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66-467: The London Inner Ring Road , or Ring Road as signposted, is a 12-mile (19 km) route with an average diameter of 2.75–5.5 miles (4.43–8.85 km) formed from a number of major roads that encircle Central London . The ring road forms the boundary of the London congestion charge zone, although the ring road itself is not part of the zone. Starting at the northernmost point and moving clockwise ,

132-400: A road use tax , is payable on some vehicles used on the public road. The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway; there is no formal definition for a highway in the relevant Act. A 1984 ruling said "the land over which a public right of way exists is known as a highway; and although most highways have been made up into roads, and most easements of way exist over footpaths,

198-411: A single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication , twinning or doubling . The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track ,

264-457: A 25 to 50 millimeter hole through the pavement into the sub-base with a dry-bit roto-hammer . Next, a two-part epoxy is poured into the hole – dyed for visual clarity. Once the epoxy hardens, technicians drill through the hole. If a void is present, the epoxy will stick to the core and provide physical evidence. Common stabilization materials include pozzolan -cement grout and polyurethane. The requirements for slab stabilization are strength and

330-614: A May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP – a national transportation research organization – driving on rough roads costs the average American motorist approximately $ 400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $ 750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption , and tire wear caused by poor road conditions. When

396-419: A double-wheeled, steel roller to insert the rod to the desired depth. After inserting the backer rod, the sealant is placed into the joint. There are various materials to choose for this method including hot pour bituminous liquid, silicone and preformed compression seals. Careful design and construction of roads can increase road traffic safety and reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) on

462-413: A major two-level (and at one point, three-level) roadway in the downtown area, are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years. Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies use pavement management techniques to continually monitor road conditions and schedule preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong

528-428: A road as "a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their own wheels", which includes "bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths". The Eurostat , ITF and UNECE Glossary for Transport Statistics Illustrated defines

594-494: A road as a "Line of communication (traveled way) open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles, using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips. [...] Included are paved roads and other roads with a stabilized base, e.g. gravel roads. Roads also cover streets, bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings and interchanges. Toll roads are also included. Excluded are dedicated cycle lanes." The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic defines

660-510: A road as the entire surface of any way or street open to public traffic. In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route. Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel . Part 2, Division 1, clauses 11–13 of the National Transport Commission Regulations 2006 defines

726-524: A road in Australia as 'an area that is open to or used by the public and is developed for, or has as one of its main uses, the driving or riding of motor vehicles.' Further, it defines a shoulder (typical an area of the road outside the edge line, or the curb) and a road-related area which includes green areas separating roads, areas designated for cyclists and areas generally accessible to the public for driving, riding or parking vehicles. In New Zealand,

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792-432: A tarmac ball court, children's playground and shrub beds. Notable trees include specimens of lime , London plane and horse-chestnut . Joseph Grimaldi's grave is enclosed within railings and stands in the south-east corner, close to the entrance into Rodney Street. Other notable burials on the site include Henry Penton , responsible for many early developments in the area, including the church building that once stood on

858-432: Is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30-year milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer than its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life,

924-651: Is a road in Bermondsey in the London Borough of Southwark , UK , that runs north to south, and connects the Bricklayers Arms roundabout and flyover at its southern end ( New Kent Road and Old Kent Road ) to Tower Bridge and across the River Thames at its northern end. It also links to Long Lane . The road has an abundance of antique (or junk) shops along part of its length. There

990-433: Is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually employed with other concrete pavement restoration methods including patching and diamond grinding. The technique restores support to concrete slabs by filing small voids that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or the pavement edge. The process consists of pumping a cementitious grout or polyurethane mixture through holes drilled through

1056-550: Is also Bermondsey Square which holds an 'antique' market every Friday morning, usually known as Bermondsey Market , though officially as New Caledonian Market . Towards its southern end are a collection of shops, pubs and takeaways. Kennington Lane is an A-road (classified A3204 ) running between the Elephant & Castle to the east and Vauxhall to the west. Starting at the Elephant, Kennington Lane splits off from

1122-487: Is also common. Some road fixtures such as road signs and fire hydrants are designed to collapse on impact. Light poles are designed to break at the base rather than violently stop a car that hits them. Highway authorities may also remove larger trees from the immediate vicinity of the road. During heavy rains, if the elevation of the road surface is not higher than the surrounding landscape, it may result in flooding. Speed limits can improve road traffic safety and reduce

1188-485: Is another common procedure used to locate voids. It is recommended to do this testing at night as during cooler temperatures, joints open, aggregate interlock diminishes and load deflections are at their highest. Ground penetrating radar pulses electromagnetic waves into the pavement and measures and graphically displays the reflected signal. This can reveal voids and other defects. The epoxy/core test, detects voids by visual and mechanical methods. It consists of drilling

1254-469: Is described as the "Inner" Ring Road because there are two further sets of roads that have been described as London ring roads. The North and South Circular Roads together form the second ring road around London, averaging 10–15 miles (16–24 km) in diameter. The M25 motorway is the outermost road encircling the metropolis, at an average diameter of 40–50 miles (64–80 km). Plans for an Inner Ring Road were put forward by Patrick Abercrombie in

1320-418: Is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to meet the design requirements (generally 90–95% relative compaction). Blasting is not frequently used to excavate the roadbed as the intact rock structure forms an ideal road base. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill

1386-451: Is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, under saturated conditions. The process is repeated until the desired grade is reached. General fill material should be free of organics , meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index . The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel, which acts as an inhibitor to

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1452-571: Is primarily due to environmental effects such as frost heaves , thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute, however accumulated damage from vehicles also contributes. According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test , it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the fourth power of axle weight . A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t ) with 8,000 pounds (3.629 t) on

1518-522: Is some ambiguity between the terms highway and road . For the purposes of the English law , Highways Act 1980 , which covers England and Wales but not Scotland or Northern Ireland , road is "any length of highway or of any other road to which the public has access, and includes bridges over which a road passes". This includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks. Vehicle Excise Duty ,

1584-410: Is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for

1650-546: Is the native material underneath a constructed road. Road construction requires the creation of an engineered continuous right-of-way or roadbed , overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel , and may be required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments , bridges and tunnels , and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation ) and followed by

1716-559: Is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas. Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material

1782-754: The A3 by means of a Y-junction , where Newington Butts becomes Kennington Park Road . Heading in a southwesterly direction, the road then crosses the A23 Kennington Road , before reaching the Vauxhall one-way system, where the A3036 Albert Embankment and Wandsworth Road, A202 Vauxhall Bridge , Durham Street and Harleyford Road , A203 South Lambeth Road , and A3205 Nine Elms Lane all converge. Vauxhall Bridge Road runs south-east to north-west from Vauxhall Cross , over

1848-1178: The River Thames to Victoria station . At the southernmost point the road runs past the headquarters of MI6 . The section immediately after Vauxhall Bridge north of the Thames is called Bessborough Gardens and is home to the Embassy of Lithuania . Further along is the Embassy of Mauritania . Victoria one-way system lies in front of Victoria Station. Clockwise, it includes Lower Grosvenor Place , Bressenden Place , and west end of Victoria Street . Road There are many types of roads , including parkways , avenues , controlled-access highways (freeways, motorways, and expressways), tollways , interstates , highways , thoroughfares , and local roads. The primary features of roads include lanes , sidewalks (pavement), roadways (carriageways), medians , shoulders , verges , bike paths (cycle paths), and shared-use paths . Historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or some maintenance. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines

1914-406: The land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse , creek , river or the sea for drainage discharge. A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to

1980-592: The "set back" housing lines originally intended to provide an atmosphere of spaciousness along the thoroughfare. It is one of the locations on the UK version of the Monopoly board game , which features areas native to London. Pentonville Road is one of the many London place names mentioned in the song "Transmetropolitan" by The Pogues . Mansell Street is a short road, part of the A1210 route (though sometimes shown as being

2046-545: The 1940s, in the County of London Plan . The route is signed as "Ring Road" and is made up of the following: Construction of the New Road from Paddington to Islington began in 1756 to relieve congestion in the built-up area of London. At that time the districts of Marylebone , Fitzrovia and Bloomsbury were on the northern edge of the city, and only the southern parts of them had been built up. The New Road ran through

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2112-720: The A1211), which for most of its length marks the boundary between the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets , though the southernmost part is entirely in Tower Hamlets. It runs from Aldgate southwards to the Tower of London . The northern part, north of the junction with Goodmans Yard and Prescot Street, has one way northbound traffic, while the southern part has one way southbound traffic. Tower Bridge Road

2178-535: The Burial Ground of St James's) are located within the park, which is named after the pantomime clown Joseph Grimaldi , who is buried here. Following refurbishment in 2010, the park now includes a musical artwork dedicated to Grimaldi and his employer at Sadler's Wells , Charles Dibdin . The former burial ground dates to the 18th century. A proprietary chapel on the Pentonville Estate

2244-422: The ability to flow into or expand to fill small voids. Colloidal mixing equipment is necessary to use the pozzolan-cement grouts. The contractor must place the grout using a positive-displacement injection pump or a non-pulsing progressive cavity pump. A drill is also necessary but it must produce a clean hole with no surface spalling or breakouts. The injection devices must include a grout packer capable of sealing

2310-521: The average US motorist pays about $ 335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $ 171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $ 0.285/gallon tax). Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration . The most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure. Slab stabilization

2376-551: The definition of a road is broad in common law where the statutory definition includes areas the public has access to, by right or not. Beaches, publicly accessible car parks and yards (even if privately owned), river beds, road shoulders (verges), wharves and bridges are included. However, the definition of a road for insurance purposes may be restricted to reduce risk. In the United Kingdom The Highway Code details rules for "road users", but there

2442-465: The design structural capacity, stop erosion or eliminate faulting. It does, however, restore the slab support, therefore, decreasing deflections under the load. Stabilization should only be performed at joints and cracks where the loss of support exists. Visual inspection is the simplest manner to find voids. Signs that repair is needed are transverse joint faulting, corner breaks and shoulder drop off and lines at or near joints and cracks. Deflection testing

2508-497: The eastern section from King's Cross to The Angel is called Pentonville Road . City Road was constructed in 1761 to continue the route eastwards to the northern edge of the City of London . Pentonville Road runs west to east from Kings Cross to City Road . By far the greater portion of the road is in the London Borough of Islington but a small part near Kings Cross is in the London Borough of Camden , including an entrance to King's Cross St Pancras Underground station at

2574-409: The fields to the north of these three neighbourhoods. The road is now one of the busiest main roads in the city. It runs from Edgware Road in the west to Angel , in the east. After being renamed in 1857, the western section between Edgware Road and Great Portland Street is known as Marylebone Road , the central section between Great Portland Street and King's Cross is known as Euston Road , and

2640-441: The first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted; in many cases animals do not follow constant paths. Some believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way may exemplify this type of road origination, where human and animal both selected the same natural line. By about 10,000 BC human travelers used rough roads/pathways. In transport engineering , subgrade

2706-407: The former King's Cross Thameslink station . It acquired its present name in 1857. There are several halls of residence located on Pentonville Road, these being Dinwiddy House ( SOAS ), Paul Robeson House and Nido Student Living. There are two green spaces along the road – Joseph Grimaldi Park and Claremont Square , the latter however is not open to the public. This street is distinguished by

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2772-416: The functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity. Older concrete pavements that develop faults can be repaired with a dowel bar retrofit , in which slots are cut in the pavement at each joint, and dowel bars are placed in the slots, which are then filled with concrete patching material. This can extend

2838-464: The growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill ( sieved ) should be composed of gravel , decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified particle size and be free of large lumps of clay . Sand clay fill may also be used. The roadbed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring

2904-404: The highway system from traffic collisions. On neighborhood roads traffic calming , safety barriers , pedestrian crossings and cycle lanes can help protect pedestrians, cyclists, and drivers. Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cat's eyes or Botts dots. Botts dots are not used where it is icy in the winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds them to

2970-580: The hole. The injection device must also have a return hose or a fast-control reverse switch, in case workers detect slab movement on the uplift gauge. The uplift beam helps to monitor the slab deflection and has to have sensitive dial gauges. Also called joint and crack repair, this method's purpose is to minimize infiltration of surface water and incompressible material into the joint system. Joint sealants are also used to reduce dowel bar corrosion in concrete pavement restoration techniques. Successful resealing consists of old sealant removal, shaping and cleaning

3036-404: The laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building. After design, approval , planning , legal, and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor . The radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill. Great care

3102-530: The life of the concrete pavement for 15 years. Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society. A 2009 report released by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials estimated that about 50% of the roads in the US are in bad condition, with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an average of $ 746/year on vehicle repairs while

3168-609: The lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitor the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial profilometers . These measurements include road curvature , cross slope , asperity , roughness , rutting and texture . Software algorithms use this data to recommend maintenance or new construction. Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro milling or diamond grinding and surface treatments . Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves

3234-515: The new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway. Roads that are intended for use by a particular mode of transport can be reallocated for another mode of transport, i.e. by using traffic signs . For instance, in the ongoing road space reallocation effort, some roads (particularly in city centers) which are intended for use by cars are increasingly being repurposed for cycling and/or walking . Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration

3300-477: The number of road traffic casualties from traffic collisions . In their World report on road traffic injury prevention report, the World Health Organization (WHO) identify speed control as one of various interventions likely to contribute to a reduction in road casualties. Road conditions are the collection of factors describing the ease of driving on a particular stretch of road, or on

3366-506: The owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Some asphalt pavements are designed as perpetual pavements with an expected structural life in excess of 50 years. Many asphalt pavements built over 35 years ago, despite not being specifically designed as a perpetual pavement, have remained in good condition long past their design life. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives. Some roads like Chicago 's Wacker Drive ,

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3432-418: The pavement performance, reduce construction costs and decrease maintenance. The completed roadway is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements such as traffic signs , crash barriers , raised pavement markers and other forms of road surface marking are installed. According to

3498-576: The presence or absence of a made road has nothing to do with the distinction. Another legal view is that while a highway historically included footpaths , bridleways , driftways, etc., it can now be used to mean those ways that allow the movement of motor vehicles , and the term rights of way can be used to cover the wider usage. In the United States, laws distinguish between public roads , which are open to public use, and private roads , which are privately controlled. The assertion that

3564-514: The public so that drivers going through a particular area can be aware of hazards that may exist in that area. News agencies, in turn, rely on tips from area residents with respect to certain aspects of road conditions in their coverage area. Joseph Grimaldi Park Joseph Grimaldi Park is a public garden located off Pentonville Road in Islington , north London. The former burial grounds for St James's Anglican Chapel (formerly known as

3630-418: The reservoir, installing the backer rod and installing the sealant. Sawing, manual removal, plowing and cutting are methods used to remove the old sealant. Saws are used to shape the reservoir. When cleaning the reservoir, no dust, dirt or traces of old sealant should remain. Thus, it is recommended to water wash, sand-blast and then air blow to remove any sand, dirt or dust. The backer rod installation requires

3696-494: The road conditions". Specific aspects of road conditions can be of particular importance for particular purposes. For example, for autonomous vehicles such as self-driving cars , significant road conditions can include "shadowing and lighting changes, road surface texture changes, and road markings consisting of circular reflectors, dashed lines, and solid lines". Various government agencies and private entities, including local news services, track and report on road conditions to

3762-399: The road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil

3828-512: The road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The topsoil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons. Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in

3894-473: The road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous regions of California. For major roads risk can be reduced by providing limited access from properties and local roads, grade separated junctions and median dividers between opposite-direction traffic to reduce the likelihood of head-on collisions. The placement of energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels)

3960-647: The roads defining the boundary are Pentonville Road , City Road , Old Street , Great Eastern Street , Commercial Street , Mansell Street , Tower Bridge , Tower Bridge Road , New Kent Road , the Elephant & Castle , Kennington Lane , the roads that constitute the Vauxhall Cross one-way system and Vauxhall Bridge , Vauxhall Bridge Road , the roads that constitute the Victoria one-way system, Grosvenor Place, Park Lane , Edgware Road , Old Marylebone Road, Marylebone Road and Euston Road . The route

4026-404: The roads of a particular locality, including the quality of the pavement surface , potholes , road markings, and weather . It has been reported that "[p]roblems of transportation participants and road conditions are the main factors that lead to road traffic accidents". It has further been specifically noted that "weather conditions and road conditions are interlinked as weather conditions affect

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4092-406: The section is deemed to comply. Geosynthetics such as geotextiles , geogrids , and geocells are frequently used in the various pavement layers to improve road quality. These materials and methods are used in low-traffic private roadways as well as public roads and highways. Geosynthetics perform four main functions in roads: separation, reinforcement, filtration, and drainage; which increase

4158-401: The site. Some remaining headstones are stacked by the northern boundary. A tree and plaque remembering the former deputy mayor of Islington Paul Matthews, who championed the restoration of Grimaldi's grave, are also sited in the park. The park was refurbished in 2010, with landscaping by Latz + Partner , which appointed Henry Krokatsis to create a public artwork in honour of Grimaldi and

4224-437: The slab. The grout can fill small voids beneath the slab and/or sub-base. The grout also displaces free water and helps keep water from saturating and weakening support under the joints and slab edge after stabilization is complete. The three steps for this method after finding the voids are locating and drilling holes, grout injection and post-testing the stabilized slabs. Slab stabilization does not correct depressions, increase

4290-483: The steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and vehicle braking or related construction work. Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life . In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life

4356-507: Was built in 1787 and four years later became St James's, a chapel of ease for Clerkenwell parish church. St James's was given its own parish in 1854. By the late 19th century the grounds had been converted to a public garden and were later extended. By the 20th century the church building had become redundant and was demolished in the 1980s to make way for an office building – originally known as Joseph Grimaldi House and now renamed. The park extends to 0.5 hectares (1 acre) and includes

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