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223-416: In Islam , khums ( Arabic : خُمْس Arabic pronunciation: [xums] ) is a tax on Muslims which obligates them to pay one-fifth (20%) of their acquired wealth from the spoils of war and, according to most Muslim jurists, other specified types of income, towards various designated beneficiaries. In Islamic legal terminology, "spoils of war" ( al-ghanima ) refers to property and wealth looted by

446-592: A scientific , economic and cultural flourishing . The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities ( dawah ), as well as through conquests . The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over

669-636: A Meccan outcast into the leader of a new community and city-state at Medina . Marshall Hodgson adds that Badr forced the other Arabs to "regard the Muslims as challengers and potential inheritors to the prestige and the political role of the [Quraish]." Shortly thereafter he expelled the Banu Qaynuqa , one of the Jewish tribes in Medina for assaulting a Muslim woman which led to their expulsion for breaking

892-402: A camel with 'Ali ibn Abu Talib and Marthad ibn Abi Marthad al-Ghanawi. The guardianship and administration of Medina was entrusted with Ibn Umm Maktum , but later with Abu Lubaba ibn 'Abd al-Mundhir . Muhammad handed a white standard to Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair al-Qurashi al-'Abdari . The army was divided into two battalions: one of the 82 Muhajirun and the other of the 231 Ansar . The flag of

1115-525: A canal or cultivate a dead land without the permission of the landowner ( ṣāḥib al-arḍ ), then it does not belong to them. [The imam], if he wishes, may take it all away from them or may leave it in their hands." According to this understanding, everything on earth is the exclusive property of the Imam, and only the believers, specifically the Shia, are allowed to use this property. They are entitled to four-fifths of

1338-505: A combined 6,236 verses ( āyāt ). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca , are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community. Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis

1561-670: A crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International, while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide , ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity. Battle of Badr Total : 313 Total : 1000 Total : 14 killed The Battle of Badr ( Arabic : غَزْوَةُ بَدْرٍ [ɣazwatu badr] ), also referred to as The Day of the Criterion ( Arabic : يَوْمُ الْفُرْقَانْ , Arabic pronunciation: [jawm'ul fur'qaːn] ) in

1784-509: A decisive victory attributable to divine intervention , and by other sources to the strategic prowess of Muhammad. After the Hijra (migration to Medina ) in 622 CE, the population of Medina chose Muhammad to be the leader of the community. Muhammad's followers decided to raid the caravans of the Meccans as they passed by Medina. This decision was taken in response to the Meccans persecution of

2007-447: A deterrent against a future attack on Medina. Abu Sufyan sent word to Mecca that the caravan was in danger, asking for reinforcements to cover the caravan as it passed by Medina. Traditional Muslim sources write that Abu Sufyan's spies had informed him of Muslim preparations to attack, a view accepted by Ramadan. Indeed classical sources write that Abu Sufyan routinely sent spies to check on Muhammad and warn him of any Muslim movement in

2230-402: A document, directed his financial representatives to collect khums on specific types of income. The document from Muhammad al-Jawad attests to the fact that the tax was not systematically collected before the date mentioned. Historical accounts indicate that the practice of collecting this tax through local representatives of the Imam became well-established during the latter part of the tenure of

2453-558: A duel. Hamza struck al-Aswad's leg before dealing him another blow that killed him. Seeing this, three men protected by armor and shields, Utbah ibn Rabi'ah , alongside his brother, Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah and son, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, emerged from the Makkan ranks. Three of the Madani Ansar emerged from the Muslim ranks, only to be shouted back by the Meccans, who were nervous about starting any unnecessary feuds and only wanted to fight

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2676-423: A figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh , which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi . The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into

2899-512: A formality, and they may have even received a stipend in later years. The death of the last of the Badr veterans occurred during the First Fitna . Indeed, there was a sign for you in the two armies that met in battle—one fighting for the cause of Allah and the other in denial. The believers saw their enemy twice their number. But Allah supports with His victory whoever He wills. Surely in this

3122-513: A fundamental religious duty. Two people who collected khums for Muhammad are identified as Mahmiya b. Jaz' and Abd Allah b. Ka'b al-Ansari. Ali b. Abi Talib was appointed by Muhammad to distribute the portion of khums allocated to his near relatives. Muhammad received one-fifth of the booty allocated to him in God's name, alongside two additional categories of shares from the booty: the ṣafw al-māl (the select item that Muhammad chose for himself before

3345-631: A god in general. Angels (Arabic: ملك , malak ) are beings described in the Quran and hadith. They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' ( nūr ) or 'fire' ( nār ). Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles. Common characteristics for angels include

3568-537: A human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion. The Islamic creed ( aqidah ) requires belief in six articles : God, angels , revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection , and the divine predestination. The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد ), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism , but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings. God

3791-498: A lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking. Some of them, such as Gabriel ( Jibrīl ) and Michael ( Mika'il ), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj , where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens. Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology , theology and philosophy . The pre-eminent holy text of Islam

4014-502: A member of the jurists . Over time, these terminological distinctions became more refined, reaching a conclusion with the Safavid jurist Muhammad Baqir al-Sabziwari (d. 1090/1679), who argued that khums should be given to "worthy recipients through the auspices of the just jurist qualified to issue fatwas," meaning that mujtahids should receive and distribute khums. This position remains prevalent today. al-Hakim's perspective on khums in

4237-556: A movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism . At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil . Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila , who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata . Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on

4460-468: A one-fifth share was also due on pearls, ambergris, and other sea products, including fish, but these views were not widely followed. The common Sunni view is that during Muhammad's lifetime, khums was divided into five shares, with Muhammad receiving a share allocated "for God and the Prophet" (referred to as khums al-khums ). This share was used by Muhammad to support himself and his immediate family and

4683-504: A person to hell . However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God. Yawm al-Qiyāmah

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4906-528: A place of prayer, it is also an important social center for the Muslim community . For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia , used to also serve as a shelter for the poor. Minarets are towers used to call the adhan , a vocal call to signal the prayer time. Zakat ( Arabic : زكاة , zakāh ), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah , is a type of almsgiving characterized by

5129-667: A religious group. This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge , who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population, the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide . Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as

5352-632: A result of negotiations or a treaty. The Malikis identify an intermediate category, al-mukhtaṣṣ , which includes property looted stealthily from the non-Muslim territory, and stipulate that the khums from this property must be privately distributed by the individual who seized it. There is ongoing debate regarding the obligation of khums on property taken by small groups of raiders acting independently. Food consumed by combatants or their animals does not count as booty subject to division. During Muhammad's lifetime, items he selected as personal prizes ( ṣafī ) were also not counted as booty subject to division. Khums

5575-728: A root that means "to measure" or "calculating". Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" ( Arabic : إن شاء الله ) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events. There are five acts of worship that are considered duties –the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (almsgiving), fasting during Ramadan , and the Hajj pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" ( Arkān al-Islām ). In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties. The shahadah

5798-401: A similar decision. Sunni exegetes interpret Quran 8:41 as specifically referring to war booty; however, there is considerable disagreement among them regarding the circumstances of its revelation, its interpretation, and how applicable it is after Muhammad's death. Jurists of the four Sunni schools of law — Hanafi , Hanbali , Maliki and Shafi'i —have differing views about the things khums

6021-589: A tree. The Muslim army enjoyed a refreshing night of sleep, again believed by Muslims, to be a blessing from Allah. While little is known about the progress of the Quraishi army from the time it left Mecca until its arrival just outside Badr, several things are worth noting: although many Arab armies brought their women and children along on campaigns both to motivate and care for the men, the Meccan army did not. The Quraish apparently made little or no effort to contact

6244-535: A trust from God's bounty, and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth. The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates. Sadaqah , as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity. A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust , which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies. In Islam, fasting ( Arabic : صوم , ṣawm ) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking , and

6467-504: A well-organized institution, particularly from the late Safavid period onward. al-Hakim's opinion is now the standard view among contemporary Twelver mujtahids, who continue to adhere to this division of khums. Clearly, the revenue from khums remains a significant source of power and prestige for the mujtahids as indirect representatives of the Hidden Imam. Islam Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on

6690-487: A “ windfall tax ” and as a tax on specific natural resources. Jurists of all schools agree about the rules governing khums applying to ghanima , which is interpreted as the spoils of war or booty acquired through armed conflict. However, the Shafi'is and some Hanbalis, particularly al-Khiraqi (d. 334/945), extend the application of khums to fayʾ , which is property given up by non-Muslims without resort to war, for example, as

6913-398: Is Sahih al-Bukhari , often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran. Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books , which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference. Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة ) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah

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7136-470: Is a fundamental difference between the Twelver school and other schools of fiqh. Given that verse 8:41 appears within a discourse on war, exegetical efforts were made to reinforce the interpretation that khums applied on any income, not just spoils of war. Such efforts typically began with a grammatical analysis of the term ghanima and the related verb, as discussed by al-Shaykh al-Tusi (d. 460/1067), where

7359-456: Is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn ( يوم الدين "Day of Religion"); as-Sāʿah ( الساعة "the Last Hour"); and al-Qāriʿah ( القارعة "The Clatterer"). The concept of divine predestination in Islam ( Arabic : القضاء والقدر , al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar ) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar , meaning "power", derives from

7582-403: Is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is " ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh " ( أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله ), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for

7805-409: Is applicable on. In its original form, khums was applied at the rate of 20% to spoils of war. Over time, this tax was expanded to include treasure, mines, and all materials extracted from the sea or earth. Today, Sunni jurisprudence holds that khums is applicable only to excavated items from land, sea, mines, buried treasures, and spoils of war, at the rate of 20%. In this context, khums functions both as

8028-502: Is calculated on the total booty after deducting expenses like transport and safekeeping. According to the Hanbalis and Shafi'is, deductions also include the clothing, weapons, mounts, and other personal items ( salab ) of opponent soldiers claimed by the specific Muslim soldiers who have killed or disabled them. The Hanafis and Malikis treat claims to these personal items as "rewards" ( anfāl ; sing. nafal ), requiring an express grant from

8251-567: Is due from them while leaving the earth in their possession. However, for those who are not followers of the Imams, what they acquire from the earth is unlawful until our Qa'im returns, at which point he will reclaim the earth from them and expel them empty-handed." Twelver jurists assert that the term ghanima encompasses a broader definition than just the booty from battles with non-Muslims and that it also includes various forms of gains and profits generated through trade and business. This distinction

8474-681: Is generally regarded as the foundational understanding of the concept of khums: "Indeed God, the Praised, the Exalted, gave the whole world, in its entirety, to His vicegerent, just as He said [in the Qur'an] unto the angels: "Verily, I (intend to) appoint a vicegerent ( khalifa ) [i.e., Adam] in the earth [2:30]." Thus the entire world belonged to Adam and was passed on to his righteous children and successors after him. Hence, whatever their enemies seize from them by fighting or victory and then returns to them

8697-547: Is given to his closest relatives, in addition to the specific portion designated for his family. The share for orphans was assigned to the orphans of the Muhammad’s family (i.e., Banu Hashim), while the remaining two shares were distributed to the poor and travellers as alms ( sadaqa ), thereby excluding the Muhammad’s family from these portions. However, this view was not widely accepted. According to another view noted by al-Tusi,

8920-581: Is known as tafsir . In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature , and has influenced art and the Arabic language. Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy , to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat ( Torah ) and

9143-469: Is likely a later developed view as Abu Yusuf (d. 182/798) reported that Hanafi jurists of his time believed khums should be divided into three shares: one for Muhammad (to be passed to the caliph after his death), another for Muhammad's family, and a third for orphans, the poor, and wayfarers. Abu Yusuf, a disciple of Abu Hanifa (d. 150/768), the founder of the Hanafi school of Sunni Islam, attributed to him

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9366-412: Is made by lot, with specific designations for khums (i.e., li'llāh , li'l-maṣāliḥ , li-rasūl Allāh ). There is debate regarding how much a ruler can bypass the general rules for dividing booty, including khums, by stating that each combatant may keep what they take as a reward. Many Hanafis argue that booty obtained under such a general offer of reward ( tanfīl ʻāmm ) is not subject to khums provided it

9589-457: Is named fayʾ . Fayʾ is that which is made to return to them [either] by victory or by fighting. The injunction concerning fayʾ is what God, the Exalted, has said [in the Qur'an]: "And know ye that whatever of a thing ye acquire, a fifth of it is for God, and for the Apostle and for the (Apostle's) near relatives and the orphans and needy and the wayfarer [Qur'an 8:41]." Thus it belongs to God,

9812-418: Is obtained by a detachment (sariyya), rather than the whole army, that is sent from within enemy territory. The Hanafis, Hanbalis and Malikis view the one-fifth due on the discovery of pre-Islamic treasure, as enjoined by hadith , as analogous to the one-fifth from booty (khums). The Shafi'is limit this obligation to gold and silver, applying the same minimum amount ( niṣāb ) as zakat on those metals. While

10035-609: Is only valid when the Imam is present, as he alone has the authority to make such decisions regarding the inclusion of all Shia in the typically restricted distribution of khums. Muhaqqiq al-Hilli (d. 676/1277) stated that the Imam had granted the Shia permission ( idhn ) to utilize his property generally, including khums, during his absence, which did not constitute unauthorized use. He asserted that khums should be distributed by "the one who possesses authority through delegation" ( niyāba ). al-Mutahhar al-Hilli (d. 726/1325) identified this authority as belonging to al-hākim , referring to

10258-407: Is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina , where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem , a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa , which was the direction of prayer before Mecca. Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of

10481-422: Is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan , it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah , when fasting is optional. The Islamic pilgrimage , called the " ḥajj " (Arabic: حج ),

10704-766: Is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars , describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah . The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection , a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death. On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn

10927-488: Is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the Christian Trinity , and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory , called shirk . God is described as Al Ghayb so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes ,

11150-439: Is taken from dār al-ḥarb (abode of war) through fighting, subjugation, or victory; and second, what is obtained by other means, such as treasures, mines, or diving for pearls, as well as surplus income. Regarding spoils of war taken from dar al-harb , a one-fifth share must be extracted from it, regardless of whether it can be transferred to Islamic territory. The interpretation that khums applied on more than just spoils of war

11373-484: Is the Quran . Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died. While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions , although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization . The Quran is divided into 114 chapters ( sūrah ) which contain

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11596-585: Is the Truth. We give you our firm pledge of obedience and sacrifice. We will obey you most willingly in whatever you command us, and by Allah, Who has sent you with the Truth, if you were to ask us to throw ourselves into the sea, we will do that most readily and not a man of us will stay behind. We do not deny the idea of encounter with the enemy. We are experienced in war and we are trustworthy in control. We hope that Allah will show you through our hands those deeds of bravery which will please your eyes. Kindly lead us to

11819-403: Is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم ( salama ), from the triliteral root س-ل-م ( S-L-M ), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace. In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God . A Muslim ( مُسْلِم ), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of

12042-528: Is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah . Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham . In Mecca , pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba , which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa , recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar , who

12265-445: Is to be paid on the spoils of war, found treasure ( al-kanz ), mineral resources ( al-maʼdin ), objects obtained from the sea ( al-ghawṣ ), the profits of any income ( arbāḥ al-mākasib ), the lawful wealth ( al-ḥalāl ) which has become mixed with unlawful wealth ( al-ḥarām ), and the sale of land to a dhimmi . The Arabic term khums literally means "one-fifth." The institution of khums has its origins in pre-Islamic Arab custom, where

12488-401: Is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal god and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy , to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa . Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh ( إله ) is a term used for a deity or

12711-434: Is used appropriately according to the Imam's wishes during the occultation. Once the mujtahid receives the khums, he is to divide it into two parts: sahm al-Imam and sahm al-sadat. The first portion, which includes the shares for God, the Prophet, and the Imam, should be used for promoting the faith and similar activities. al-Hakim argued that the administration of sahm al-Imam rightly belongs to someone well-versed in matters of

12934-458: Is verse 8:41 of the Quran. While Sunni exegetes consider Quran 8:41 to relate to war booty ( ghanīma ), Twelver and Zaydi scholars consider the phrase "whatever of a thing you acquire" ( annamā ghanimtum min shayʼin ) in the verse to refer to wealth more generally. In the Twelver tradition, various akhbār (reports or sayings of the Imams) substantiate the definition of ghanima this way, such as

13157-818: Is when Muhammad received his first revelation . By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam . Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley . In the Islamic Golden Age , specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate , most of the Muslim world experienced

13380-750: The Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar ) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun ), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority . The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats. Meccan forces and their allies lost against

13603-532: The Injil ( Gospel ), have become distorted —either in interpretation, in text, or both, while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God. Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء , anbiyāʾ ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" ( رسول‎ , rasūl ). Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of

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13826-556: The Apostle and for the (Apostle's) near relatives and the orphans and the needy and the wayfarer, if ye believe in God and that which we sent down... Regarding the circumstances of its revelation, there is disagreement between exegetes. One account mentions that Abd Allah b. Jahsh independently designated one-fifth of the spoils taken from raiding the Quraysh at Nakhla — the first spoils obtained under Islam — for Muhammad shortly before

14049-707: The Arab Spring , Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party , which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran , revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state . Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence. The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate

14272-633: The Banu Zahrah , numbering around 300, broke away from the army and returned to Mecca, on the advice of Al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq . Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim , also attempted to break away but were threatened by Abu Jahl to stay. Many of the Qurayshi nobles, including Abu Jahl , al-Walid ibn 'Utbah , ' Utbah ibn Rabi'ah , and Umayyah ibn Khalaf , joined the Meccan army. Their reasons varied: some were out to protect their financial interests in

14495-544: The Battle of Badr (2 AH /624 CE), and this practice was later confirmed by the Quran. Other sources suggest that khums was introduced at various times, including during Badr itself, after the victories over Banu al-Nadir (4/625) or Banu Qurayza (5/627), during the conquest of Khaybar (7/628), or even as late as the Battle of Hunayn (8/630). However, it is generally believed that Quran 8:41 abrogated Quran 8:1 (called āyat al-anfāl , which had allowed Muhammad to distribute

14718-541: The Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor. Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War . During the Battle of Karbala , Husayn ibn Ali

14941-684: The Deobandi movement. In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices. The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia . By

15164-788: The House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge. Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia. In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century , roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of

15387-672: The Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam, in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims. Trade brought many Muslims to China , where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty . Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty . Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas and Muslims assimilated into new cultures. Under

15610-689: The Maghreb , the Iberian Peninsula , Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh . The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military. Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue. While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions, Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among

15833-432: The Muslim population in Latin America . The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914. Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world, which performed well in elections following

16056-723: The Ottoman Empire , Islam spread to Southeast Europe . Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism , as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore. Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam. Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study. Cultural shifts were evident with

16279-477: The Qa'im when he came to implement his rule of justice in the future. There are some reports that the seventh Imam Musa al-Kadhim (d. 183/799-800) received khums from his followers and that the eighth Imam Ali al-Rida (d. 203/818) instructed his followers to pay this tax. The systematic collection of khums as a mandatory tax seems to have started in 220/835 when the ninth Imam Muhammad al-Jawad (d. 220/835), through

16502-565: The Qur'an and by Muslims, was fought on 13 March 624 CE (17 Ramadan , 2 AH ), near the present-day city of Badr , Al Madinah Province in Saudi Arabia . Muhammad , commanding an army of his Sahaba , defeated an army of the Quraysh led by Amr ibn Hishām , better known among Muslims as Abu Jahl. The battle marked the beginning of the six-year war between Muhammad and his tribe. Prior to

16725-593: The Quran and the teachings of the Islamic Prophet and messenger Muhammad , the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims , who are estimated to number approximately 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians . Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets and messengers , including Adam , Noah , Abraham , Moses , and Jesus . Muslims consider

16948-542: The Red Sea and escaped the Muslim threat by Damdam's arrival at Mecca. The valley of Badr is surrounded by two large sand dunes to the east, called al-'Udwatud Dunya (the near side of the valley) and al-'Udwatul Quswa (the far side of the valley). The Qur'an speaks of these two in Surah 8, verse 42. The west of the valley was covered by the al-Asfal Mountain ( Jabal Al-Asfal ) with an opening between it and another hill in

17171-654: The Ridda wars . Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands, resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires. Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War , Muhammad's widow, Aisha , raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge

17394-555: The Sunnah , documented in accounts called the hadith , provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God ( tawhid ), and belief in an afterlife ( akhirah ) with the Last Judgment —wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise ( jannah ) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell ( jahannam ). The Five Pillars —considered obligatory acts of worship—are

17617-444: The conquests of Susa and Ahwaz , their share was discontinued thereafter. Another account states that Ali once asked Muhammad to establish a law ensuring the continuation of his family's share after his death, which was enacted. This arrangement reportedly lasted until the final days of Umar, who ended the allocation of the share to the Prophet's family when revenues increased. There were subsequent concerns about Ali potentially making

17840-435: The fifth Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 114/732) refused to accept religious funds. In contrast, the sixth Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 148/765) occasionally accepted zakat, voluntary donations ( nadhr ), endowments ( waqf ), and gifts from his followers. However, both Imams Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja'far al-Sadiq did not impose khums on their followers. There was a widespread belief in their time that this tax would be established by

18063-402: The mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model, and Jamshīd al-Kāshī 's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years. After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires , these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate

18286-730: The millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty , took control of North Africa in the 10th century and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians , sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone , a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion. Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty , conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into

18509-504: The succession to Muhammad , they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically . The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of six books , while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of four books . Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia , the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia ; 20% live in

18732-528: The " Night of Power " ( Laylat al-Qadr ) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind. During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women,

18955-471: The "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics . In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine . In mathematics , the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi , who is considered a founder of algebra , which is named after his book al-jabr , while others developed

19178-583: The 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups. Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively. In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced

19401-747: The 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India. As a response to Western Imperialism , many intellectuals sought to reform Islam . Islamic modernism , initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya , embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani . Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam . Similar to contemporary codification , sharia

19624-402: The Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba . The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash. A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid . Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as

19847-613: The Banu Hashim only, and others including the Banu Muttalib with them. Paying khums is of great importance in Twelver Shi'ism . and is one of the practices that are considered the obligatory acts of faith ( furūʻ al-dīn ). The discussion of khums is a vital component of all Twelver works of jurisprudence and constitutes one of the basic differences between the Twelver school and other Islamic legal schools. Historically,

20070-436: The Banu Hashim, and that "the orphans and the needy" are exclusively among them, as they cannot have a share in alms ( sadaqa ) in Islam. The juristic reasoning for the majority position, later summarized by Muhammad Hasan al-Najafi (d. 1266/1850), is as follows: God's share was initially owned by Muhammad, who had the authority to manage it as he wished. After Muhammad's death, both shares (of God and Muhammad) were inherited by

20293-474: The Banu Hashim, meaning they must also be administered by the Imam. This necessitates the continuous presence of the Imam to oversee the administration of khums. In the absence of the Imam, as is the case with the Twelfth Imam during the period of Occultation ( ghayba ) that began in 260/874, questions arose regarding the management of khums and whether it is still obligatory during this time. This lead to

20516-559: The Hanafis distribute this one-fifth similarly to the khums from booty, the Hanbalis and Malikis classify it as fayʾ to be used for community needs, whereas the Shafi'is treat it as zakat. The Hanafis and some Malikis also extend the one-fifth rule to mining products, such as malleable metals according to the Hanafis and nearly pure pieces gold and silver ( nadra ) according to the Malikis. Opinions from some early scholars suggested that

20739-480: The Imam. The share for "near relatives" also goes to the Imam, as they became the heads of the Ahl al-Bayt following Muhammad's death. Thus, when the Imam is present, he is entitled to half of the khums, with the remaining shares distributed by him. As the shares intended for Muhammad’s family must be managed by the Imam for the benefit of his descendants and the remaining three portions of khums should also be exclusively for

20962-750: The Islamic oath and creed ( shahada ), daily prayers ( salah ), almsgiving ( zakat ), fasting ( sawm ) in the month of Ramadan , and a pilgrimage ( hajj ) to Mecca . Islamic law, sharia , touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment . The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha . The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina , and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem . The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE . Muslims believe this

21185-480: The Malikis from khums itself, although they generally disapprove of such allocations. Most later Muslim jurists agreed that the portion of the khums designated for Muhammad should be spent, among other things, to maintain the Muslim army and for the general good of the Muslims. These jurists also concurred that a portion of the khums should go to the "near relatives" of Muhammad, but they disagreed on who these rightful near relatives were, with some considering them to be

21408-527: The Middle East–North Africa ; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa . Muslim communities are also present in the Americas , China , and Europe . Muslims are the world's fastest-growing major religious group, due primarily to a higher fertility rate and younger age structure compared to other major religions. In Arabic, Islam ( Arabic : إسلام , lit.   'submission [to God]')

21631-579: The Muhajirun was carried by 'Ali ibn Abu Talib, while that of the Ansar was carried by Sa'd ibn Mu'adh . az-Zubayr commanded the right flank, while al-Miqdad commanded the left. And the rear of the army was commanded by Qays bin Abi Sa'sa'ah. With Muhammad in the lead, the army marched out along the main road to Mecca, from the north. At Safra', he dispatched Basbas al-Juhani and 'Adi al-Juhani to scout for

21854-457: The Muhajirun, keeping the dispute within the tribe. So Hamza approached and called on Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and 'Ali ibn Abu Talib to join him. The first two duels between 'Ali and al-Walid and Hamza and Shaybah were quick with both managing to kill their opponents swiftly. After the fight between Ali and Walid, Hamza looked at 'Ubaydah to find him seriously wounded. He then fell upon and killed Shaybah. Ali and Hamza then carried Ubaydah back into

22077-494: The Muhammad's family. When Muhammad's closest relatives demanded their entire share, Umar refused their request. During the caliphates of Uthman (r. 644-56) and Ali (r. 656-61), the practice of dividing the khums into three parts—one for orphans, one for the poor, and one for travelers—became well-established. As a relative of Muhammad, Ali was inquired about the family's share and noted that while they had been compensated until

22300-456: The Muslim army after battling with non-Muslims or raiding them. Khums is the first Islamic tax, which was imposed in 2 AH /624 CE, after the Battle of Badr . It is separate from other Islamic taxes such as zakat and jizya . It is treated differently in Sunni and Shia Islam ; key topics of debate include the types of wealth subject to khums, the methods of its collection and distribution, and

22523-862: The Muslim lines. He died later due to a disease. A shower of arrows from both sides followed these duels and this was followed by several other duels, most of which were won by the Muslims. The Makkans now took the offensive and charged upon the Muslim lines. As the Makkans charged upon the Muslims, Muhammad kept asking Allah, stretching his hands toward the Qibla : "O Allah! Should this group (of Muslims) be defeated today, You will no longer be worshipped." Muhammad kept reciting his prayer until his cloak fell off his shoulders, at which point Abu Bakr picked it up and put it back on his shoulders and said: "O Prophet of Allah, you have cried out enough to your Lord. He will surely fulfil what He has promised you." Muhammad gave

22746-458: The Muslim plan to ambush his caravan, changed course and took a longer route away from Muhammad's base at Medina and sent a messenger to Mecca, asking for help. Amr Bin Hisham commanded an army nearly one-thousand strong, approaching Badr and encamping at the sand dune al-'Udwatul Quswa. Badr was the first large-scale engagement between the Muslims and Quraysh Meccans. Advancing from the north,

22969-545: The Muslims and their forceful seizing of Muslim land and property following the Hijra. In early 624, a caravan of the Quraysh led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb carrying wealth and goods from the Levant (possibly Gaza ) was returning to Mecca. It was carrying merchandise worth 50,000 dinars and guarded by 70 men. The caravan was extraordinarily large, possibly because several smaller caravans may have grouped together for safety. All

23192-528: The Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims. By 629 Muhammad

23415-410: The Muslims beat the two boys into lying and Muhammad strictly condemned this action later. Muhammad then extracted the details of the Makkans from the boys. The next day Muhammad ordered a march to Badr and arrived before the Meccans. When the Muslim army arrived from the east, Muhammad initially chose to encamp at the first well he encountered. al-Hubab ibn al-Mundhir, however, asked him if this choice

23638-546: The Muslims faced the Meccans. The battle began with duels between the warriors on both sides, following which the Meccans charged upon the Muslims under a cover of arrows . The Muslims countered their charge and broke the Meccan lines, killing several important Quraishi leaders including Abu Jahl and Umayyah ibn Khalaf . The Muslim victory strengthened Muhammad's position; The Medinese eagerly joined his future expeditions and tribes outside Medina openly allied with Muhammad. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as

23861-632: The Muslims' plot to ambush his caravan. Fearing the loss of wealth that was imminent, Abu Sufyan sent the messenger Damdam bin 'Amr al-Ghifari to the Quraish. Damdam, upon his arrival at the Ka'bah , cut off the nose and ears of his camel, turned its saddle upside down, tore off his shirt and cried: "O Quraish! Your merchandise! It is with Abu Sufyan. The caravan is being intercepted by Muhammad and his companions. I cannot say what would have happened to them. Help! Help!" Abu Sufyan had rerouted his caravan toward

24084-785: The Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans, as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished. The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of

24307-407: The Prophet, and the Prophet's kindred. This then is al-fayʾ , [that is,] "that which was made to return" ( al-rājiʻ ). And "that which was made to return" is what had fallen into the hands of others. Therefore, it was taken from them by the use of force (lit. by sword). But as for that which came back to them without being troubled with horses and troops, these are anfal, and they belong exclusively to

24530-419: The Prophet. No one has a share in them; shares are made in the thing for which a battle was fought. [This is the case] in the ghanā'im [of which] four portions are assigned to those who fight and one portion to the Prophet. That [portion] which belongs to the Prophet, he divides into six portions of which three are for himself and the other three are divided among the orphans, the needy, and the wayfarers. But in

24753-459: The Quraish broke camp and marched into the valley of Badr. 'Umayr ibn Wahb al-Jumahi made a survey of the Muslim position and reported 300 men keen on fighting to the last man. After another scouting mission, he reported that neither were the Muslims going to be reinforced, nor were they planning any ambushes. This further demoralized the Quraish, as Arab battles were traditionally low-casualty affairs, and set off another round of bickering among

24976-579: The Quraish. It also describes how Iblis , the Leader of the Jinn , mentioned to have taken the form of Suraqa ibn Malik , fled the battlefield upon seeing the angels. Muslim sources take this account literally, and there are several ahadith where Muhammad discusses the Angel Jibreel and the role he played in the battle. Three days after the battle, Muhammad left Badr for Medina . As far as

25199-474: The Quraish. The future Caliph Uthman stayed behind to care of his sick wife Ruqayyah , the daughter of Muhammad, who later died from illness. Salman al-Farsi also could not join the battle, as he was still not a free man. All of the clans of the Quraish except the Banu 'Adi quickly assembled an excited army of around 1300 men, 100 horses and a large number of camels. Moving swiftly towards Badr , they passed

25422-659: The Quraishi leadership. However, according to Arab traditions Amr ibn Hishām quashed the remaining dissent by appealing to the Quraishis' sense of honor and demanding that they fulfill their blood vengeance. The battle began with al-Aswad bin 'Abdul-Asad al-Makhzumi, one of the men from Abu Jahl's clan, the Banu Makhzum , swearing that he would drink from the well of the Muslims or otherwise destroy it or die for it. In response to his cries, Hamza ibn 'Abdul-Muttalib , one of Muhammad's uncles, came out and they began fighting in

25645-609: The Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations , such as the Tawrat (the Torah ), the Zabur ( Psalms ), and the Injil ( Gospel ). They believe that Muhammad is the main and final Islamic prophet , through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called

25868-733: The Quran. Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan. One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day. Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ ( Arabic : دعاء   IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ] ) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging. Remembrance of God ( ذكر , Dhikr' ) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God ( الحمد لله , al-Ḥamdu lillāh ) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih , declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying ' in

26091-588: The Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets). Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet (" Seal of the prophets ") to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and

26314-478: The Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam) was from the Banu Hashim and extensively argued for the share of the nearest relatives, contending that it should be granted because the ghanima had increased—referring to Umar's denial of this share. He maintained that no Muslim has the right to deny the portion designated for them by Qur'anic command. The Hanafi stance is that after Muhammad's death, his share and that of his family ceased to exist. Hanafis support this stance with

26537-408: The Shia community about the right of the Imam that they were unable to answer. The revenue from khums appears to have been a significant source of income for the Imams, who, according to Islamic law , were not permitted to receive alms ( sadaqāt ; sing. sadaqa ). This income also highlighted their strength and that of their followers. In some instances, the Imams' wealth became a source of envy for

26760-450: The Shia masses. For example, Ibn Hamza Muhammad b. Ali al-Tusi (d. sixth/twelfth century), the author of an early work on Imami fiqh titled al-Wasila fi al-fiqh , argued that khums should be allocated to all needy Shia, irrespective of whether they are sayyids, based on numerous authentic traditions from the Imams asserting that the needs of all impoverished individuals fall under their responsibility. al-Hakim responded that Ibn Hamza's stance

26983-561: The Shia, the khums must be paid to the Imam of the time, as the rightful heir of Muhammad, who then distributes it among the orphans, the needy, the travelers and other descendants of Muhammad. As Twelver Shi'is believe the Imam of the time is currently in Occultation ( ghayba ) , they pay khums to senior religious scholars ( mujtahids ) of their choice, who are considered representatives of this Hidden Imam, and these jurists then divide

27206-445: The Twelver stance on this matter. Later Twelver works on jurisprudence contribute very little beyond what earlier authorities like al-Tusi provided regarding khums, although some of them do introduce new interpretations on certain key issues related to its distribution. Khums is calculated on the following seven items after deducting one year's provisions: Khums is a 20% tax on the aforementioned wealth, after deductions for expenses of

27429-433: The absence of the Imam was that even though the Imam is in occultation, it is possible to discern how he would want khums to be administered. Therefore, al-Hakim maintained that a qualified mujtahid in religious sciences could serve as the Imam's representative ( wakīl , nā'ib ) and collect khums on his behalf. This representative must be the most knowledgeable ( al-a'lam ) and righteous ( al-'adil ) jurist, ensuring that khums

27652-472: The actual wording, called matn . There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" ( صحيح , ṣaḥīḥ ); "good" ( حسن , ḥasan ); or "weak" ( ضعيف , ḍaʻīf ), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam . Among them

27875-621: The anfal and would be expelled by the Qa'im, the Mahdi of the Twelvers, upon his return. In another tradition referenced by al-Kulayni, a Shi’i from al-Bahrayn named Misma’ Abu Sayyar presented the Imam with 80,000 dirhams , indicating that this amount was one-fifth of his earnings from diving for pearls in al-Bahrayn, done in accordance with God's command regarding the Imam's rights. The Imam responded, "Is it only one-fifth of what God brings forth from

28098-413: The area. But Watt writes given that it took the Meccan army a week to get to Badr, Abu Sufyan must have sent his request before the Muslim preparations began. Watt points out Abu Sufyan was "one of the most astute men in Mecca" and must have anticipated the Muslim attack. Muhammad had gathered a small expeditionary force of around 300 men to intercept the caravan. Abu Sufyan's spies informed him of

28321-520: The battle, the Muslims and the Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624. Muhammad took keen interest in capturing Meccan caravans after his migration to Medina , seeing it as repayment for his people, the Muhajirun . A few days before the battle, when he learnt of a Makkan caravan returning from the Levant led by Abu Sufyan ibn Harb , Muhammad gathered a small expeditionary force to capture it. Abu Sufyan, learning of

28544-460: The battlefield in the Name of Allah." Muhammad, impressed with his loyalty and spirit of sacrifice, ordered the march towards Badr to continue. By Sunday, 11 March (15 Ramadan), both armies were about a day's march from Badr. Muhammad and Abu Bakr had conducted a scouting operation and managed to locate the camp of the Quraish. They came across an old bedouin nearby from whom they managed to find out

28767-487: The battlefield to divine intervention, with the Qur'an stating in Chapter 8, verse 12, that Allah inspired angels to strengthen those who have believed, and cast terror into the hearts of those who disbelieved. The battle itself only lasted a few hours and was over by early afternoon. The Qur'an describes the force of the Muslim attack in many verses, which refer to thousands of angels descending from Heaven at Badr to terrify

28990-455: The battlefield was another opening, which was the primary route from Mecca. The Quraish had encamped in the south-eastern portion of the valley near the road to Mecca, while Muhammad and his army had encamped in some date-palms in the north. They had taken a well near the center of the western margin of al-'Udwatul Dunya and destroyed the other wells near the road to Medina to prevent the Makkans from getting any water. Another well situated at

29213-838: The beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina , and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta , as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists. The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ISIS . The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers. This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs. The Umayyad dynasty conquered

29436-416: The booty to be divided. The captured slaves of the non-Muslims are also included in the booty to be divided. There is disagreement regarding real property: the Shafi'is divide it among the Muslim combatants and subject it to khums, while the Malikis do not. The Hanafis and Hanbalis leave the division to the ruler's discretion. When dividing the booty itself, rather than its sale price, the determination of khums

29659-406: The booty was distributed) and his share as a participant in the battle alongside other warriors. The remaining four-fifths of the booty was to be distributed among the troops who accompanied the Prophet. Shortly after the death of Muhammad in 11 AH/632 CE, the allocation of khums to the various groups mentioned in Quran 8:41 became a source of disagreement. The main issue revolved around how to treat

29882-456: The caliphs, who noted the "flow of wealth from east and west" to the Imams. For instance, the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (d. 193/809) learned about the khums received by the seventh Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, in Medina. According to Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani , this was one of the reasons that led to the imprisonment of this Imam by the caliph. For the Shia, the main Quranic reference for khums

30105-432: The captives. Some 70 prisoners were taken captive and are noted to have been treated humanely, including a number of Quraysh leaders. Most of the prisoners were released upon payment of ransom and those who were literate were released on the condition that they teach ten persons how to read and write and this teaching was to count as their ransom. William Muir wrote of this period: In pursuance of Mahomet's commands,

30328-437: The caravan; others wanted to avenge Ibn al-Hadrami, a guard killed in one of the caravan ambushes at Nakhlah ; finally, a few must have wanted to take part in what was expected to be an easy victory against the Muslims. Amr ibn Hishām is described as shaming Umayyah ibn Khalaf into joining the expedition. Muhammad held a council of war to review the situation and decide on a plan-of-action. According to some Muslim scholars,

30551-412: The case of al-anfal , this is not the way prescribed [for its allocation], since it belongs to the Prophet exclusively. Fadak belonged to the Prophet alone, since he and Amir al-Mu'minin [Ali] had captured it and there was nobody else with them. Consequently, the name al-fayʾ ceases to be applied to it, and it necessarily comes under al-anfal . Similarly, jungles, mines, oceans, and deserts belong to

30774-420: The categories of recipients ( asnāf ). Historically, one-fifth of the spoils of war (i.e., the khums) was placed at the disposal of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who distributed it among himself, his close relatives, orphans, the needy and travelers (the remaining four-fifth of the spoils went to soldiers of the Muslim army who attacked the non-Muslims). After Muhammad's death, disagreement arose about how to use

30997-411: The chief received one-fourth ( mirbā' ) or one-fifth of the war booty along with the ṣafw al-māl (any part of the booty that particularly attracted him). The remaining booty was typically shared among the raiders who accompanied the chief, but the chief retained the right to dispose of the booty as he saw fit. Under Islam, the management and distribution of war booty became a state responsibility due to

31220-518: The citizens of Medîna, and such of the Refugees as possessed houses, received the prisoners, and treated them with much consideration. "Blessings be on the men of Medina!" said one of these prisoners in later days; "they made us ride, while they themselves walked: they gave us wheaten bread to eat when there was little of it, contenting themselves with dates. It is not surprising that when, some time afterwards, their friends came to ransom them, several of

31443-465: The concept of a function . The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine , founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. Many non-Muslims, such as Christians , Jews and Sabians , contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields, and the institution known as

31666-409: The corpses therein, addressing each of them by name "Would it have pleased you had you obeyed Allah and His Apostle? We have found true what our Lord promised us. Have you too found true what your Lord promised you?" Despite scholars estimating Meccan casualties at around 70, only the names of the more prominent ones are known. However, the names of the 14 Muslims who were killed during the course of

31889-526: The death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel . Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya , who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin . Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites , an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in

32112-751: The decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty . Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed

32335-466: The descendants of Hashim's brother, Muttalib, should be included among Muhammad’s family, similar to how the descendants of both Hasan and Husayn hold sayyid status. However, this view did not gain significant influence. al-Kulayni narrated a tradition from Sulaym b. Qays al-Hilali , who heard Ali state that the “family of the Prophet” ( dhawi al-qurba ) mentioned in Quran 8:41 refers specifically to

32558-399: The distribution of khums should start with grants to members of the Banu Hashim. Special allocations ( raḍkh ) of booty for slaves, women, and children participating in battle, who do not qualify as combatants, are distributed differently: according to the Hanafis from the total booty, according to the Shafi'is and Hanbalis from the four-fifths left after taking out the khums, and according to

32781-417: The early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs , the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa , Ahmad ibn Hanbal , Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i . In contrast,

33004-412: The earth that belongs to us? O Abu Sayyar, all the earth is ours, and everything God produces from it belongs to us." Misma’ then offered to bring the entire amount, to which the Imam replied, "O Abu Sayyar, we have purified it for you and made it lawful; take it and add it to your possessions. All that the earth holds in the hands of our Shia is lawful for them until the Qa'im appears, who will collect what

33227-416: The end of the road to Mecca was later filled with the bodies of the dead Makkans. On the night of 11 March (15 Ramadan), it had rained over the battlefield and the surrounding region. Muslims believe this was a blessing from Allah for the believers and a curse for the disbelievers, who suffered hardship in trying to climb the muddy slope. Muhammad was able to gather an army of 313–317 men. Sources vary upon

33450-492: The exact number, but the generally accepted number is 313. This army consisted of 82 Muhajirun , 61 men from the 'Aws and 170 men from the Khazraj . They were not well-equipped for a major conflict nor prepared. They only had two horses, and those belonged to Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and al-Miqdad ibn 'Amr . The entire army had 70 camels, meaning that they had one camel for two to three men to ride alternatively. Muhammad shared

33673-418: The exact strength of their army and their location. In the evening, Muhammad dispatched 'Ali, az-Zubayr and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas to scout for the Makkans. They captured two Meccan water-bearers at the wells of Badr. Expecting them to say they were with the caravan, the Muslims were horrified to hear them say they were with the main Quraishi army. Unsatisfied with their answer, while Muhammad was praying, some of

33896-410: The fair market value of the taxable item. Unlike zakat, which applies as long as the holdings exceed the required nisab , khums is a one-time tax - once khums is paid on an item, that item is permanently exempt from any future khums. When the Imam is present, he is responsible for receiving and distributing khums, although he may appoint a representative for this task. In the Twelver legal system, khums

34119-470: The faith, making the mujtahid responsible for fulfilling the Imam's intentions. The second portion, sahm al-sadat, is to be distributed exclusively among the Banu Hashim. al-Hakim's suggestion reflects practices from the early days of Twelver history during the Minor Occultation of the Twelfth Imam (873-941), when the Imam's representatives collected khums in his absence. This practice evolved into

34342-404: The first three groups specified in the verse—God, the Prophet, and his family—with particular contention regarding the latter two. Muhammad's successor and the first caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632-34) reportedly sought the opinions of the Muslims regarding the shares belonging to Muhammad and his family, receiving a variety of perspectives on the matter. Some advised him to redistribute these shares among

34565-783: The following verses of Al Anfal , Q8:5-6 , were revealed in lieu of some Muslims fearing the encounter. Abu Bakr was the first to speak at the meeting and he reassured Muhammad. ' Umar was next. Then, al-Miqdad ibn 'Amr got up and said: "O Messenger of Allah ! Proceed where Allah directs you to, for we are with you. We will not say as the Children of Israel said to Musa : "Go you and your Lord and fight and we will stay here;" rather we shall say: "Go you and your Lord and fight and we will fight along with you." By Allah! If you were to take us to Birk al-Ghimad, we will still fight resolutely with you against its defenders until you gained it." Muhammad then praised him and supplicated for him, but

34788-511: The gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars. He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics, but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime. During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab , influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim , founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam. He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting

35011-399: The giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually) of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt , or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies. It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as

35234-476: The grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site. He formed an alliance with the Saud family , which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia . Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in

35457-410: The handling of khums. al-Tusi (d. 460/1067), the most prominent Shi’i legal scholar of the early Middle Ages, summarizes these opinions in his book al-Mabsut . According to al-Tusi, Twelver jurists had four distinct opinions regarding what to do with khums, particularly concerning the three shares of the Imam, during the Occultation. al-Tusi added that there is no specific stipulation ( naṣṣ mu'ayyan ) in

35680-460: The imam, in particular. Thus, if a group of people cultivate [a piece of land] with the permission of the imam, then four fifths belong to them and one fifth goes to the imam. That one [portion] assigned to the imam follows the same procedure [in its distribution] as al-khums. But if they] cultivate it without the permission of the imam, then the imam takes it all, and no one has a share in it. Likewise, those who build something or cause water to flow in

35903-441: The individual and dependents. It becomes obligatory ( wajib ) to pay khums at the beginning of the new financial year on the profit or surplus of the past year's income. The "beginning" of the new financial year means the time when the profit or surplus of the income of the past year becomes clear. According to most contemporary jurists, it is precautionarily obligatory to pay khums on any prizes, gifts, bequests (items received through

36126-420: The khums into two portions: one for distribution among the indigent descendants of Muhammad and the other for any activities that they believe will be agreeable to the Hidden Imam. In Sunni Islam, jurists are unanimous in applying the khums to spoils of war but disagreement exists on whether this tax extends (at the rate of 20%) to buried treasure and products extracted from mines and the sea. In Shia Islam, khums

36349-510: The landowner. As early as the fourth century AH/tenth century CE, Muhammad b. Ya’qub al-Kulayni (d. 328/940-41) compiled the main traditions regarding what belongs to the Imam, laying the groundwork for the subsequent development of khums within Twelver Shi’ism. In his Kitab al-Kafi , al-Kulayni offered a summary of the earliest understanding of khums in Twelver teachings. Although Twelver jurists ( fuqahā ʾ) have varied in their interpretations of al-Kulayni's summary over time, his explanation

36572-403: The large amounts of booty involved. The straightforward pre-Islamic Arab practice of division was inadequate for the more complex circumstances resulting from the Muslim conquests. Muslim scholars agree that the khums was introduced in Islam when Quran 8:41 (called āyat al-khums or āyat al-ghanīma ) was revealed: And know ye that whatever of a thing ye acquire a fifth of it is for God and for

36795-456: The largest Shia populations outside Iran. Nader Shah , who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab , called Ja'farism, which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans. Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam, rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology, and called to open

37018-426: The last two were killed during fighting in the field of battle at Badr and subsequently buried in a pit, while Safiur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri writes that these two were taken as prisoners and subsequently executed by Ali . The Battle of Badr was extremely influential in the rise of two men who determined the course of Arabian history in the next century. The first was Muhammad , who was transformed overnight from

37241-456: The leaders and a number of high-ranking officials of the Quraysh. In retaliation, the Quraysh put a bounty on his head. An assassin killed him at battle of Uhud and the Quraysh followed by publicly mutilating Hamza. In later days, the battle of Badr became so significant that Ibn Ishaq included a complete name-by-name roster of the Muslim army in his biography of Muhammad. In many hadiths, veterans who fought at Badr are identified as such as

37464-425: The leading Meccan financiers had a share in this trading venture, and thus had a strong interest in it returning. Muhammad learned of the caravan and decided to intercept it for two reasons. First, was the continuation of the policy to recover wealth from the Quraysh, as the Quraysh had confiscated Muslims' properties in Mecca after the hijrah. Secondly, a successful attack would impress the Meccans and could act as

37687-425: The majority of Twelver jurists as noted by al-Tusi, the shares allocated for God and Muhammad are designated for Muhammad's successor, his wali al-amr (the executor of his will). Therefore, the Imam receives three shares: two as the rightful heir of Muhammad and one assigned to him by God. The other three shares are distributed to orphans, the poor, and travellers from the Banu Hashim only. A minority also contended that

37910-600: The majority. Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions , with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal , which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months. However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi , Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with

38133-495: The many allies they had scattered throughout the Hejaz . Both facts suggest the Quraish lacked the time to prepare for a proper campaign in their haste to protect the caravan. Besides, it is believed they expected an easy victory. Since Muhammad's army had either destroyed or taken all the wells in the city, a few Makkans approached the well controlled by Muslims to draw out water. All were shot except Hakim ibn Hizam , who later accepted Islam . At midnight on 13 March (17 Ramadan),

38356-403: The members of the Banu Hashim (Muhammad's clan) and the Banu Muttalib clans regardless of their needs, with males receiving twice the share of females, (3) orphans ( yatāmā ), defined as needy minors without a father, (4) the poor ( masākīn ), corresponding to the "poor and needy" in Quran 9:60, and (5) travelers, defined similarly as for zakat. Al-Shafi'i (d. 204/820; the eponymous founder of

38579-429: The modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist , others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims. In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia. In other places, religious authority

38802-401: The moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour , near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel . The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as

39025-399: The most common being Ar-Rahmān ( الرحمان ) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm ( الرحيم ) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran. Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, " Be, and it is ," and that the purpose of existence

39248-418: The name of God ' ( بسملة , basmalah ) before starting an act such as eating. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the " trusted one " ( Arabic : الامين ) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija . In the year 610 CE, troubled by

39471-425: The needs of Muslims at the discretion of the ruler, a position also supported by the Hanbali jurist Ibn Taymiyya (d. 652/1254). For instance, the ruler could choose to divide it evenly between the poor and the rich. Additionally, Malik (d. 179/795), founder of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, asserted that the ruler could, if he wished, allocate part of the khums to Muhammad's family. The Malikis also recommend that

39694-412: The northwest. Between al-'Udwatud Dunya and al-'Udwatul Quswa was an opening, which was the primary route to Medina . Muhammad and his army did not approach the battlefield from here, they came from the north, as they were originally planning to target the caravan, which was moving from the Levant in the north, to Mecca in the south. Between al-'Udwatul Quswa and the hill covering the southern part of

39917-427: The opportunity, almost by default, to become chief of the Quraish . As a result, when Muhammad marched into Mecca six years later, it was Abu Sufyan who helped negotiate its peaceful surrender. Abu Sufyan subsequently became a high-ranking official in the Muslim Empire, and his son Mu'awiya later went on to found the Umayyad Caliphate . Hamza had performed especially well during the battle of Badr, killing one of

40140-516: The order to carry out a counterattack against the enemy now, throwing a handful of pebbles at the Makkans in what was probably a traditional Arabian gesture while yelling "Defaced be those faces!" or "Confusion seize their faces." The Muslim army yelled in reply, "Yā manṣūr amit!" meaning "O thou whom God hath made victorious, slay!" and rushed the Qurayshi lines. The Makkans, understrength and unenthusiastic about fighting, promptly broke and ran. Muslims attribute their fear of fighting and fleeing from

40363-413: The other recipients, while others argued that they should be allocated for preparations for war, such as acquiring horses and weapons. Abu Bakr removed the entitlement of Muhammad's family to the khums and allocated it to the clans of the Quraysh, thereby strengthening their support for his caliphate. Umar (r. 634-44) proposed using the khums to cover marriage expenses and debts for the unmarried members of

40586-413: The other shares were directed toward his kin and community needs. A minority, including the Basran Quran scholar Abu al-'Aliya Rufay b. Mihran al-Riyahi (d. 90/708 or 96/714) and, as reported occasionally, his mentor Ibn Abbas (d. 68/687-8), argued that a separate sixth share designated for God existed which was meant for the maintenance of the Kaaba . Muqatil b. Sulayman (d. 150/767) stated that khums

40809-489: The peace treaty. The tribe is also known for having threatened Muhammad's political position. At the same time 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy , Muhammad's chief opponent in Medina, found his own position seriously weakened. He was only able to mount limited challenges to Muhammad. The other major beneficiary of the Battle of Badr was Abu Sufyan ibn Harb , safely away from the battle leading the caravan. The death of Amr ibn Hisham , as well as many other Quraishi nobles, gave Abu Sufyan

41032-413: The pious. The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt , leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution , non-Arab converts ( mawali ), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750. Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith. During

41255-413: The poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi . The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba. After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans , Muhammad and his companions performed

41478-423: The portions designated for God and Muhammad are considered the property of the Imam. The share for Muhammad’s family also goes to the Imam, who is responsible for distributing it among the family members. The remaining three shares are allocated to the orphans, the needy, and travelers in the general population, not just the Banu Hashim. Ibn Hamza (who lived in 566/1170) supported this position. However, according to

41701-436: The practice of the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) as evidence. They teach that khums should be divided only among only three of the five categories mentioned in Surah 8:41, namely the orphans, the needy, and travelers. However, they do give priority to needy members of Muhammad's family within these three categories, as his family members are religiously forbidden to receive alms like zakat. The Hanafi stance

41924-448: The prisoners who had been thus received declared themselves adherents of Islam...Their kindly treatment was thus prolonged, and left a favourable impression on the minds even of those who did not at once go over to Islam" After the battle had subsided, Muhammad had ordered that the corpses of the 24 leaders of the Quraysh should be tossed into one of the dirty dry wells of Badr. A few days later Muhammad went back to these wells and spoke to

42147-406: The prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam , including Adam , Noah , Abraham , Moses and Jesus , among others. The stories associated with the prophets beyond

42370-428: The question of who is empowered to lead the Twelvers until the return of the Twelfth Imam, a contentious issue of Twelver authority during the period of the Occultation. The Imam's absence during the Occultation (260/874-present) allowed Twelver jurists to link the topic of khums payment to the contentious matter of community leadership during the absence of the Twelfth Imam. Twelver jurists held differing views regarding

42593-429: The rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses. Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة ), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in

42816-554: The ruler. The Hanafis provide rewards from the khums if the grant is made after the booty is secured in Islamic territory ( iḥrāz ); otherwise, it comes from the four-fifths of the booty. The Hanbalis also draw rewards from the four-fifths. The Malikis provide rewards from khums in all cases and the Shafi'is provide rewards from the one-fourth share of the khums designated for community needs. The rules for khums apply first and foremost to movable property: prisoners of war (including combatants, women and children) are enslaved and included in

43039-412: The same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel , Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence). Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world . This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive , as it suggests that

43262-411: The saying of the eighth Imam Ali al-Rida: "Everything from which the people gain benefit is ghanima ." Additionally, several akhbar assert the Imam's original ownership of the world and its resources, exemplified by the claim, "All the earth is ours, and what God produces from it is also ours." Consequently, khums is viewed as analogous to a tenant's obligation to pay a fixed percentage of the harvest to

43485-402: The share once given to Muhammad and whether to continue to give his close relatives a share of the khums. Over time, Sunni Muslims came to believe that khums should be paid to the ruler of the Islamic state for the general good of the Muslims, maintaining the Muslim army, and for distribution between the orphans, the needy, travelers, and, according to some jurists, the descendants of Muhammad. For

43708-437: The shares for the Prophet and his family ceased to exist after his death. These varying opinions among jurists within a single school reveal the confusion in the sources used to determine the distribution of khums and also the complexities arising from the extensive expansion of the Islamic empire. The Malikis view the categories mentioned in Quran 8:41 as illustrative and consider the entire khums as fayʾ , to be allocated for

43931-438: The sources regarding this matter: Muhsin al-Hakim (d. 1390/1970) discussed additional opinions beyond those previously mentioned, reflecting the legal rulings of both "ancient" and "modern" Imami jurists. Many of these rulings present alternative combinations of the four opinions outlined by al-Tusi. Some of these views can be considered "radical" and have not garnered support among the mujtahids , although they are appealing to

44154-436: The spoils from the Battle of Badr as he deemed appropriate). Thus, Quran 8:41 is thought to have been revealed sometime after Badr, with some sources indicating that the rule of khums was first applied to the booty acquired from the victory over the Jewish tribe of Banu Qaynuqa (2/624). Hence khums is considered the first Islamic tax, imposed after the Battle of Badr, two years after the Hijra . Muhammad taught paying khums as

44377-408: The sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith , which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad , and

44600-447: The teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence . In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari , which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired

44823-498: The teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides ' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed. This era is sometimes called the " Islamic Golden Age ". Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine , mathematics , astronomy , and agriculture as well as physics , economics , engineering and optics . Avicenna

45046-406: The tenth Imam Ali al-Hadi (d. 254/868). The revenues of the office of the Imamate increased significantly with the introduction of the khums tax, which the Imam’s agents collected from the faithful as his right. Since this tax was still a new imposition, questions arose regarding the extent of this "right." Three key representatives of Ali al-Hadi informed him that they had encountered questions from

45269-526: The three who had spoken were of the Muhajirun , who only constituted around one-third of the Muslim men in Medina . Muhammad wanted the opinion of the Ansar , who were not committed to fighting beyond their territories in the Pledges of 'Aqabah . Muhammad then indirectly asked the Ansar to speak, which Sa'd ibn Mu'adh understood and asked for permission to speak. Muhammad immediately gave him permission to speak and Sa'd said: "O Prophet of Allah ! We believe in you and we bear witness to what you have brought

45492-610: The treatment of prisoners was concerned, Abu Bakr was of the opinion that they should be ransomed, since they were all of their own kin. ' Umar argued against this, saying that there is no notion of blood relationships as far as Islam is concerned, and that all the prisoners should be executed, and that everyone should execute him who is closest to him by blood. ' Ali should kill his brother 'Aqeel ibn Abu Talib , Hamza ibn 'Abdul-Muttalib should behead his brother ' Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , and that he himself would kill someone close to him. Muhammad accepted Abu Bakr's suggestion to ransom

45715-497: The usufruct for their labor, while the remaining one-fifth belongs to the Imam. The anfal encompasses anything obtained without conflict, such as crown lands ( qata'i al-muluk ), sawafi (lands allocated to rulers), abandoned lands, and heritable land with no heirs, including woods, forests, and mines, as well as all that is found in the seas and on the ocean floor. The Shia could occupy the Imam's property only with his permission; all others were deemed usurpers who had unlawfully taken

45938-472: The valleys of 'Usfan, Qadid and al-Juhfah. At al-Juhfah, another messenger from Abu Sufyan informed them of the safety of their merchandise and wealth. Upon receiving this message, the Makkan army expressed delight and showed a desire to return home. Abu Jahl was not interested in returning and insisted on proceeding to Badr, and holding a feast there to show the Muslims and the surrounding tribes that they were superior. Despite Abu Jahl's threat and insistence,

46161-481: The verb is defined as "acquiring something for profitable use." al-Tusi (d. 1067), in his discussion of ghanima , explained that the term is derived from the root gh-n-m , which refers to anything acquired with the intention of making a profit, whether through capital or not. Hence, according to the jurists, al-ghanima refers to anything that becomes profitable without requiring capital. Based on this understanding, ghanima can be categorized into two types: first, what

46384-460: The view that the shares of Muhammad and his family should be used for amassing troops and weapons instead, in line with the practices of the first two caliphs (Abu Bakr and Umar) who succeeded Muhammad. However, another disciple of Abu Hanifa, al-Shaybani (d. 189/802), attributed to him the view that khums should be divided into three parts: one for the poor, one for orphans, and one for travelers. al-Baydawi (d. 1316) reported that Abu Hanifa held that

46607-432: The war or later (due to injuries sustained during the war) are all known. Well-known Meccans who were killed during the battle included Amr ibn Hishām , Umayyah ibn Khalaf , ' Utbah ibn Rabi'ah , Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah , al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, al-Aswad bin and 'Abdul-Asad al-Makhzumi. Nadr ibn al-Harith and 'Uqbah ibn Abū Mu‘ayṭ were also killed, though the circumstances of their deaths are unclear. According to some sources

46830-446: The will of a friend or someone unrelated), alms, zakat, and khums received. However, khums is not required on dowry or inheritance, except in cases where one inherits from an unlikely source, such as a distant relative from whom inheritance is not anticipated. The Shi’i conception of khums has been described as an in-kind tax or a type of income tax. It can be paid either in kind or as an equivalent amount of money, which must reflect

47053-428: Was a pioneer in experimental medicine , and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles . Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors. Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as

47276-515: Was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina . The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran. In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire . The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by

47499-484: Was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University , previously an independent voice checking state power. Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism. Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran. Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as

47722-416: Was divided into four parts, with one part representing the shares of God, Muhammad, and Muhammad's family. The Shafi'is and Hanbalis continue to divide khums into five shares following Muhammad's death: (1) the share of God and the Prophet (previously given to Muhammad), which now supports the needs of the Muslim community ( sahm al-maṣālih ), (2) the share for the Prophet's relatives ( dhu'l-qurba ), given to

47945-400: Was divided into six portions: one each for God, Muhammad, Muhammad’s family, orphans, the needy, and travelers. The Twelvers argue that the division of khums into six portions aligns with the direct interpretation of Quran 8:41. Al-Shaykh al-Tusi explained that according to one view, God's share was allocated to Muhammad, who could use it in the service of God. After Muhammad’s death, his share

48168-404: Was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem . Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to

48391-511: Was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code. The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I , the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924 and the subsequent Sharifian Caliphate fell quickly, thus leaving Islam without a Caliph . Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism . The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries ,

48614-450: Was from divine instruction or Muhammad's own opinion. When Muhammad responded in the latter, Hubab suggested that the Muslims occupy the well closest to the Quraishi army, and block off or destroy the other ones. Muhammad accepted this decision and the plan was carried out at midnight. Muhammad had also given strict orders to not begin an attack without his sole permission. Muhammad spent the whole night of 12 March (16 Ramadan) praying near

48837-448: Was further supported by additional akhbār (sayings of the Imams; sing. khabar ) such as: "A fifth of the earth is ours, and a fifth of all things is ours." The items subject to khums have been specified in various collections of akhbar as well as in works of jurisprudence. The earliest classification of taxable wealth included six categories: spoils of war, products from the sea, buried treasure, minerals, and malāhā . The term malāhā

49060-500: Was interpreted through juristic reasoning and references to other akhbar , as profits from trade, agriculture, and crafts, as well as from land owned by a dhimmi (i.e., a free non-Muslim in Islamic territory) that is acquired by a Muslim and "halal wealth mixed with haram wealth." This led to a total of seven categories. Once these categories were established, they remained notably consistent in later traditions. al-Tusi's al-Mabsut and al-Tahdhib , along with his al-Nihaya , encapsulate

49283-412: Was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca . These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni - Shia schism, with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt . Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw

49506-476: Was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement. The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil . All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram , intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin. Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah ,

49729-548: Was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca , and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity . Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr , Umar , Uthman ibn al-Affan , Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn (" Rightly Guided Caliphs "). Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in

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