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114-642: The primary site of Kerma that forms the heart of the Kingdom of Kerma includes both an extensive town and a cemetery consisting of large tumuli . The level of affluence at the site demonstrated the power of the Kingdom of Kerma, especially during the Second Intermediate Period when the Kermans threatened the southern borders of Egypt. Until recently, the Kerma civilisation was known only from

228-545: A grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows , burial mounds or (in Siberia and Central Asia) kurgans , and may be found throughout much of the world. A cairn , which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape. In this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials , such as passage graves . A round barrow

342-405: A " tropical African variant" (though others were also observed), which had affinities with Kerma Kushites. The general results demonstrate greater affinity with Upper Nile Valley groups, but also suggest clear change from earlier craniometric trends, with numerous 1st dynasty crania from Abydos classified into the "northern Egyptian-Maghreb" series. The gene flow and movement of northern officials to

456-795: A barrow in Milton Keynes and in Powys. Burial mounds are one of several funerary forms practiced by Indigenous Australians . Burial mounds were once practiced by some Aboriginals across Australia, the most eloborate burial mounds are recorded in New South Wales , South Australia , Victoria and Western Australia . Most notable burials in New South Wales and Western Australia were studied and excavated by John Oxley (1820), Atkinson (1853), Pearce (1897), and Davidson (1949) and were termed Aboriginal tumulus. Early records indicate

570-934: A bird figurine, a lizard figurine, a crocodile figurine), and is situated within the Mali Empire . The word kurgan is of Turkic origin, and derives from Proto-Turkic *Kur- ("to erect (a building), to establish"). In Ukraine and Russia, there are royal kurgans of Varangian chieftains, such as the Black Grave in Ukrainian Chernihiv (excavated in the 19th century), Oleg 's Grave in Russian Staraya Ladoga , and vast, intricate Rurik's Hill near Russian Novgorod . Other important kurgans are found in Ukraine and South Russia and are associated with much more ancient steppe peoples, notably

684-618: A cache of monumental black granite statues of the Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt now exposed in the Kerma Museum . Among the sculptures were ones belonging to the dynasty's last two pharaohs, Taharqa and Tanoutamon , whose statues are described as "masterpieces that rank among the greatest in art history". Craniometric analysis of Kerma fossils comparing them to various other early populations inhabiting

798-595: A copper wire with hooks for interlocking, solid gold bangle with incurved ends, ageta and gold beads, along with a considerable assemblage of pottery. Another type of mound burial is Maidam in Assam , India. The Ahom kingdom in medieval Assam built octagonal -shaped tumuli called Maidams for their kings and high officials. The kings were buried in a hillock at Charaideo in Sibsagar district of Assam, whereas other Maidams are found scattered more widely. The damb

912-475: A deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with random earth to form a domical shape. There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1 mound, bearing a 10- mm thick plaster of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry. The offering in Tumulus-1 consisted of one full necklace of steatite stringed in

1026-479: A destructive civil war. It writes that the sage, Neferti, prophesied that a great king named Ameny (Amenemhat I) would lead a united Egypt out of this tumultuous period. The work also mentions Amenemhat I's mother being from the Elephantine Egyptian nome Ta-Seti . Many scholars in recent years have argued that Amenemhat I's mother was of Nubian origin. Other known works attributed to

1140-573: A gesture of triumph by Kerma's ruler. Under Thutmose I , Egypt made several campaigns south, destroying Kerma. This eventually resulted in the Egyptian annexation of Nubia (Kerma/ Kush) c.  1504 BC, and the establishment of a southern frontier at Kanisah Kurgus , south of the Fourth Cataract. After the conquest, Kerma culture was increasingly 'Egyptianized' yet rebellions continued for 220 years (till c.  1300 BC). During

1254-526: A large mound the size of the house, as described by V. Fernandes. Levtzion also acknowledged the cultural similarities between the monarchic tumuli-building traditions and practices (e.g., monumental Senegambian megaliths ) of West Africa, such as Senegambia , Inland Niger Delta , and Mali , and the Nile Valley ; these monarchic tumuli-building practices span the Sudanian savanna as manifestations of

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1368-566: A life expectancy of approximately 40 years. Babies were generally buried at and outside the ring-wall. The average number of children per family was 1.6 persons. A tumulus forms the center of the ancient megalithic structure of Rujm el-Hiri in the Golan Heights . Rujm in Arabic can mean tumulus, cairn or stone heap. Near the western city limits of modern Jerusalem , 19 tumuli have been documented (Amiran, 1958). Though first noticed in

1482-643: A mask of Ancient Greek design. Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern Sahara , tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BC in the Saharan region of Niger . Fekri Hassan (2002) indicates that the megalithic monuments in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the mastabas and pyramids of ancient Egypt . The prehistoric tradition of monarchic tumuli -building

1596-496: A partnership with the Hyksos and tried to crush Egypt. An inscription in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian governor Sobeknakht II at Nekheb reports that Kerma invaded deep into Egypt between 1575 and 1550 BC. It is believed that this was one of Egypt's most humiliating defeats, which later pharaohs had erased from the official historic records. Many royal statues and monuments were looted from Egypt and removed to Kerma, apparently as

1710-807: A pathway for his spirit to return to the sky world. According to Alfred William Howitt these carved trees served both as transit points to allow cultural heroes to ascend to, and descend from, the firmament as well as a means for the deceased to return to the sky world. Some mounds do not contain burials, these mounds are associated with settlement debris. In Northern Territory and in several regions both forms are known. Recently, several mounds in Queensland were investigated with ground-penetrating radar. These mounds were previously associated with settlement debris. Radar study revealed some mounds contained mortuary remains, while other mounds were built over places where ceremonial fires had taken place. Further research

1824-421: A seated-position or in a crouched fetal-position, they were wrapped in layers of pelt-cloaks . Grave goods often included weapons, stone axes, ochre, white clay, stone flakes, bonepoints, necklaces, gridles, headbands and items of ceremonial clothing. An early published account of John Oxley 's excavation describes a high-standing Aboriginal man's burial mound and associated carved trees; these carvings on

1938-571: A strategic role in Eastern Desert gold mining operations. The extent of cultural/political continuity between the Kingdom of Kerma and the chronologically succeeding Kingdom of Kush is difficult to determine. The latter polity began to emerge around 1000 BC, around 500 years after the end of the Kingdom of Kerma. Initially, the Kushite kings continued to use Kerma for royal burials and special ceremonies, suggesting some connection. Moreover,

2052-684: A trans-Sahelian common culture and heritage. From the 5th millennium BCE to the 14th century CE, earthen and stone tumuli were developed between Senegambia and Chad . Among 10,000 burial mounds in Senegambia, 3,000 megalithic burial mounds in Senegambia were constructed between 200 BCE and 100 CE, and 7,000 earthen burial mounds in Senegal were constructed in the 2nd millennium CE. Between 1st century CE and 15th century CE, megalithic monuments without tumuli were constructed. Megalithic and earthen Senegambian tumuli, which may have been constructed by

2166-677: A tumulus. More than half of these ancient Israeli structures have now been threatened or obliterated by modern construction projects, including Tumulus #4, which was excavated hastily in a salvage operation. The most noteworthy finds from this dig were two LMLK seal impressions and two other handles with associated concentric circle incisions, all of which suggests this tumulus belonged to either King Hezekiah or his son Manasseh . Round mound burials are associated with megalithic burials in India. Most megalithic mounds with chambers found today have been disturbed over centuries and their original form

2280-553: A type of tribute from rural communities on the death of Kerma's monarchs. This parallels the importance of cattle as royal property in other parts of Africa at later times. Evidence for settled agriculture in the region dates from the pre-Kerma period, c.  3500–2500 BC, whilst copper metallurgy is attested at Kerma from c.  2200–2000 BC . Only the centres of Kerma and Sai Island seem to have had contained sizable urban populations. Possibly further excavations will reveal other regional centres. At Kerma and Sai, there

2394-486: A widow's lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, and filled with treasure. A band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also been drawn to the account of Attila 's burial in Jordanes ' Getica . Jordanes tells that as Attila's body

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2508-495: Is The Story of Sinuhe , of which papyrus copies dating as late as the New Kingdom have been recovered. Some of the existing literature pertaining to the 12th Dynasty are propagandistic in nature. The Prophecy of Neferti establishes a revisionist account of history that legitimizes Amenemhat I’s rule. Written during the reign of Amenemhat I, described a sage’s prophecy given to the 4th Dynasty King Snefru that predicted

2622-498: Is Latin for 'mound' or 'small hill', which is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root * teuh 2 - with extended zero grade * tum- , 'to bulge, swell' also found in tomb , tumor , tumescent , thumb , thigh , and thousand . The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of Homer 's Iliad . Patroclus is burned on a pyre , and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow

2736-671: Is 85 meters on each side, half of the size of the Great Pyramids. Goguryeo Silla tombs are most noted for the fabulous offerings that have been excavated such as delicate golden crowns and glassware and beads that probably made their way to Korea via the Silk Road . Tumuli are one of the most prominent types of prehistoric monuments spread throughout northern and southern Albania . Some well-known local tumuli are: More than 50 burial mounds were found in Kupres. Man from Kupres –

2850-604: Is Daisen-ryo Kofun, or more commonly Nintoku-ryo Kofun, with a length of 840 metres. In addition to other shapes, kofun includes a keyhole shape, typically seen in Daisen Kofun. Foreign museums possess some grave goods. The first burial mounds in Korea were dolmens , which contained material from cultures of the 1st millennium AD, such as bronze-ware, pottery, and other symbols of the society elite. The most famous tumuli in Korea, dating around 300 AD, are those left behind by

2964-667: Is a contemporary revival in barrow building in the UK. In 2015 the first long barrow in thousands of years, the Long Barrow at All Cannings , inspired by those built in the Neolithic era, was built on land just outside the village of All Cannings . The barrow was designed to have a large number of private niches within the stone and earth structure to receive cremation urns. This was followed by new barrows at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silbury_Hill Plans have also been announced for

3078-426: Is a round tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows have a broad range; the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen , a cist , a mortuary enclosure , a mortuary house , or a chamber tomb . Examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe . The word tumulus

3192-518: Is a series of rulers reigning from 1991–1802 BC (190 years), at what is often considered to be the apex of the Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI–XIV). The dynasty periodically expanded its territory from the Nile delta and valley South beyond the second cataract and East into Canaan . The Twelfth Dynasty was marked by relative stability and development. It has a notably well recorded history for

3306-681: Is available), whose arrival, and that of a new ethno-linguistic group, around that time may perhaps be indicated by a change in placenames for Upper Nubia used in Egyptian execration texts. However, Cooper also proposes that a similar Eastern Sudanic language may have been already spoken in Upper Nubia, both at Kerma and the Saï polity to its north, earlier (by Kerma Moyen, which began around 2050 BC), while north of Saï, in Lower Nubia, Cushitic languages were spoken and much later replaced by Meroitic. It

3420-521: Is built on the location of the pyre. Achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race , boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulf 's body in the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre. During cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord,

3534-634: Is called "Bin Tepeler" (a thousand mounds in Turkish) and it is in the northwest of Salihli district of Manisa province . The site is very close to the southern shoreline of Lake Marmara (Lake Gyges or Gygaea). Bin Tepeler is a Lydian necropolis that dates back to 7th and 6th centuries BC. These mounds are called "the pyramids of Anatolia", as a giant specimen among them is 355 metres in diameter, 1115 metres in perimeter and 69 metres high. According to Herodotus , this giant tumulus belongs to

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3648-635: Is much evidence of wealthy elites, and a class of dignitaries who monitored trade in merchandise arriving from far-off lands, and who supervised shipments dispatched from administrative buildings. Evidently, Kerma played an important intermediary role in the trade of luxury items from the Central African interior to Egypt. The Kerma culture was rooted in the pre-Kerma culture, which flourished around 3500 BC. Egyptian Old Kingdom epigraphic evidence, as well as evidence from Aniba , indicate contacts with early Nubia at that time (2700–2200 BC), as well as

3762-484: Is posited that early Meroitic spread, displacing Eastern Sudanic and Cushitic languages along the Nile. When Kerma was first excavated in the 1920s, George Andrew Reisner believed that it originally served as the base for or was a fort of an Egyptian governor, and that these Egyptian rulers evolved into the independent monarchs of Kerma. Reisner's interpretation was predicated on the presence of inscribed Egyptian statues in

3876-518: Is proposed to understand nature of burial mounds in this part of Australia. Salweyn in Northern Somalia contains a very large field of cairns , which stretches for a distance of around 8 km. An excavation of one of these tumuli by Georges Révoil in 1881 uncovered a tomb, beside which were artefacts pointing to an ancient, advanced civilization. The interred objects included pottery shards from Samos , some well-crafted enamels , and

3990-546: Is shared by both the West African Sahel and the Middle Nile regions. Ancient Egyptian pyramids of the early dynastic period and Meroitic Kush pyramids are recognized by Faraji (2022) as part of and derived from an earlier architectural " Sudanic - Sahelian " tradition of monarchic tumuli, which are characterized as "earthen pyramids" or "proto-pyramids." Faraji (2022) characterized Nobadia as

4104-459: Is similar to a sample of modern Kenyan skeletons. Cluster C is similar to a sample of Middle Empire skeletons from the region of Assuan, and Cluster B, which although distinct from Cluster C, shares many common features with it. He notes that clusters A and B were present in Early Kerma in ("Kerma ancien") but became the majority in the following Middle Kerma ("Kerma moyen"), and that Cluster C

4218-411: The 13th Dynasty and 2nd Intermediate Period . This became the period of greatest development of Kerma and its greatest extent. Massive royal tombs were built in the city's necropolis , and included a large number of human sacrifices, and secondary burials. Two large tumuli include white quartzite cones. Kushite confrontations also occurred with Egypt in Lower Nubia. During its zenith, Kerma formed

4332-594: The C-Group and Pharaonic era skeletons excavated in Lower Nubia and ancient Egyptians ( Naqada , Badari , Hierakonpolis , Abydos and Kharga in Upper Egypt ; Hawara in Lower Egypt ). Claude Rilly, citing anthropologist Christian Simon, reports that the population of the Kingdom of Kerma was morphologically heterogeneous, with three main clusters in terms of morphological tendencies (A, B, C): "Cluster A

4446-872: The C-Group Culture , inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers—spoke Afroasiatic languages. Claude Rilly (2010, 2016) on the other hand, suggests that the Kerma peoples spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch, possibly ancestral to the later Meroitic language , which he also suggests was Nilo-Saharan. Rilly also criticizes proposals (by Behrens and Bechaus-Gerst) of significant early Afro-Asiatic influence on Nobiin, and considers evidence of substratal influence on Nobiin from an earlier now extinct Eastern Sudanic language to be stronger. Julien Cooper (2017) also suggests that Nilo-Saharan languages of

4560-478: The Commagene King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene who ruled between 69 and 40 BC. This tumulus is made of broken stone pieces, which renders excavation attempts almost impossible. The tumulus is surrounded by ceremonial terraces in the east, west, and north. The east and west terraces have tremendous statues (reaching 8 to 10 meters in height) and bas reliefs of gods and goddesses from

4674-501: The Inland Niger Delta , 11th century CE and 15th century CE tumuli at El Oualedji and Koï Gourrey contained various bones (e.g., human, horse), human items (e.g., beads, bracelets, rings), and animal items (e.g., bells, harnesses , plaques). Cultural similarities were also found with a Malinke king of Gambia , who along with his senior queen, human subjects within his kingdom, and his weapons, were buried in his home under

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4788-608: The Levant . Senusret III's military career contributed to his prestige during the New Kingdom, as he was regarded as a warrior king and even revered as a god in Nubia. One of Senusret III’s significant internal developments was the centralization of administrative power in the kingdom, which replaced the nome system with three large administrative districts that encompassed all of Egypt. Senusret's successor Amenemhat III reaffirmed his predecessor's foreign policy. However, after Amenemhat,

4902-675: The Merowe Dam at the Fourth Cataract has confirmed the presence of Kerma sites at least as far upriver as the Abu Hamad /Mograt Island area. Kerma was evidently a sizable political entity—Egyptian records speak of its rich and populous agricultural regions. Unlike Egypt, Kerma seems to have been highly centralized. It controlled the 1st to 4th Cataracts, which meant its domain was as extensive as ancient Egypt. Numerous village communities scattered alongside fields of crops made up

5016-947: The Nile Valley and Maghreb found that they were morphologically close to Predynastic Egyptians from Naqada (4000–3200 BC). The Kermans were also more distantly related to Dynastic Egyptians from Gizeh (323 BC – AD 330) and Predynastic Egyptian samples from Badari (4400–4000 BC), followed by the ancient Garamantes of Libya (900 BC – AD 500), who were found to be most closely related to Neolithic sub-Saharan African samples, and Roman period Egyptians , and secondary to modern Tunisians and Moroccans as well as early osteological series from Algeria (1500 BC), Carthage in Tunisia (751 BC – AD 435), Soleb in Nubia (1575–1380 BC), and Ptolemaic dynasty -era samples from Alexandria in Egypt (323 BC – AD 30). Dental trait analysis of Kerma fossils found affinities with various populations inhabiting

5130-636: The Nile Valley , Horn of Africa , and Northeast Africa , especially to other ancient populations from the central and northern Sudan. Among the sampled populations, the Kerma people were overall nearest to the Kush populations in Upper Nubia , the A-Group culture bearers of Lower Nubia , and to Ethiopians , followed by the Meroitic , X-Group and Christian period inhabitants of Lower Nubia, and then to

5244-625: The Scythians (e.g., Chortomlyk, Pazyryk ) and early Indo-Europeans (e.g., Ipatovo kurgan ) The steppe cultures found in Ukraine and South Russia naturally continue into Central Asia , in particular Kazakhstan . It is constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons and horses. Originally in use on the Pontic–Caspian steppe , kurgans spread into much of Central Asia and Eastern , Southeast , Western and Northern Europe during

5358-543: The Serer people may have created tumuli (before 13th century AD), shell middens (7th century AD – 13th century AD) in the central-west region, and shell middens (200 BC – Present) in the southern region. The funerary tumuli-building tradition of West Africa was widespread and a regular practice amid 1st millennium AD. More than ten thousand large funerary tumuli exist in Senegal. At the Inner Niger Delta , in

5472-525: The Wolof people ( Serer people ) or Sosse people ( Mande peoples ). Sudanese tumuli (e.g., Kerma , C-Group ), which date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE, share cultural similarities with Senegambian tumuli . Between the 6th century CE and 14th century CE, stone tumuli circles, which at a single site usually encircle a burial site of half-meter that is covered by a burial mound, were constructed in Komaland;

5586-601: The "last pharaonic culture of the Nile Valley" and described mound tumuli as being "the first architectural symbol of the sovereign's return and reunification with the primordial mound upon his death." Faraji (2022) indicates that there may have been a cultural expectation of "postmortem resurrection " associated with tumuli in the funerary traditions of the West African Sahel (e.g., northern Ghana , northern Nigeria , Mali ) and Nile Valley (e.g., Ballana , Qustul , Kerma , Kush ). Based on artifacts found in

5700-605: The 11th and 12th dynasties to be part of the Middle Kingdom. Known rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty are as follows: This dynasty was founded by Amenemhat I , who may have been vizier to the last king of Dynasty XI , Mentuhotep IV . His armies campaigned south as far as the Second Cataract of the Nile and into southern Canaan . As a part of his militaristic expansion of Egypt, Amenemhat I ordered

5814-593: The 13th century CE and the 16th century CE, may have connection to tumuli from Ballana and Makuria . Tumuli have also been found at Kissi , in Burkina Faso , and at Daima , in Nigeria . In Niger , there are two monumental tumuli – a cairn burial (5695 BP – 5101 BP) at Adrar Bous , and a tumulus covered with gravel (6229 BP – 4933 BP) at Iwelen, in the Aïr Mountains . Tenerians did not construct

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5928-467: The 1870s by early surveyors, the first one to be formally documented was Tumulus #2 in 1923 by William Foxwell Albright , and the most recent one (Tumulus #4) was excavated by Gabriel Barkay in 1983. These tumuli are sometimes associated with the Judean kings who ruled Jerusalem, but no such connection has yet been substantiated, nor have any inscriptions naming any specific Judean king been excavated from

6042-751: The 3rd millennium BC. The earliest kurgans date to the 4th millennium BC in the Caucasus, and researchers associate these with the Indo-Europeans . Kurgans were built in the Eneolithic , Bronze, Iron, Antiquity and Middle Ages , with ancient traditions still active in Southern Siberia and Central Asia. On the Anatolian peninsula, there are several sites where one can find the biggest specimens of these artificial mounds throughout

6156-453: The Afro-Asiatic family, noting: "The Irem-list also provides a similar inventory to Kush, placing this firmly in an Eastern Sudanic zone. These Irem/Kush-lists are distinctive from the Wawat-, Medjay-, Punt-, and Wetenet-lists, which provide sounds typical to Afroasiatic languages." Cooper (2017, 2020) suggests that an Eastern Sudanic language (perhaps early Meroitic) was spoken at Kerma by at least 1800 BC (the time from which toponymic evidence

6270-412: The Commagene pantheon where divine figures used to embody the Persian and Roman perceptions together. The Dilmun Burial Mounds comprising necropolis areas on the main island of Bahrain dating back to the Dilmun civilization and the Umm al-Nar culture . Each of the tumuli is composed of a central stone chamber that is enclosed by a low ring-wall and covered by earth and gravel. The size of

6384-404: The Eastern Sudan, had contacts with Kerma during the whole period of its development. Kerma elements occurred along the whole stratigraphic sequence at Mahal Teglinos , the main site of the Gash Group. For many centuries, the Gash people were included in the circuit of interchange between Egypt and the southern regions of the Nile valley, so Mahal Teglinos became an important commercial partner of

6498-420: The Eastern Sudanic branch were spoken by the people of Kerma, as well as those further south along the Nile, to the west, and those of Saï (an island to the north of Kerma), but that Afro-Asiatic (most probably Cushitic) languages were spoken by other peoples in Lower Nubia (such as the Medjay and the C-Group culture) living in Nubian regions north of Saï toward Egypt and those southeast of the Nile in Punt in

6612-415: The Eastern dessert. Based partly on an analysis of the phonology of place names and personal names from the relevant regions preserved in ancient texts, he argues that the terms from "Kush" and "Irem" (ancient names for Kerma and the region south of it respectively) in Egyptian texts display traits typical of Eastern Sudanic languages, while those from further north (in Lower Nubia) and east are more typical of

6726-450: The Fayyum later became the basis for the Ptolemaic and Roman efforts that turned the region into the bread basket of the Mediterranean. Finding Nubia had grown restive under the previous rulers, Senusret sent punitive expeditions into that land. As a part of his effort to subdue Nubia, he ordered the construction of several new fortresses as well as the expansion of existing ones along the border with Nubia. He also sent an expedition into

6840-406: The Kerma peoples spoke Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic branch. They propose that the Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including the terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. They argue that this in turn suggests that the Kerma population—which, along with

6954-420: The Kerma state. This trade activity clearly contributed to the rise of complex societies in the region. By 2300 BC, the Early C-Group culture was also appearing in Lower Nubia, most probably arriving from Dongola Reach (near Kerma). Thus, by the second millennium BC, Kerma was the centre of a large kingdom, probably the first in the Eastern Sudan , that rivalled Egypt. The Middle Kerma Period, coinciding with

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7068-413: The Korean Baekje , Goguryeo ( Kogyuro / Koguryo ), Silla and Gaya states and are clustered around ancient capital cities in modern-day Pyongyang , Ji'an, Jilin , Seoul and Gyeongju . The Goguryeo tombs, shaped like pyramids, are famous for the well-preserved wall murals like the ones at Anak Tomb No. 3 , which depict the culture and artistry of the people. The base of the tomb of King Gwanggaeto

7182-458: The Mali Lakes Region, there are two monumental tumuli constructed in the time period of the Trans-Saharan trade for the Sahelian kingdoms of West Africa. The El Oualadji monumental tumulus, which dates between 1030 AD and 1220 AD and has two human remains buried with horse remains and various items (e.g., horse harnesses , horse trappings with plaques and bells, bracelets, rings, beads, iron items), may have been, as highlighted by al-Bakri ,

7296-404: The Mediterranean, and Africa. He built his mortuary complex near Memphis at Dahshur. Senusret II also reigned during a time of peace. He was the first king to develop the Fayyum Basin for agricultural production. This development was complex, requiring the digging of several canals and the draining of a lake in order to maximize the Fayyum’s agricultural output. The Middle Kingdom development of

7410-462: The Middle Kingdom of Egypt, continued from the reigns of Amenemhat I to Sobekhotep IV ( c.  1990–1725 BC). This is when Egypt began the conquest of Lower Nubia. The Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Pharaoh Senwosret I established forts at Ikkur, Quban, Aniba , Buhen, and Kor. The fort at Qubban protected gold mining operations along Wadi Allaqi and Wadi Gabgaba. The long history of Egyptian military activity in Lower Nubia may indicate that Kerma

7524-493: The New Kingdom, Kerma/Kush nevertheless became a key province of the Egyptian Empire —economically, politically and spiritually. Indeed, major Pharonic ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal near Napata, which included a large Amun temple. The New Kingdom of Egypt maintained control of Lower and Middle Nubia, with a Viceroy of Kush , or 'King's Son of Kush'. Egyptian settlements were established on Sai Island , Sedeinga, Soleb , Mirgissa , and Sesibi . Qubban continued to play

7638-446: The Nile. In addition to pursuing militaristic expansion, Senusret I was also responsible for internal growth within Egypt. As king, he initiated a considerable amount of building projects across Egypt, including pyramids in Lisht , a temple at Karnak and oversaw the renovation of the kingdoms major temples. Unlike his predecessors, Amenemhat II was king during a time of peace. Under his reign, trade boomed with other states in Asia,

7752-479: The Phrygian, Persian and Hellenistic periods. Around 35 tumuli have been excavated so far, ranging in date from the 8th century BC to the 3rd or 2nd century BC. The biggest tumulus at the site is believed to have covered the burial of the famous Phrygian King Midas or that of his father. This mound, called Tumulus MM (for "Midas Mound"), was excavated in 1957 by a team from the University of Pennsylvania Museum, led by Rodney Young and his graduate students . Among

7866-427: The Seizer of the Two Lands"), more simply called, Itjtawy . The location of Itjtawy has not been discovered yet, but it is thought to be near the Fayyum , probably near the royal graveyards at el-Lisht . The order of its rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty is well known from several sources: two lists recorded at temples in Abydos and one at Saqqara , as well as lists derived from Manetho's work. A recorded date during

7980-432: The accompanying rituals was a religious endeavor that emanated from the other elements" that he described, such as "sorcerers, sacred groves, idols, offerings to the dead, and the "tombs of their kings."" Faraji (2022) indicated that the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt, Kerma of Kush , and the Nobadian culture of Ballana were similar to al-Bakrī's descriptions of the Mande tumuli practices of ancient Ghana . In

8094-405: The bulk of the realm, but there also seems to have been districts where pastoralism (goat, sheep and cattle) and gold processing were important industries. Certain Kerma towns served to centralize agricultural products and direct trade. Analysis of the skulls of thousands of cattle interred in royal Kerma tombs suggest that stock were sometimes brought vast distances, from far districts, presumably as

8208-425: The burial mounds as neat and rounded in form. However, dimensions and precise form could vary widely based on rank of the individuals, smallest mounds being 2 to 3 m in diameter and 2 m in height to largest mounds described as an earthen oblong mound resembling ‘a large hillock some 100 feet long, and 50 in height’. Some special or high-standing individuals mound were semi-circular, while most were round. Traditionally,

8322-595: The construction of multiple military forts in Nubia. He also reestablished diplomatic relations with the Canaanite state of Byblos and Hellenic rulers in the Aegean Sea . He was the father of Senusret I. For the first ten years of his reign, Senusret I ruled as a coregent alongside his father, Amenemhat I. He continued his fathers campaigns into Nubia, expanding Egyptian control to the Third Cataract of

8436-422: The energies of this dynasty were largely spent, and the growing troubles of government were left to the dynasty's last ruler, Sobekneferu , to resolve. Amenemhat was remembered for the mortuary temple at Hawara that he built. Amenemhat IV succeeded his father, Amenemhat III, and ruled for approximately nine years. At the time of his death, Amenemhat IV had no apparent heir, leading to Sobekneferu’s ascension to

8550-516: The famous Lydian King Alyattes who ruled between 619 and 560 BC. There is also another mound belonging to King Gyges . The Gyges mound was excavated but the burial chamber has not been found yet. On this site, there are 75 tumuli dating back to Lydian period that belong to the nobility. A large number of smaller artificial mounds can also be observed on the site. There are other Lydian tumuli sites around Eşme district of Uşak province . Certain mounds on these sites had been plundered by raiders in

8664-419: The first covering of wood … the body deposited about four feet deep in an oval grave, four feet long and from eighteen inches to two feet wide. The feet were bent quite up to the head, the arms having been placed between the thighs. The face was downwards, the body being placed east and west, the head to the east. It had been very carefully wrapped in a great number of opossum [sic] skins, the head bound round with

8778-645: The following stage." S.O.Y. Keita, conducted an anthropological study which examined the crania of groups in the North African region which included samples from Kerma, circa 2000 BC, the Maghreb region, circa 1500 BC, and 1st dynasty crania from the royal tombs in Abydos, Egypt. The results of the study determined the predominant pattern of the First Dynasty Egyptian crania was "Southern" or

8892-614: The hundreds of tumuli present in Dhar Tichitt, compared to a dozen tumuli present in Dhar Walata, it is likely that Dhar Tichitt was the primary center of religion for the people of Tichitt culture. At Wanar , Senegal, megalithic monolith -circles and tumuli (1300/1100 BC – 1400/1500 AD) were constructed by West Africans who had a complex hierarchical society. In the mid-region of the Senegal River Valley,

9006-426: The important southern city may explain the findings. West Asia (6000–3500 BC) Europe (5500–2200 BC) Central Asia (3700–1700 BC) South Asia (4300–1800 BC) China (5000–2900 BC) 19°36′03″N 30°24′35″E  /  19.600802°N 30.409731°E  / 19.600802; 30.409731 Tumulus A tumulus ( pl. : tumuli ) is a mound of earth and stones raised over

9120-565: The kingdoms administration and agricultural developments in the Fayyum. The Twelfth Dynasty was also responsible for significant expansion of Egyptian borders, with campaigns pushing into Nubia and the Levant. The Twelfth Dynasty is often considered the apex of Egypt's Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom spans the Eleventh , Thirteenth , and Fourteenth dynasties, but some scholars only consider

9234-469: The large burials, which he thought belonged to those named individuals. Thus, scholars accepted the view that Kerma was a trading outpost of the Egyptians, being too small and far away from the known borders of ancient Egypt to be more directly linked to it. It was only starting in mid-20th century that excavations began to reveal that Kerma city was much larger and more complex than previously assumed. It

9348-710: The late 1960s, and the Lydian treasures found in their burial chambers were smuggled to the United States, which later returned them to Turkish authorities after negotiations. These artifacts are now exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Uşak. Gordium (Gordion) was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Phrygia . Its ruins are in the immediate vicinity of Polatlı , near the Turkish capital Ankara . At this site, approximately 80–90 tumuli date back to

9462-716: The layout of royal funerary compounds in both Kerma and Napata (the Kush capital) are similarly designed. Caches of statues of Kush's pharaohs have also been discovered at Kerma, suggesting that the Napatan rulers recognized a historic link between their capital and Kerma. The linguistic affiliation of the Kerma culture is currently unknown, and membership to both the Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic language families has been proposed. According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that

9576-575: The many fine bronze artifacts recovered from the wooden burial chamber were 170 bronze vessels, including numerous "omphalos bowls", and more than 180 bronze "Phrygian fibulae " (ancient safety pins). The wooden furniture found in the tomb is especially noteworthy, as wood seldom survives from archaeological contexts: the collection included nine tables, one of them elaborately carved and inlaid, and two ceremonial serving stands inlaid with religious symbols and geometric patterns. Important bronze and wooden artifacts were also found in other tumulus burials at

9690-447: The mounds varies, but the majority of them measure 15 by 30 ft (4.5 by 9 m) in diameter and are 3–6 ft (1–2 m) high. The smaller mounds usually contain only one chamber. The chambers are usually rectangular with one or two alcoves at the northeast end. Occasionally there are additional pairs of alcoves along the middle of the larger chambers. Although the chambers usually contained one burial each, some contain several people and

9804-406: The net usually worn by the natives, and also the girdle: it appeared after being enclosed in those skins to have been placed in a larger net, and then deposited in the manner before mentioned … to the west and north of the grave were two cypress-trees distant between fifty and sixty feet; the sides towards the tomb were barked, and curious characters deeply cut upon them, in a manner which, considering

9918-424: The next in line to rule, died at an early age. Sobekneferu was the last king of the twelfth dynasty. There is no record of her having an heir. She also had a relatively short nearly four year reign and the next dynasty began with a shift in succession, possibly to unrelated heirs of Amenemhat IV. Several famous works of Egyptian literature originated from the 12th Dynasty. Perhaps the best known work from this period

10032-712: The other tombs around Starosel , others contained offerings such as the Panagyurishte and Rogozen treasures. Some of the sites are located in the Valley of the Thracian Rulers . The mound of the Tomb of Seuthes III "Golyama Kosmatka" is among the largest mounds in Thrace, with a maximum height of 23 m. and a diameter of 130 m. Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt ( Dynasty XII )

10146-619: The period. Its first pharaoh was Amenemhat I and its final was Sobekneferu . The chronology of the Twelfth Dynasty is the most stable of any period before the New Kingdom . The Turin Royal Canon gives 213 years (1991–1778 BC). Manetho stated that it was based in Thebes , but from contemporary records it is clear that the first king of this dynasty, Amenemhat I , moved its capital to a new city named "Amenemhat-itj-tawy" ("Amenemhat

10260-476: The precursors for this 3rd millennium BCE tumuli style of Komaland, Ghana and Senegambia are regarded by Faraji (2022) to be Kerma Kush and the A-Group culture of ancient Nubia . While the stele-circled burial mounds of C-Group culture of Nubia are regarded as precursors for the megalithic burial mounds of Senegambia, Kerma tumuli are regarded as precursors for the stone tumuli circles of Komaland. The tumuli of Durbi Takusheyi , which have been dated between

10374-408: The preparation of the burial site, the carving of trees facing the mound and internment was done by initiated men. Occasionally, long raised mourning seats were constructed along one side of the burial mound. Many of these mounds today have undergone much change in appearance due to erosion, weathering, wildfires, agriculture, land development and deliberate destruction. Bodies were buried either in

10488-591: The presence of early Nubian regional rulers. It appears that they were initially loyal to the kings of Egypt. The last mention in Sudan of an Old Kingdom of Egypt Pharaoh , Neuserre of the Fifth Dynasty was in 2400 BC Buhen , and the desert west of Toshka ; no Egyptian presence occurs by the subsequent Sixth Dynasty . The Gash Group , a neolithic culture that flourished from 3000 to 1800 BC in Eritrea and

10602-525: The reign of Senusret III can be correlated to the Sothic cycle , consequently, many events during this dynasty frequently can be assigned to a specific year. However, scholars now have expressed skepticism in the usefulness of the referred date, due to the fact that location affects observation of the Sothic cycle. Egypt underwent various developments under the Twelfth Dynasty, including the reorganization of

10716-468: The royal burial site of a king from the Ghana Empire . The Koï Gourrey monumental tumulus, which may date prior to 1326 AD and has over twenty human remains that were buried with various items (e.g., iron accessories, an abundant amount of copper bracelets, anklets and beads, an abundant amount of broken, but whole pottery, another set of distinct, intact, glazed pottery, a wooden-beaded bone necklace,

10830-550: The royal tomb." The "Classical Sudanese" monarchic tumuli-building tradition, which lasted in Sudan (e.g., Kerma, Makuria , Meroe , Napata , Nobadia ) until the early period of the 6th century CE as well as in West Africa and Central Africa until the 14th century CE, notably preceded the spread of Islam into the West African and Sahelian regions of Africa. According to al-Bakrī , "the construction of tumuli and

10944-407: The secondary chambers often contain none. The deceased were generally laid with their heads in the alcove end of the chamber and lying on their right sides. The bodies were accompanied by few items. There were a few pieces of pottery and occasionally shell or stone stamp seals, baskets sealed with asphalt, ivory objects, stone jars, and copper weapons. The skeletons are representative of both sexes with

11058-434: The site. Mount Nemrut is 86 km in the east of Adıyaman province of Turkey . It is very close to Kahta district of the same province. The mountain has, at its peak, 3050 metres of height above sea level. A tumulus that dates to the 1st century BC is at the peak of the mountain. This artificial mound has 150 metres in diameter and a height of 50 metres, which was originally 55 metres. It belongs to

11172-682: The skeleton found in one of the tumuli is believed to be more than 3000 years old and it is kept in Gorica museum in Livno. Glasinac has many tumuli. During the Bronze and Iron Age it was a place of strong Glasinac culture , who buried their dead in tumulus. On the territory of Bulgaria there are over 60,000 ancient Thracian mounds, of which only about 1,000 have been studied. There are also Roman and Thraco-Roman burial tombs. Those tumuli over ancient tombs, temples and sanctuaries are found throughout

11286-437: The soil from one end of the tumulus, and about two feet beneath the solid surface of the ground, we came to three or four layers of wood, lying across the grave, serving as an arch to bear the weight of the earthy cone or tomb above. On removing one end of those layers, sheet after sheet of dry bark was taken out, then dry grass and leaves in a perfect state of preservation, the wet or damp having apparently never penetrated even to

11400-662: The stupa with early megalithic mounds are noted with structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre-Mauryan era cairns and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represents a "proto-stupa" . In Dholavira , an archeological site associated with Indus Valley Civilization , there are several large and high "hemispherical monuments" mounds with brick masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated. They consist of

11514-416: The throne. Sobekneferu , a daughter of Amenemhat III, was the first known woman to become king of Egypt. She was left with the unresolved governmental issues that are noted as arising during her father's reign when she succeeded Amenemhat IV, thought to be her brother, half brother, or step brother. Upon his death, she became the heir to the throne because her older sister, Neferuptah , who would have been

11628-409: The tools they possess, must have been a work of great labour and time." Traditionally, a sheet of bark was removed from trees and the bare surface was carved to face the burial mound. In some cases, up to five trees were carved around the mound for high standing individuals. It has been suggested that the carvings were associated with the culture heroes admired by man in life and were thought to provide

11742-446: The townsite and cemeteries of its metropolitan centre and smaller sites in Kerma, Sudan. However, recent survey and excavation work has identified many new sites south of Kerma, many located on channels of the Nile, now dry, which lay to the east of the modern course of the river. This pattern of settlement indicates a substantial population and for the first time provides a political context for metropolitan Kerma. Survey work in advance of

11856-453: The trees were made around the mound, facing the burial. "The form of the whole was semi-circular. Three rows of seats occupied one half, the grave and an outer row of seats the other; the seats formed segments of circles of fifty, forty-five, and forty feet each, and were formed by the soil being trenched up from between them. The centre part of the grave was about five feet high, and about nine long, forming an oblong pointed cone. On removing

11970-402: The tumuli from West Africa and Nubia , there may have been "a highly developed corporate ritual in which the family members of the deceased brought various items as offerings and tribute to the ancestors" buried in the tumuli and the tumuli may have "served as immense shrines of spiritual power for the populace to ritualize and remember their connection to the ancestral lineage as consecrated in

12084-547: The two monumental tumuli at Adrar Bous and Iwelen. Rather, Tenerians constructed cattle tumuli at a time before the two monumental tumuli were constructed. The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BC to 200 BC. Within the settled areas of Tichitt Culture (e.g., Dhar Tichitt , Dhar Tagant , Dhar Walata ), with stone walls , which vary in scale from (e.g., 2 hectares , 80 hectares), there were walled agricultural land used for livestock or gardening as well as land with granaries and tumuli. Based on

12198-772: The whole territory of Bulgaria. Some of the world's most significant and famous being the Kazanlak and Sveshtari tombs, UNESCO World Heritage sites. Located near the ancient Thracian capital cities of Seuthopolis (of the Odrysian kingdom ) and Daosdava or Helis (of the Getae ), perhaps they represented royal burials. Other notable tumuli are the Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo, Thracian tomb Golyama Arsenalka , Thracian tomb Shushmanets, Thracian tomb Griffins , Thracian tomb Helvetia , Thracian tomb Ostrusha , Tomb of Seuthes III and

12312-642: The world. Three of these sites are especially important. Bin Tepe (and other Lydian mounds of the Aegean inland), Phrygian mounds in Gordium (Central Anatolia), and the famous Commagene tumulus on Mount Nemrut (Southeastern Anatolia). This is the most important of the enumerated sites with the number of specimens it has and with the dimensions of certain among them. It is in the Aegean inland of Turkey. The site

12426-666: Was a type of mound, or small stone structure, found in Balochistan , including the coastal areas of Makran . The Chinese pyramids house the remains of some of China's former emperors . Before the expansion of Shang and Zhou culture through the region, many hundreds of tumuli were also constructed by the " Baiyue " peoples of the Yangtze Valley and southeastern China. In Japan , powerful leaders built tumuli, known as kofun . The Kofun period of Japanese history takes its name from these burial mounds. The largest

12540-429: Was also realized that the material culture and burial practices here are overwhelmingly of local Kerman origin rather than Egyptian. Swiss archaeologist Charles Bonnet was among the first scholars to challenge Reisner's views and, according to him, it took 20 years for Egyptologists to accept his arguments. In 2003, archaeologist Charles Bonnet heading a team of Swiss archaeologists excavating near Kerma discovered

12654-432: Was badly disturbed. Examination of other lesser disturbed monuments shows that the chamber was surrounded by a packing of earth, chipped rubble blocks and covered on the outside with inclined stone slabs whose top ends rested on the periphery of the capstone creating a mound. These pre-historic megalithic mound burials with chambers likely influenced later devolvement of mound burials called " Stupa " mounds, Similarities of

12768-496: Was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession "halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, and the mourners marched thrice solemnly round the spot." Archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction (see also mound ). Some British types are listed below: There

12882-503: Was mainly present in early Kerma and "possibly represents the descendency of the Pre-Kerma population that founded Kerma 4 km away from the original settlement, when the Nile riverbed shrunk...." Rilly continues: "However, the fact that their cemetery remained on the ancestral site might indicate cultural and ethnical continuity between Pre-Kerma and the new city. Cluster A and B were already present in Kerma ancien, but become majoritary in

12996-671: Was perceived as a threat to Pharaonic Egypt at varying times. Principal Egyptian fortifications were built in the middle Nile Valley during the Middle Kingdom. These were to secure the Upper Egyptian border against raids from Kerma, and more than probably and to protect the valuable trade routes between the two regions. Both during the Middle and New Kingdoms, the resources Kerma possessed—gold, cattle, milk products, ebony, incense, ivory, etc.—were much coveted by Egypt. Its army were built around archers. Yet, Egyptian control weakened during

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