special purpose ships may be able to do with just one propeller while large polar icebreakers typically need up to three large propellers to absorb all power and deliver enough thrust. Some shallow draught river icebreakers have been built with four propellers in

7020-484: The harvest of marine mammals , especially seals , walrus , and whales . The Alutiiq (pronounced / ə ˈ l uː t ɪ k / ə- LOO -tik in English; from Promyshlenniki Russian Алеутъ, " Aleut "; plural often "Alutiit"), also called by their ancestral name Sugpiaq ( / ˈ s ʊ ɡ ˌ b j ɑː k / SUUG -byahk or / ˈ s ʊ ɡ p i ˌ æ k / SUUG -pee- AK ; plural often "Sugpiat"), as well as Pacific Eskimo or Pacific Yupik, are

7128-429: The heavy weight of the ship pushed down on the ice breaking it. They were used in conjunction with teams of men with axes and saws and the technology behind them didn't change much until the industrial revolution. Ice-strengthened ships were used in the earliest days of polar exploration. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but reinforced, particularly around the waterline with double planking to

7236-412: The hull and strengthening cross members inside the ship. Bands of iron were wrapped around the outside. Sometimes metal sheeting was placed at the bows, at the stern, and along the keel. Such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also to protect the ship in case it was "nipped" by the ice. Nipping occurs when ice floes around a ship are pushed against the ship, trapping it as if in

7344-416: The hull and the ice, and allowed the icebreakers to penetrate thick ice ridges without ramming. However, the bow propellers are not suitable for polar icebreakers operating in the presence of harder multi-year ice and thus have not been used in the Arctic. Azimuth thrusters remove the need of traditional propellers and rudders by having the propellers in steerable gondolas that can rotate 360 degrees around

7452-423: The ice and break it under the weight of the ship. In reality, this only happens in very thick ice where the icebreaker will proceed at walking pace or may even have to repeatedly back down several ship lengths and ram the ice pack at full power. More commonly the ice, which has a relatively low flexural strength , is easily broken and submerged under the hull without a noticeable change in the icebreaker's trim while

7560-422: The ice breaks usually without noticeable change in the vessel's trim . In cases of very thick ice, an icebreaker can drive its bow onto the ice to break it under the weight of the ship. A buildup of broken ice in front of a ship can slow it down much more than the breaking of the ice itself, so icebreakers have a specially designed hull to direct the broken ice around or under the vessel. The external components of

7668-414: The ice. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Viking expansion reached the North Atlantic , and eventually Greenland and Svalbard in the Arctic. Vikings , however, operated their ships in the waters that were ice-free for most of the year, in the conditions of the Medieval Warm Period . In the 11th century, in North Russia the coasts of the White Sea , named so for being ice-covered for over half of

7776-527: The ice. Clothing consisted of robes made of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures. They maintain a unique Inuit culture . Greenlandic Inuit make up 90% of Greenland's population. They belong to three major groups: Canadian Inuit live primarily in Inuit Nunangat (lit. "lands, waters and ices of the [Inuit] people"), their traditional homeland although some people live in southern parts of Canada. Inuit Nunangat ranges from

7884-403: The icebreaker can also tow the weakest ships. Some icebreakers are also used to support scientific research in the Arctic and Antarctic. In addition to icebreaking capability, the ships need to have reasonably good open-water characteristics for transit to and from the polar regions, facilities and accommodation for the scientific personnel, and cargo capacity for supplying research stations on

7992-526: The language branch. Genetic evidence suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves. While the great majority of indigenous American peoples can be traced to a single early migration of Paleo-Indians , the Na-Dené , Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit admixture from distinct populations that migrated into America at a later date and are closely linked to

8100-711: The language. The five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik include General Central Yup'ik, and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, and Nunivak dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called Cup'ik . Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska. The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on

8208-576: The level of ice strengthening in the ship's hull. It is usually determined by the maximum ice thickness where the ship is expected to operate and other requirements such as possible limitations on ramming. While the ice class is generally an indication of the level of ice strengthening, not the actual icebreaking capability of an icebreaker, some classification societies such as the Russian Maritime Register of Shipping have operational capability requirements for certain ice classes. Since

8316-412: The more spread-out hull loads. While the shell plating, which is in direct contact with the ice, can be up to 50 millimetres (2.0 in) thick in older polar icebreakers, the use of high strength steel with yield strength up to 500 MPa (73,000 psi) in modern icebreakers results in the same structural strength with smaller material thicknesses and lower steel weight. Regardless of the strength,

8424-525: The most powerful Swedish icebreaker until the commissioning of Oden in 1957. Ymer was followed by the Finnish Sisu , the first diesel-electric icebreaker in Finland, in 1939. Both vessels were decommissioned in the 1970s and replaced by much larger icebreakers in both countries, the 1976-built Sisu in Finland and the 1977-built Ymer in Sweden. In 1941, the United States started building

8532-405: The nation's presence in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. As the icecaps in the Arctic continue to melt, there are more passageways being discovered. These possible navigation routes cause an increase of interests in the polar hemispheres from nations worldwide. The United States polar icebreakers must continue to support scientific research in the expanding Arctic and Antarctic oceans. Every year,

8640-545: The north side of Bristol Bay , on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta , and on Nelson Island . The use of the apostrophe in the name Yup'ik is a written convention to denote the long pronunciation of the p sound; but it is spoken the same in other Yupik languages . Of all the Alaska Native languages , Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking

8748-467: The northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland). The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in eastern Asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier. The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with

8856-603: The original pre-Dorset Indigenous culture developed in Alaska. At least 4,000 years ago, the Unangan culture of the Aleut became distinct. It is not generally considered an Eskimo culture. However, there is some possibility of an Aleutian origin of the Dorset people, who in turn are a likely ancestor of today's Inuit and Yupik. Approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, apparently in northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. Inuit language became distinct and, over

8964-403: The peoples of far northeastern Asia (e.g. Chukchi ), and only more remotely to the majority indigenous American type. For modern Eskimo–Aleut speakers, this later ancestral component makes up almost half of their genomes. The ancient Paleo-Eskimo population was genetically distinct from the modern circumpolar populations, but eventually derives from the same far northeastern Asian cluster. It

9072-465: The protected object. In the past, such operations were carried out primarily in North America, but today Arctic offshore drilling and oil production is also going on in various parts of the Russian Arctic. The United States Coast Guard uses icebreakers to help conduct search and rescue missions in the icy, polar oceans. United States icebreakers serve to defend economic interests and maintain

9180-408: The relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo. The Sirenikski language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to

9288-718: The resonance method. This causes the ice and water to oscillate up and down until the ice suffers sufficient mechanical fatigue to cause a fracture. Eskimo Eskimo ( / ˈ ɛ s k ɪ m oʊ / ) is an exonym that refers to two closely related Indigenous peoples : Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat , the Canadian Inuit, and the Greenlandic Inuit ) and the Yupik (or Yuit ) of eastern Siberia and Alaska. A related third group,

9396-399: The shell plating is stiffened with frames placed about 400 to 1,000 millimetres (1 to 3 ft) apart as opposed to longitudinal framing used in longer ships. Near the waterline, the frames running in vertical direction distribute the locally concentrated ice loads on the shell plating to longitudinal girders called stringers, which in turn are supported by web frames and bulkheads that carry

9504-489: The ship was launched in 1993 as NS Ural . This icebreaker is intended to be the sixth and last of the Arktika class. Today, most icebreakers are needed to keep trade routes open where there are either seasonal or permanent ice conditions. While the merchant vessels calling ports in these regions are strengthened for navigation in ice , they are usually not powerful enough to manage the ice by themselves. For this reason, in

9612-451: The ship's propulsion system ( propellers , propeller shafts , etc.) are at greater risk of damage than the vessel's hull, so the ability of an icebreaker to propel itself onto the ice, break it, and clear the debris from its path successfully is essential for its safety. Prior to ocean-going ships, ice breaking technology was developed on inland canals and rivers using laborers with axes and hooks. The first recorded primitive icebreaker ship

9720-511: The shore. Countries such as Argentina and South Africa , which do not require icebreakers in domestic waters, have research icebreakers for carrying out studies in the polar regions. As offshore drilling moves to the Arctic seas, icebreaking vessels are needed to supply cargo and equipment to the drilling sites and protect the drillships and oil platforms from ice by performing ice management, which includes for example breaking drifting ice into smaller floes and steering icebergs away from

9828-455: The so-called h - v -curve to determine the icebreaking capability of the vessel. It shows the speed ( v ) that the ship is able to achieve as a function of ice thickness ( h ). This is done by calculating the velocity at which the thrust from the propellers equals the combined hydrodynamic and ice resistance of the vessel. An alternative means to determine the icebreaking capability of a vessel in different ice conditions such as pressure ridges

9936-708: The state. As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska. Alternative terms, such as Inuit-Yupik , have been proposed, but none has gained widespread acceptance. Early 21st century population estimates registered more than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia. In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) meeting in Barrow, Alaska (now Utqiaġvik, Alaska ), officially adopted Inuit as

10044-425: The steel used in the hull structures of an icebreaker must be capable of resisting brittle fracture in low ambient temperatures and high loading conditions, both of which are typical for operations in ice-filled waters. If built according to the rules set by a classification society such as American Bureau of Shipping , Det Norske Veritas or Lloyd's Register , icebreakers may be assigned an ice class based on

10152-474: The stern. Nozzles may be used to increase the thrust at lower speeds, but they may become clogged by ice. Until the 1980s, icebreakers operating regularly in ridged ice fields in the Baltic Sea were fitted with first one and later two bow propellers to create a powerful flush along the hull of the vessel. This considerably increased the icebreaking capability of the vessels by reducing the friction between

10260-465: The summer navigation season by several weeks. Inspired by the success of Pilot , Mikhail Britnev built a second similar vessel Boy ("Breakage" in Russian) in 1875 and a third Booy ("Buoy" in Russian) in 1889. The cold winter of 1870–1871 caused the Elbe River and the port of Hamburg to freeze over, causing a prolonged halt to navigation and huge commercial losses. Carl Ferdinand Steinhaus reused

10368-467: The term Eskimo , which is of a disputed etymology, to be pejorative or even offensive. Eskimo continues to be used within a historical, linguistic, archaeological, and cultural context. The governments in Canada and the United States have made moves to cease using the term Eskimo in official documents, but it has not been eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology. Canada officially uses

10476-672: The term Inuit to describe the indigenous Canadian people who are living in the country's northern sectors and are not First Nations or Métis . The United States government legally uses Alaska Native for enrolled tribal members of the Yupik, Inuit, and Aleut, and also for non-Eskimos including the Tlingit , the Haida , the Eyak , and the Tsimshian , in addition to at least nine northern Athabaskan/Dene peoples. Other non-enrolled individuals also claim Eskimo/Aleut descent, making it

10584-681: The term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik. One of the first printed uses of the French word Esquimaux comes from Samuel Hearne 's A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 first published in 1795. The term Eskimo is still used by people to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples. In

10692-490: The torque variations resulting from propeller-ice interaction. The 1969-built Canadian polar icebreaker CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent was one of the few icebreakers fitted with steam boilers and turbogenerators that produced power for three electric propulsion motors. It was later refitted with five diesel engines, which provide better fuel economy than steam turbines. Later Canadian icebreakers were built with diesel-electric powertrain. Two Polar-class icebreakers operated by

10800-406: The vessel moves forward at a relatively high and constant speed. When an icebreaker is designed, one of the main goals is to minimize the forces resulting from crushing and breaking the ice, and submerging the broken floes under the vessel. The average value of the longitudinal components of these instantaneous forces is called the ship's ice resistance. Naval architects who design icebreakers use

10908-531: The world's "most widespread aboriginal group". There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland. Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 70,545 (2021) in Canada, 51,730 (2021) in Greenland and 1,657 (2021) in Russia. In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland. The Inuit Circumpolar Council ,

11016-590: Was a barge used by the Belgian town of Bruges in 1383 to help clear the town moat. The efforts of the ice-breaking barge were successful enough to warrant the town purchasing four such ships. Ice breaking barges continued to see use during the colder winters of the Little Ice Age with growing use in the Low Country where significant amounts of trade and transport of people and goods took place. In

11124-506: Was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837. The ship was powered by two 250- horsepower (190 kW) steam engines and her wooden paddles were reinforced with iron coverings. With a rounded shape and strong metal hull, the Russian Pilot of 1864 was an important predecessor of modern icebreakers with propellers. The ship was built on the orders of merchant and shipbuilder Mikhail Britnev . She had

11232-452: Was completed at Lauzon, Quebec. A considerably bigger and more powerful ship than Labrador , John A.Macdonald was an ocean-going icebreaker able to meet the most rigorous polar conditions. Her diesel-electric machinery of 15,000 horsepower (11,000 kW) was arranged in three units transmitting power equally to each of three shafts. Canada's largest and most powerful icebreaker, the 120-metre (390 ft) CCGS  Louis S. St-Laurent ,

11340-471: Was delivered in 1969. Her original three steam turbine, nine generator, and three electric motor system produces 27,000 shaft horsepower (20,000 kW). A multi-year mid-life refit project (1987–1993) saw the ship get a new bow, and a new propulsion system. The new power plant consists of five diesels, three generators, and three electric motors, giving about the same propulsion power. On 22 August 1994 Louis S. St-Laurent and USCGC  Polar Sea became

11448-581: Was launched in 1957 and entered operation in 1959, before being officially decommissioned in 1989. It was both the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel . The second Soviet nuclear icebreaker was NS Arktika , the lead ship of the Arktika class . In service since 1975, she was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole , on August 17, 1977. Several nuclear-powered icebreakers were also built outside

11556-452: Was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-ice portage . If a koch became squeezed by the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the water-line would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water and onto the ice with no damage. In the 19th century, similar protective measures were adopted to modern steam-powered icebreakers. Some notable sailing ships in

11664-473: Was still an open question and discussed Paleo-Inuit , Arctic Small Tool Tradition , and pre-Inuit , as well as Inuktitut loanwords like Tuniit and Sivullirmiut , as possibilities. In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology that there is a "clear need" to replace the terms Neo-Eskimo and Paleo-Eskimo , citing the ICC resolution, but finding

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