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98-646: Kekionga ( Miami-Illinois : Kiihkayonki , meaning "blackberry bush"), also known as Kiskakon or Pacan's Village, was the capital of the Miami tribe . It was located at the confluence of the Saint Joseph and Saint Marys rivers to form the Maumee River on the western edge of the Great Black Swamp in present-day Indiana . Over their respective decades of influence from colonial times to after

196-539: A tautosyllabic /w/ . Obstruents are voiced after nasals. Preaspirated sibilants /hs/ and /hš/ frequently assimilate to geminate /sː/ and /ʃː/ , respectively, especially after front and word-initial vowels. There are a small number of words in the Miami–Illinois language that alternate between /s/ and /ʃ/ in their pronunciations, with /ʃ/ occurring in the place of expected /s/ and vice versa. Both of these alternations seem to occur more commonly before

294-598: A Mitchigamea interpreter who understood little Illinois. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Miami–Illinois people experienced a rapid population decline due to introduced diseases , depredations by neighboring tribes (especially the Iroquois ), the Northwest Indian War , and subsequent Anglo-American colonisation. In contrast to the French missionary literature, Anglo-American documentation of

392-542: A United States fort needed to be built in the area. He ordered Governor St. Clair to attack Kekionga and maintain a presence in the area. That campaign was intercepted long before they reached their destination in what became the Native Americans' greatest victory over United States forces. Following the 1790 attacks by Harmar, the Native American confederacy moved their center away from Kekionga, to

490-472: A book in 2003. The book reconstructs the structure of Miami–Illinois. Many Miami members have described the language as "sleeping" rather than "extinct" since it was not irretrievably lost. The Myaamia Center is a joint venture between the tribe and Miami University . The Center seeks to "deepen Myaamia connections through research, education, and outreach." It is directed by Daryl Baldwin , who taught himself Miami from historic documents and studies held by

588-445: A case of English influence. The process of accentuation (heightened syllable prominence) is independent of the strong syllable rule: weak syllables can be accented, and whereas the strong syllable rule applies from left to right, accentuation applies from right to left. The rules of accentuation are as follows: Like all Algonquian languages, the grammar of Miami–Illinois is highly agglutinative , with particularly complex inflection on

686-585: A comparative lack of contemporary interest in the language, it is difficult to identify the last native speakers of Miami–Illinois in either Indiana or Oklahoma, or the contexts in which the language last saw everyday use. The documentation of the 1950s and 1960s shows a language in the advanced stages of attrition, as seen in Herbert Bussard's notes on the speech of Ross Bundy (possibly the last speaker in Indiana). The grammatical complexity of Bundy's Miami

784-736: A daily journal, which recorded their regular routines of drinking, dancing, and parties, as well as weekly Mass . Hay played the flute and Kinzie played the fiddle, which made them popular with the inhabitants of Kekionga. Although Hay and Kinzie stayed primarily in the French-speaking village in Kekionga, they also described some of the Miami villages. They frequently talked with the chiefs Pacanne , Little Turtle, Blue Jacket , and Le Gris , as well as brothers James, George, and Simon Girty , who lived only three miles away. The new President of

882-438: A few pretty good gardens with some fruit trees and vast fields of corn in almost every direction.” The United States army burned some villages and food stores, but was forced to retreat after suffering high casualties in a series of battles with forces led by Little Turtle . The Miami victories over General Harmar's army encouraged anti-U.S. sentiment in Kekionga, and United States Secretary of War Henry Knox now decided that

980-409: A final /w/ . These rules do not predict all locative case forms, however. Nouns, particles, and intransitive animate verbs can all take the locative. The last is a common way of forming place names: iihkipisinki 'it is straight' ~ iihkipisinonki 'the place where it (the river) is straight; Peru, Indiana '. The locative case can be extended with the ablative suffix -onci , 'from', and

1078-708: A knowledge of modern Miami. Probably obtained from the Kaskaskia tribe, among whom the French had set up a mission, these documents doubtless approximate the lingua franca of the Illinois Confederation as a whole. Individual tribes within the Confederation, however, may well have spoken distinct dialects or other languages altogether. The linguistic affinity of the Mitchigamea in particular has been questioned, since Jacques Marquette mentions

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1176-431: A locative noun can also only be understood by context: wiikiaaminki can mean both 'in the house' and 'in the houses'. The regular form of the locative suffix is -enki , with the following common allomorphs: -inki when the suffix falls on a weak vowel (as in wii ki aa m-i 'house'), -onki for stems ending in /Cw/ , and -yonki for most stems ending in /Vw/ . Both of the latter two allomorphs delete

1274-453: A long vowel is always strong, even at the beginning of a word, and resets the meter for all subsequent syllables. Thus a short vowel that immediately follows a long vowel must always be weak, and words beginning with a long vowel are trochaic : ee hsi pa na 'raccoon'. The strong syllable rule is necessary to explain the processes of vowel deletion and devoicing. Initial short (i.e. weak) vowels are frequently deleted in modern Miami, hence

1372-447: A modest three-way division between Peoria, Miami proper, and Wea. The history of the Miami–Illinois language prior to revitalization can be divided into three periods: the Illinois Confederation and early contact, population decline and relocation to Oklahoma in the 19th century, and language loss leading to extinction in the 20th century. The Miami–Illinois of the first period is recorded primarily by French Catholic missionaries in what

1470-467: A noun as characterizing the place at, on, or in which an action occurs. The precise type of position, which is disambiguated by different prepositions in English, is in Miami–Illinois simply assumed from context: ahkwaanteeminki 'at the door', aciyonki 'on the hill', ahkihkonki 'in the bucket'. Locative marking is mutually exclusive with gender and number marking, so the gender and number of

1568-480: Is -a , homophonous with the animate singular; since plural form takes the same gender as its corresponding singular, the number of a gender-ambivalent noun can occasionally be ambiguous. Some inanimate nouns with a -k- in the final syllable are suffixed with -ia instead: ciimwiki becomes ciimwikia 'sleds'. Historically, the latter descends from verb participles rather than original nouns. The obviative singular ends in -ali . -ooli , or -iili ;

1666-414: Is an Algonquian language within the larger Algic family . It is usually described as a Central Algonquian language, but that grouping denotes a geographic rather than genetic affiliation. A thorough genetic classification of Central Algonquian languages has not yet been achieved, and so Miami–Illinois' closest relatives have not been conclusively established. Lexically, Miami–Illinois most closely resembles

1764-501: Is extinguished'. This helps to identify long vowels in texts that mark them irregularly or not at all. Weak vowels followed by a preaspirated consonant are devoiced: a la ka hkwi 'his palate' is pronounced [a.la.kḁ.hkwi] . Since short vowels that follow a long vowel are always weak, these will always undergo devoicing before a preaspirate: ma taa ti hswi 'ten' is pronounced [ma.taː.ti̥.hswi] . Voiceless vowels, like vowel length and preaspiration, are transcribed irregularly in

1862-516: Is held by Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut . Two other notable sources from this time period are extant: a 185-page word list compiled by Antoine-Robert Le Boullenger with about 3,300 items, along with 42 pages of untranslated religious material, and an anonymous 672-page dictionary probably intended as a field lexicon. Despite representing Miami–Illinois as it was spoken more than three centuries ago, these sources are readily intelligible with

1960-552: Is marked only in the proximate case. The endings of the noun, with common allomorphs, are detailed in the table below. -ooli -iili -inki -onki -yonki -ooki -iiki -ia -oohi -iihi The proximate case is the basic citation form of the noun. It is used to mark either the agent or patient of a verb in sentences with only one expressed noun phrase. Its singular forms regularly end in -a for animate nouns and -i for inanimate nouns. This transparent representation of gender on

2058-513: Is now Illinois, beginning with a collection of prayers, instruction, and catechisms written by Claude-Jean Allouez (possibly with Sébastien Rale 's assistance) in Kaskaskia in the late 17th century. A much more extensive document – an Illinois-French dictionary of nearly 600 pages and 20,000 entries – was compiled by Jacques Gravier in the early 18th century. Based on an analysis of its handwriting, it appears to have been transcribed by his assistant, Jacques Largillier. Gravier's original dictionary

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2156-595: Is typical of a Central Algonquian language, and fairly conservative with regard to Proto-Algonquian . Miami–Illinois distinguishes thirteen consonants: The intervocalic clusters permitted are - hC - and -NC -, where C is a non-glottal obstruent /p t tʃ k s ʃ/ and N is a homorganic nasal . - hC - clusters are described as " preaspirated ". The 18th-century Illinois recorded in the French mission period also permitted intervocalic clusters - sp - and - sk -, but these have merged with -hp - and - hk - in modern Miami. In addition, many consonants and clusters can be followed by

2254-575: The 1720 Treaty of The Hague . The treaty's territorial provisions did not go as far as the Whigs in Britain would have liked, considering that the French had made overtures for peace in 1706 and again in 1709. The Whigs considered themselves the heirs of the staunch anti-French policies of William III of England and the John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough . The Whigs were now a minority in

2352-596: The American Revolution , French and Indian Wars , and the Northwest Indian Wars , the French, British and Americans all established trading posts and forts at the large village, originally known as Fort Miami , due to its key location on the portage connecting Lake Erie to the Wabash and Mississippi rivers. The European-American town of Fort Wayne, Indiana started as a settlement around

2450-779: The Auglaize River . In 1794, the American General Anthony Wayne led his well-trained Legion of the United States toward Kekionga, but turned and marched toward the British-held Fort Miami near modern-day Toledo, Ohio . Following General Wayne's victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers , Kekionga's prominence began to diminish among the Miami. The Legion arrived at Kekionga on 17 September 1794, and Wayne personally selected

2548-669: The Indian Territory to settle in the Quapaw Agency , where they would be joined by the Piankeshaw and Wea simultaneously forced out of Indiana. The tribes subsequently amalgamated to form the modern Peoria tribe . The Miami proper, meanwhile, split in 1847 between those remaining in northern Indiana and those leaving for Kansas; the latter group moved to the Quapaw Agency in the 1870s, but did not assimilate to

2646-776: The Kingdom of Naples , Sardinia , and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan went to Emperor Charles VI . In South America, Spain returned Colónia do Sacramento in modern Uruguay to Portugal and recognised Portuguese sovereignty over the lands between the Amazon and Oyapock rivers, now in Brazil . In North America, France recognised British suzerainty over the Iroquois , and ceded Nova Scotia and its claims to Newfoundland and territories in Rupert's Land . The French portion of Saint Kitts in

2744-815: The Ottoman Empire . Even after paying expenses associated with the Dutch Barrier , increased tax revenues from the Austrian Netherlands funded a significant upgrade of the Austrian military. However, these gains were diminished by various factors, chiefly the disruption of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 caused by Charles disinheriting his nieces in favour of his daughter Maria Theresa . Attempts to ensure its succession involved Austria in wars of little strategic value; much of

2842-471: The Sauk–Fox–Kickapoo language ; its phonology and morphology, however, are more reminiscent of Ojibwe–Potawatomi–Ottawa . The term Miami–Illinois covers the language varieties spoken by several different groups throughout history. Illinois denotes specifically the language common to the Illinois Confederation described in 17th- and 18th-century French missionary sources, and the subsequent dialect of

2940-595: The Smithsonian's National Anthropological Archives , and has developed educational programs. Baldwin's children were raised as native speakers of Miami. Center staff develop language and culture resources using material that is often from translated missionary documents. Published language and culture resources include: A related project at Miami University concerns ethnobotany , which "pairs Miami-language plant names with elders' descriptions of traditional plant-gathering techniques." The phonology of Miami–Illinois

3038-957: The United Provinces of the Netherlands on the other. Though the king of France ensured the Spanish crown for his dynasty, the treaties marked the end of French ambitions of hegemony in Europe expressed in the continuous wars of Louis XIV, and paved the way to the European system based on the balance of power in international relations . On 2 January 1710, King Louis XIV of France agreed to commence peace negotiations in Geertruidenberg  [ es ] . France and Great Britain had come to terms in October 1711, when

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3136-619: The West Indies was also ceded in its entirety to Britain. France retained its other pre-war North American possessions, including Cape Breton Island , where it built the Fortress of Louisbourg , then the most expensive military installation in North America. The successful French Rhineland campaign of 1713 finally induced Charles to sign the 1714 treaties of Rastatt and Baden , although terms were not agreed with Spain until

3234-407: The allative -iši , 'to, towards'. In locatives derived from full nouns and intransitive animate verbs, these suffixes must follow the locative suffix (e.g. minooteen-ink-onci 'from town'), but most particles can take them without the locative ( alik-onci 'from over there'). The vocative case indicates the person or thing being addressed. It is formed regularly with the suffix -e in

3332-414: The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht . In 1749, the pro-British La Demoiselle left Kekionga to establish the English trading village of Pickawillany , which grew rapidly. Fighting between pro-French and pro-British villages broke out among the Miami in 1751, as tensions rose in the region. French officials tried to persuade the Miami to return to Kekionga, which was nearer their stronghold of Detroit and harder for

3430-582: The Allied offer of 1709 had been, it gained little that had not already been achieved through diplomacy by February 1701. Though France remained a great power, concern at its relative decline in military and economic terms compared to Britain was an underlying cause of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. The British historian G. M. Trevelyan has argued that: That Treaty, which ushered in

3528-684: The Allies during the war, Spain only agreed to grant an amnesty, thus implying the imposition of the laws and institutions of Castile to the Principality of Catalonia , as it already happened in 1707 to the other occupied kingdoms of the Crown of Aragon. Spanish territories in Italy and Flanders were divided, with Savoy receiving Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan . The former Spanish Netherlands ,

3626-478: The American Fort Wayne stockade after the War of 1812 . Long occupied by successive cultures of indigenous peoples , Kekionga was a large village of the Miami people at the time of European encounter; The largest village of its kind in the state of Indiana . Its name refers to the abundance of blackberries in the region, and was located in the most expansive brier patch in the state. Kekionga

3724-681: The Americas . The Asiento de Negros had come about due to the fact that the Spanish Empire rarely engaged in the transatlantic slave trade itself, preferring to outsource this to foreign merchants. Bourbon France had previously held the Asiento de Negros , allowing French slave traders to supply 5,000 slaves to the Spanish Empire each year; France had gained control over this contract after Philip V had become King of Spain. After

3822-627: The Balance of Power , it was widely publicised in Britain by author and Tory satirist Daniel Defoe in his 1709 article A Review of the Affairs of France . The idea was reflected in the wording of the treaties and resurfaced after the defeat of Napoleon in the 1815 Concert of Europe that dominated Europe in the 19th century. For the individual signatories, Britain established naval superiority over its competitors, commercial access to Spain and America, and control of Menorca and Gibraltar; it retains

3920-494: The Bourbon candidate as Philip V of Spain to remain as king. In return, Philip renounced the French throne, both for himself and his descendants, with reciprocal renunciations by French Bourbons to the Spanish throne, including Louis XIV's nephew Philippe of Orléans . These became increasingly important after a series of deaths between 1712 and 1714 left the five year old Louis XV as his great-grandfather's heir. Great Britain

4018-756: The British commander, the Duke of Ormonde , to withdraw from the Allied forces before the Battle of Denain (informing the French but not the Allies), and the fact that they secretly arrived at separate peace with France was a fait accompli , made the objections of the Allies pointless. In any case, the Dutch achieved their condominium in the Austrian Netherlands with the Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty of 1715. The Treaty stipulated that "because of

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4116-529: The British government gained access to the Asiento de Negros , the economic prominence held by Dutch Sephardic Jewish slaveowners began to fade, while the South Sea Company was established in hopes of gaining exclusive access to the contract. The British government sought to reduce its debt by increasing the volume of trade it had with Spain, which required gaining access to the Asiento de Negros ; as historian G.M. Trevelyan noted: "The finances of

4214-543: The British to reach. Lieutenant Louis Coulon de Villiers was sent to the dilapidated Fort Miamis and given authority to commandeer French voyageurs to construct a new fort, which was finished in 1752. In the same year, the pro-French chief Cold Foot died at Kekionga in another smallpox epidemic. When the French-allied Three Fires Confederacy destroyed Pickawillany, most of the surviving Miami returned to Kekionga, which stopped assisting

4312-756: The British. A Miami force led by Chief Little Turtle destroyed the French force. The Miami and the European-American traders of Kekionga remained economically tied to the British-held Fort Detroit , even after the British ceded all claims of the Northwest Territory to the new United States following the war in the Treaty of Paris (1783) . In 1790, the Canadian Governor Guy Carleton warned

4410-496: The British. Deputy commissioner George Croghan described Kekionga: The Twightwee Village is situated on both Sides of a River called St. Joseph's ... The Indian Village Consists of about 40 or 50 Cabins besides nine or ten French Houses. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War , Kekionga was sacked by a force of French colonials led by Colonel Augustin de La Balme , who planned to take Detroit from

4508-627: The French throne, along with other necessary guarantees that would ensure that France and Spain should not merge, thus preserving the balance of power in Europe. The treaties between several European states, including Spain , Great Britain , France , Portugal , Savoy and the Dutch Republic , helped end the war. The treaties were concluded between the representatives of Louis XIV of France and of his grandson Philip on one hand, and representatives of Queen Anne of Great Britain , King Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia , King John V of Portugal and

4606-703: The French. After the French and Indian War (1756-1763) ended with the French defeated, France ceded Canada to the British Empire. The Miami of Kekionga became involved in Pontiac's Rebellion in the spring of 1763, capturing the British garrison and killing the two ranking officers. The following year, Pacanne emerged as the village chief when he spared the life of the captive Captain Thomas Morris and returned him to Detroit. By 1765, Kekionga had accepted

4704-462: The Miami defenders. Major Ebenezer Denny , an officer with the US, drew a map of Kekionga in 1790, which showed a collection of eight distinct villages, surrounded by 500 acres of cornfields. Denny described the rivers with “several little towns on both branches, but the principal one is below the confluence on the north side. Several tolerable good log houses, said to have been occupied by British traders;

4802-448: The Miami developed a strong and enduring friendship. Kekionga remained a central site for the Miami for several decades; their other villages were more temporary. The large meeting house hosted official tribal councils. However, a smallpox epidemic struck Kekionga in 1733 and people evacuated the village for a year. In a speech at the Treaty of Greenville (1795), Little Turtle called Kekionga "that glorious gate ... through which all

4900-697: The Miamitown to burn a captive and eat their flesh. There is additional information that for an extended period of time, the Shawnee would also torture captives here taken from southern Ohio, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. The site of this torture ground was allegedly located near the present day Columbia street bridge in Lakeside. This activity contributed to the outbreak of the Northwest Indian War . British merchants, seeking to expand their economic base, convinced some Miami to travel East for trade, in violation of

4998-574: The Miami–Illinois literature; the French missionary sources usually indicate voiceless vowels, but later Anglo-American sources often ignore them, producing illusory consonant clusters foreign to Miami–Illinois phonology. In the Peoria of Oklahoma resident Nancy Stand, recorded briefly in the 1930s by Charles Voegelin , many vowels appear to be reduced to a schwa /ə/ . The contextual rules behind vowel reduction are unclear, and since no other Miami–Illinois text indicates any similar process, it appears to be

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5096-641: The Peoria, and are now incorporated as the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma . The Miami who remained in Indiana now identify as the Miami Nation of Indiana , but lack federal recognition as such. The use of the Miami–Illinois language declined precipitously after the migration to Oklahoma because of the concentration of various tribes, each with a different native language, in a single relatively small area (now Ottawa County, Oklahoma ). English served naturally as

5194-412: The Proto-Algonquian consonant commonly represented as * /θ/ . Miami–Illinois has four short vowels, /i e a o/ and four long vowels, /iː eː aː oː/ . There is significant allophonic variation in vowel quality. /a/ is usually phonetic [a] , but may be pronounced as [ʌ] by some speakers. /e/ occupies the non-high front range [æ ~ ɛ ~ e] . /i/ occupies the high front space [ɪ~i] . /o/ occupies

5292-404: The United States George Washington , as early as 1784, had told Henry Knox that a strong U.S. post should be established at Kekionga. The large Native American city was important to the British trade economy, and protected a strategic portage between the Great Lakes Basin and Mississippi watershed . Knox, however, was concerned that a U.S. fort at Kekionga would provoke the Indians and denied

5390-416: The United States in the war. The site was redeveloped as the city of Fort Wayne, Indiana between 1819 and 1823. The old name was used for one of the first professional baseball teams, the Fort Wayne Kekiongas . It also appears on Fort Wayne's city seal. Miami-Illinois language Miami–Illinois (endonym: myaamia , [mjɑːmia] ), is an indigenous Algonquian language spoken in

5488-544: The United States, primarily in Illinois , Missouri , Indiana , western Ohio and adjacent areas along the Mississippi River by the Miami and Wea as well as the tribes of the Illinois Confederation , including the Kaskaskia , Peoria , Tamaroa , and possibly Mitchigamea . The Myaamia (Miami) Nation of Oklahoma and the Miami Nation of Indians of the State of Indiana (a nonprofit organization) still practice and use their native heritage to teach young and old so they can keep their traditional language alive. Miami–Illinois

5586-416: The administration of Robert Harley (created Earl of Oxford and Mortimer on 23 May 1711) and the Viscount Bolingbroke proved more flexible at the bargaining table and were characterized by the Whigs as "pro-French"; Oxford and Bolingbroke persuaded the Queen to create twelve new "Tory peers" to ensure ratification of the treaty in the House of Lords . The opponents of the treaty tried to rally support under

5684-405: The consolidated Peoria tribe; Miami denotes the precontact dialects of the Miami, Wea, and Piankeshaw indigenous to Indiana. Due to the low quality of many records and the complex post-contact history of the groups concerned, the dialectology of Miami–Illinois is difficult to reconstruct for any historical period, but by the end of the 19th century dialectal diversity was minimal, being limited to

5782-473: The construction of Fort Wayne, Kekionga's importance to the Miami slowly declined. The Miami village at the Forks of the Wabash (modern Huntington, Indiana ) became more prominent. Despite the strong U.S. presence and loss of portage revenue, however, the Miami maintained sovereignty in Kekionga through the War of 1812 . Under the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, they were forced to cede this and other central Indiana land in punishment for their not having supported

5880-443: The country were based in May 1711 on the assumption that the Asiento, or monopoly of the slave trade with Spanish America, would be wrested from France as an integral part of the terms of peace". Following the passage of the treaty, the British government gained a thirty-year access to the Asiento de Negros . The importance placed by British negotiators on commercial interests was demonstrated by their demand for France to "level

5978-502: The fighting in the 1733–1735 War of the Polish Succession taking place in its maritime provinces in Italy. Austria had traditionally relied on naval support from the Dutch, whose own capability had been severely degraded; Britain prevented the loss of Sicily and Naples in 1718 but refused to do so again in 1734. The dispute continued to loosen Habsburg control over the Empire; Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia and Saxony increasingly acted as independent powers and in 1742, Charles of Bavaria became

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6076-404: The final /w/ ) in the plural, along with or to the exclusion of regular -waki : mahkwa 'bear' becomes mahkooki 'bears', but eelikwa 'ant' can become either eelikooki or eelikwaki . A handful of nouns, including all nouns ending in -mina 'berry', pluralise with -iiki : ahsapiiki 'nets', kaayominiiki 'gooseberries'. The inanimate proximate plural suffix

6174-493: The first non-Habsburg Emperor in over 300 years. The Dutch Republic ended the war effectively bankrupt, while the damage suffered by the Dutch merchant navy permanently affected their commercial and political strength and it was superseded by Britain as the pre-eminent European mercantile power. The acquisition of the Barrier Fortresses however became an important asset of Dutch foreign policy and enlarged their sphere of influence. Although judged favourably by contemporaries, it

6272-460: The fortifications of Dunkirk , block up the port and demolish the sluices that scour the harbour, [which] shall never be reconstructed". This was because Dunkirk was the primary base for French privateers , as it was possible to reach the North Sea in a single tide and escape British patrols in the English Channel. Under Article XIII and, despite the British demands to preserve Catalan constitutions and rights in return for Catalonia's support for

6370-430: The gender assignment for some can be traced back to Proto-Algonquian. A handful of nouns can take either animate or inanimate gender. Categories with unpredictable internal gender assignments include body parts ( kiloonkwa 'your cheek' but kihkiwani 'your nose') and names for plants. The regular animate proximate plural suffix is -aki . Some nouns ending in -Cwa in the singular end in -ooki (deleting

6468-427: The good words of our chiefs had to pass from the north to the south, and from the east to the west." Additionally, the village served as a gathering center for warrior natives of various tribes who engaged on the frontier. Approximately 26 war parties were known to have left the village throughout 1786. There is strong tradition and evidence to support that a secret society of prominent Miami warriors periodically met at

6566-399: The government in London that the loss of Kekionga would result in grave economic hardships to Detroit. He estimated that Kekionga annually produced 2000 packs of pelts, worth about £24,000 sterling. This was twice the value of the next most important trade area, between Detroit and Lake Huron. During the winter of 1789/1790, the traders Henry Hay and John Kinzie stayed in Kekionga. Hay kept

6664-420: The great danger which threatened the liberty and safety of all Europe, from the too close conjunction of the kingdoms of Spain and France, ... one and the same person should never become King of both kingdoms". Some historians argue this makes it a significant milestone in the evolution of the modern nation state and concept of a balance of power . First mentioned in 1701 by Charles Davenant in his Essays on

6762-441: The guarantees to be given by France and Spain that their crowns would be kept separate, and little progress was made until 10 July 1712, when Philip signed a renunciation. With Great Britain, France and Spain having agreed to a "suspension of arms" (armistice) covering Spain on 19 August in Paris, the pace of negotiation quickened. The first treaty signed at Utrecht was the truce between France and Portugal on 7 November, followed by

6860-449: The house, but still pushing their anti-peace agenda. The whigs opposed peace every step of the way. The Whigs even called the treaty a sellout for letting the duke of Anjou stay on the Spanish throne. However, in the Parliament of 1710 the Tories had gained control of the House of Commons , and they wished for an end to Great Britain's participation in a European war. Queen Anne and her advisors had also come to agree. The party in

6958-512: The language from this period varies widely in both extent and quality. The Miami chief Little Turtle's visit to Philadelphia created some interest in his culture, leading to two word lists of reasonable quality - one apparently commissioned by Thomas Jefferson . The most significant materials of the early 19th century are the linguistic and ethnographic notes of Charles Trowbridge and an anonymous 42-page Wea Primer written for Protestant missionaries in Kansas in 1837. The first migrations out of

7056-608: The latter territory to this day. France accepted the Protestant succession on the British throne, ensuring a smooth transition when Anne died in August 1714, and ended its support for the Stuarts under the 1716 Anglo-French Treaty . While the war left all participants with unprecedented levels of government debt, only Great Britain successfully financed it. Spain retained the majority of its Empire and recovered remarkably quickly;

7154-575: The lingua franca of the Quapaw Agency, and minority languages soon underwent attrition . Nonetheless, the Miami–Illinois of this period has left valuable documentation due to the work of trained linguists and ethnographers in the area. Albert Gatschet recorded several examples of connected speech, including mythological narratives, and Truman Michelson elicited grammatical material and stories. These relatively long documents are valuable for reconstructing speech patterns in Miami-Illinois. Due to

7252-481: The next year, for the peace treaty between Spain and the Netherlands was only signed on 26 June 1714 and that between Spain and Portugal on 6 February 1715. Several other treaties came out of the congress of Utrecht. France signed treaties of commerce and navigation with Great Britain and the Dutch Republic (11 April 1713). Great Britain signed a like treaty with Spain (9 December 1713). The Peace confirmed

7350-474: The non-low back range [o~ʊ~u] . In this article, strong vowels are marked with bold type where relevant, whereas accented vowels carry an acute accent (e.g. ⟨á⟩ ). Miami–Illinois prosody is in part determined by the "strong syllable rule", which marks the syllables of an underlying phonological word in an iambic pattern: beginning from the left, odd-numbered short syllables are "weak", while even-numbered syllables are "strong". A syllable with

7448-420: The noun sets Miami–Illinois apart from many other Algonquian languages, where deletion of word-final vowels has obscured gender marking. Gender is usually predictable from nature, but some nouns that would be expected to be inanimate are in fact marked as animate: misihkwa 'hail', apikana 'bead'. Many of these unexpectedly animate nouns have a special significance in traditional Miami–Illinois culture, and

7546-452: The obviative plural ends in -ahi , -oohi , or -iihi . The allomorphy here is determined in the same way as the proximate plural; if a noun takes -ooki or -iiki , it will take the corresponding forms with -oo- or -ii- in the obviative forms. The obviative case is used for the less salient of two nominal arguments in a sentence, which is not necessarily either the subject or object. Explicit role markers are affixed to

7644-434: The optional initial vowel of (ah) ci kwi 'stump', (a) hsee ma 'tobacco', (is/ih) pe si wa 'he is tall'. Initial vowel deletion appears to take preaspiration ( -h- ) with it before stops, but not before fricatives, which remain distinct from their simple counterparts (perhaps because of the assimilation of /hs/ and /hš/ to /sː/ and /ʃː/ ). By contrast, initial long vowels are never deleted: aahteeki 'it

7742-459: The original Miami–Illinois heartland took place at this time. By 1832, there were virtually no Miami–Illinois speakers in Illinois; those who had survived the collapse of the previous decades had emigrated to Kansas via Missouri. The formerly diverse tribes of the Illinois Confederation had consolidated, and identified simply as "Peoria" or "Kaskaskia". In 1867, these groups left Kansas and entered

7840-589: The preliminaries of peace had been signed in London . The preliminaries were based on a tacit acceptance of the partition of Spain's European possessions. Following this, the Congress of Utrecht opened on 29 January 1712, with the British representatives being John Robinson , Bishop of Bristol , and Thomas Wentworth, Lord Strafford . Reluctantly the United Provinces accepted the preliminaries and sent representatives, but Emperor Charles VI refused to do so until he

7938-595: The recapture of Naples and Sicily in 1718 was only prevented by British naval power and a second attempt was successful in 1734. The 1707, 1715 and 1716 Nueva Planta decrees abolished regional political structures in the kingdoms of Aragon , Valencia , Majorca and the Principality of Catalonia , although Catalonia and Aragon retained some of these rights until 1767. Despite failure in Spain, Austria secured its position in Italy and Hungary, allowing it to continue expansion into areas of South-East Europe previously held by

8036-531: The request to build a fort there from Northwest Territory governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair, in 1790, had told both Washington and Knox that "we will never have peace with the Western Nations until we have a garrison there." Western native leaders, meanwhile, met at Kekionga to determine a response to the Treaty of Fort Harmar . United States General Josiah Harmar was ordered to invade Kekionga. In 1790, his army counted seven distinct villages in

8134-609: The shortest route between the French colonies of New France (Canada) and La Louisiane . The area was full of wildlife as it had not been densely inhabited for years. The Miami at first benefited from trade with the Europeans, who were primarily Canadiens from Quebec. Under Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes , the Canadiens established a trading post and fort , first at the St. Joseph River , and later at Kekionga. Vincennes and

8232-427: The singular and -enka in the plural. There are several different patterns that form diminutive nouns in Miami–Illinois. Costa describes the formation of diminutives as "extremely complex - much more irregular than that seen in its closest Algonquian relatives". The most common diminutive suffix is -ns ~ -nehs ~ -nihs , which is followed by the case ending. Treaty of Utrecht The Peace of Utrecht

8330-506: The site for the new U.S. fort , which was named for him. It was finished by 17 October, and was capable of withstanding 24-pound cannons. Despite their objections, the Miami lost control of the long portage by the Treaty of Greenville (1795), since the Northwest Ordinance passed by Congress guaranteed free use of important portages in the region. At that time, the Miami claimed the portage brought them $ 100 per day. After

8428-658: The slogan of No Peace Without Spain . Although the fate of the Spanish Netherlands in particular was of interest to the United Provinces, Dutch influence on the outcome of the negotiations was fairly insignificant, even though the talks were held on their territory. The French negotiator Melchior de Polignac taunted the Dutch with the scathing remark de vous, chez vous, sans vous , meaning that negotiations would be held "about you, around you, without you". The fact that Bolingbroke had secretly ordered

8526-514: The stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, – the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain. The British academic Brendan Simms argues that: Britain had shaped Europe in her interests at the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It soon became clear, however, that she had designed

8624-609: The truce between France and Savoy on 14 March 1713. That same day, Spain, Great Britain, France and the Empire agreed to the evacuation of Catalonia and an armistice in Italy . The main treaties of peace followed on 11 April 1713. These were five separate treaties between France and Great Britain, the Dutch Republic , Savoy , Prussia and Portugal . Spain under Philip V signed separate peace treaties with Savoy and Great Britain at Utrecht on 13 July. Negotiations at Utrecht dragged on into

8722-429: The verb instead, matching the subject of the verb with the proximate or obviative noun as necessary. Since most sentences only have a single nominal argument - always a proximate - the obviative is a marked case, unlike the absolutive . As in all Algonquian languages, the choice of which arguments to mark as proximate and which to mark as obviative is determined by complex discourse considerations. The locative case marks

8820-468: The verb. Other characteristically Algonquian features are a distinction between animate and inanimate gender on both nouns and verbs and a syntactic category of obviation . First-person forms distinguish clusivity (whether or not the addressee "you" is included in "we"). Miami–Illinois noun inflection distinguishes two genders (animate vs. inanimate), two numbers (singular vs. plural), and four cases (proximate, obviate, locative , and vocative ). Gender

8918-481: The vicinity of Kekionga, known collectively as "the Miami Towns" or Miamitown, in spite of large villages of Shawnee and Delaware also located there. The collected villages of Kekionga had advance knowledge of the army, and most of the people evacuated the area, carrying as many of their food stores as possible. The traders took their trade goods to Fort Detroit, after giving out all their arms and ammunition to

9016-603: The vowel /i/ . One example is apeehsia ~ apeehšia , both meaning 'fawn' (Proto-Algonquian * /apeˑhs-/ ). In the Wea dialect of Miami, the sibilant /s/ was frequently replaced with the interdental fricative [θ ~ ð] . In the Wea Primer (1837), this consonant – written as <f> – is only found in the place of preaspirated /hs/ ; by the time of Gatschet's documentation (1895–1902), it appears to have replaced all instances of /s/ . This segment bears no historical relation to

9114-513: Was a series of peace treaties signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession , in the Dutch city of Utrecht between April 1713 and February 1715. The war involved three contenders for the vacant throne of Spain, and involved much of Europe for over a decade. Essentially, the treaties allowed Philip V (grandson of King Louis XIV of France) to keep the Spanish throne in return for permanently renouncing his claim to

9212-561: Was assured that the preliminaries were not binding. This assurance was given, and so in February the Imperial representatives made their appearance. As Philip was not yet recognized as its king, Spain did not at first send plenipotentiaries, but the Duke of Savoy sent one, and the Kingdom of Portugal was represented by Luís da Cunha . One of the first questions discussed was the nature of

9310-504: Was later argued that the barrier proved to be largely illusory when put to the test during the War of Austrian Succession . The Dutch had in any case successfully defended their positions in the Southern Netherlands and their troops were central in the alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in 1792 . While the final settlement at Utrecht was far more favourable to France than

9408-522: Was naturally situated to be an important trading post for Europeans due to its location on the six-mile portage between the Maumee and Little rivers, which connected Lake Erie to the Wabash River and Mississippi River . Due to the mid-17th century French and Iroquois Wars over the fur trade, most traders believed the route was too dangerous. Following the wars, however, the portage proved to be

9506-426: Was significantly reduced and analogised to English in comparison to "standard" (i.e. 19th-century and revitalised) Miami–Illinois. The language as a whole was moribund by the 1930s, and probably no longer natively spoken by the 1970s. The revitalization effort is based on the work of linguist David Costa. Based on his extensive studies, he published The Miami-Illinois Language in 1994 as his Ph.D. dissertation and as

9604-617: Was the main beneficiary; Utrecht marked the point at which it became the primary European commercial power. In Article X, Spain ceded the strategic ports of Gibraltar and Menorca . In a major coup for the British delegation, the British government emerged from the treaty with the Asiento de Negros , which referred to the monopoly contract granted by the Spanish government to other European nations to supply slaves to Spain's colonies in

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