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114-618: Ma Laichi came from a Chinese Muslim family with a military background. His grandfather, Ma Congshan, was a general under the Ming dynasty ; his father, Ma Jiujun, passed imperial examinations on the military track under the Qing , but instead of joining government service, made a fortune in business. His home was in Hezhou (now called Linxia ), one of the main Muslim centers of Gansu . According to

228-664: A Chamic -speaking ethnic group which lives southernmost tip of the island near the city of Sanya . They are thought to be descendants of Cham refugees who fled their homeland of Champa in what is now modern Central Vietnam to escape the Vietnamese invasion . Although they are culturally, ethnically and linguistically distinct from the Hui, the Chinese government nevertheless classifies them as Hui due to their Islamic faith. Many Hui are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers. On

342-518: A West-Eurasian origin and 93.3% are East-Eurasian , reflecting historical records of the population's frequent intermarriage, especially with Mongol women. Studies of the Ningxia and Guizhou Hui also found only minor genetic contributions from West-Eurasian populations. Analysis of the Guizhou Hui's Y chromosomes showed a high degree of paternal North or Central Asian heritage, indicating

456-403: A monk or belong to any established Buddhist school or tradition of his time. His recognized successor, Kyabje Dudjom Jigdral Yeshe Dorje , was more commonly known as Dudjom Rinpoche (1904–1987). He is considered to be the direct incarnation of Dudjom Lingpa. He was a Nyingma householder , yogi, and a Vajrayana and Dzogchen master. According to his disciple Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal, he

570-677: A Hui population of more than one million. In Ningxia, 33.95% of the population are of Hui ethnicity. Hui are the major minority in Qinghai (15.62%), Gansu and Shaanxi and is the overall major minority in Henan and Anhui . Dungan ( simplified Chinese : 东干族 ; traditional Chinese : 東干族 ; pinyin : Dōnggānzú ; Russian : Дунгане ) is a term used in Central Asia and in Xinjiang to refer to Chinese-speaking Muslim people. In

684-451: A Muslim and wanting to be a Zhongyuan ren (Chinese). Some Uyghurs barely see any difference between Hui and Han. A Uyghur social scientist, Dilshat, regarded Hui as the same people as Han, deliberately calling Hui people Han and dismissing the Hui as having only a few hundred years of history. Pusuman : Pusuman was a name used by Chinese during the Yuan dynasty . It could have been

798-505: A corruption of Musalman or another name for Persians. It means either Muslim or Persian. Pusuman Kuo (Pusuman Guo) referred to the country where they came from. The name "Pusuman zi" (pusuman script), was used to refer to the script that the HuiHui (Muslims) were using. Muslim Chinese : The term Chinese Muslim is sometimes used to refer to Hui people, given that they speak Chinese, in contrast to, e.g., Turkic-speaking Salars. During

912-612: A fragmentary biography of Maitripada he discovered in Nepal . The tulku system of preserving Dharma lineages developed in Tibet after the 12th century, with the first recognized tulku being perhaps Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama . Foreign tulkus have been identified since at least the sixteenth century, when the grandson of the Mongol Altan Khan was recognized as the 4th Dalai Lama . The Mongol conversion to Buddhism served

1026-415: A number of times, but every time her fiancé died before the wedding. Ma Jiajun indeed married that 26-year-old woman, and they had a son. Soon after, all Ma Jiajun's property was destroyed by a fire, and he named his son "Laichi", meaning "[one who] came too late". Rendered destitute by the fire, Ma Jiajun became a tea peddler, travelling in the region between Hezhou and Xining. His boy, meanwhile, studied at

1140-542: A political function and allowed Tibet to build a closer relationship with the Mongol Yuan Dynasty . Traditionally, however, tulku were only recognized from Tibetan cultural areas, encompassing Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia , and Bhutan . The Chinese annexation of Tibet in 1959 created massive social upheaval. This intensified during the Cultural Revolution which brought irreparable damage to

1254-600: A popular term for Muslim culture since the Yuan or Ming dynasty. Gladney suggested that a good translation for it would be the Arabic tahára . i.e. "ritual or moral purity" The usual term for a mosque is qīngzhēn sì ( 清真寺 ), i.e. "true and pure temple", and qīngzhēn is commonly used to refer to halal eating establishments and bathhouses. In contrast, the Uyghurs were called "Chan Tou Hui" ("Turban Headed Muslim"), and

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1368-481: A report on what he saw among Hui in 1910. He reported that due to religion, Hui were classed as a different nationality from Han as if they were one of the other minority groups. Huizu is now the standard term for the "Hui nationality" (ethnic group), and Huimin , for "Hui people" or "a Hui person". The traditional expression Huihui , its use now largely restricted to rural areas, would sound quaint, if not outright demeaning, to modern urban Chinese Muslims. Islam

1482-419: A traditional dress code, with some men wearing white caps ( taqiyah ) and some women wearing headscarves , as is the case in many Islamic cultures . Hui Muslims descend from Europeans, Arabs , Indo-Iranian Persians, Mongols, Turkic Uyghurs and other Central Asian immigrants. Their ancestors were of Middle Eastern , Central Asian and East Asian origin, who spread Islam in

1596-411: A tülkus. According to Khenpo Ngawang Pelzang: This form of transference is practiced by beginners on the path of accumulating who have received empowerment and respected the samayas, have a good understanding of the view, and have practiced the generation phase as the path but have not mastered it. Although they lack the necessary confidence to be liberated in the clear light at the moment of death or in

1710-530: A while in Bukhara . In Mecca, his teacher was the head of the Khafiya zawiya (Islamic school) there, Muhammad Jibuni Ahmad Agelai (or Ajilai, in other accounts). Another teacher who influenced him greatly was Mawlana Makhdum, who gave Ma Laichi the name Abu 'l-Futūh. Little is known about Makhdum, but Joseph Fletcher surmised that he may have been an Indian. After returning to China, Ma Laichi established

1824-680: Is Lodrö Chökyi Nyima . He was recognized in August 1996 by Ogyen Trinley Dorje , the 17th Karmapa , who gave the name Jamgon Lodro Chokyi Nyima Dronme Chok Thamced Le Nampar Gyalwe De. He was born on November   26, 1995, in Chushur Dzong , near Chushur Dzong, in Central Tibet. This recognition was confirmed by the 14th Dalai Lama , Sakya Trizin , head of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism , and Mindroling Trichen , former head of

1938-551: Is huófó (活佛), which literally means "living Buddha". Tibetans recognize at least three grades of tulku. Three of these grades as reported by Peter Bishop are: In a strict sense, tulku is a Tibetan translation of the Sanskrit nirmāṇakāya , which refers to the "transformation" or "emanation body" of a Buddha . Tulku is therefore the physical "form in which a Buddha appears to ordinary beings." A related term in Tibetan

2052-401: Is yangsi (literally "rebirth" or "re-becoming") which refers to an enlightened master who has returned to earthly existence for the sake of benefitting sentient beings. While the notion of a nirmāṇakāya is found throughout Mahayana Buddhism, and is integral to the doctrine of the trikaya ("Three Bodies"), the concept of the yangsi is uniquely Tibetan. Tulku, as a title, refers to one who

2166-487: Is "pulled between the need to adapt itself and the need to preserve itself". Westerners began taking an interest in Tibetan Buddhism during the counterculture of the 1960s, and Tibetan Buddhism became popular among western Buddhists and they began to be recognized as incarnations of Buddhist masters around this time. Most of these, however, were expatriate Tibetans or Tibetans of mixed heritage , such as

2280-543: Is Dechen Chökyi Drönma, who was born in 1938 or 1942. Dechen Chökyi Drönma was very young at the time of the Chinese occupation , and her exact date of birth is contested. Dechen Chökyi Drönma was recognised by the present 14th Dalai Lama as a true incarnation and served as a vice president of the Buddhist Association of China in 1956 while he was president, and Choekyi Gyaltsen, 10th Panchen Lama also as vice president. She went to Lhasa in 1958 and received

2394-460: Is a traditional religion in China and Mongolia. The Mongolian word for a tülku is qubilγan , though such persons may also be called by the honorific title qutuγtu (Tib: ' phags-pa and Skt: ārya or superior , not to be confused with the historic figure, 'Phags-pa Lama or the script attributed to him, ( Phags-pa script ), or hutagt in the standard Khalkha dialect . The Chinese word for tülku

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2508-462: Is no longer accurate, strictly speaking, just as with Bosniaks in former Yugoslavia. The Hui nationality is the most widely distributed ethnic minority in China, and it is also the main ethnic minority in many provinces. There are 10,586,087 Hui people in China (2010 census), accounting for 0.79% of the total population, making them the third largest ethnic group after Han Chinese and Zhuang . Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and Gansu Province have

2622-401: Is recognized as the yangsi of a master. It arose in the context of a political vacuum spurred by the assassination of Ralpachen , which saw monastic centers develop political power in a second spreading of Buddhism in Tibet. It had "purely politico-mercantile origins and functions" and later became a significant spiritual institution. However, some commentators argue that the political shift

2736-476: Is to ensure the preservation and transmission of a particular lineage. The tulku system originated in Tibet, particularly associated with the recognition of the second Karmapa in the 13th century. Since then, numerous tulku lineages have been established, with each tulku having a distinctive role in preserving and propagating specific teachings. Other high-profile examples of tulkus include the Dalai Lamas ,

2850-660: The barakah that he had received from Afaq Khoja . According to Ma Tong's chronology of Ma Laichi's life, after 30 years of religious work in the Hezhou region , Ma Laichi left China in 1728 for a Hajj to Islam's holy places in the Middle East. In 1728-1733 he studied under a number of Sufi masters in the Arab World (primarily in Mecca and Yemen ; some versions of his biography also mention Cairo and Damascus ). Due to

2964-743: The Hua Si ( 华寺 ; " Multicolored Mosque ") school ( menhuan ) - the core of the Khufiyya (الخفية) 虎夫耶 movement in Chinese Islam . The name of the movement - a Chinese form of the Arabic "Khafiyya", i.e. "the silent ones" - refers to its adherents' emphasis on silent dhikr (invocation of God's name). The Khufiyya teachings were characterized by stronger participation in the society, as well as veneration of saints and seeking inspiration at their tombs . Ma Laichi spent 32 years spreading his teaching among

3078-457: The Koranic school run by Khoja Afaq's disciple Ma Tai Baba ( 马太爸爸 , "The Great Father Ma", 1632–1709) in the nearby Milagou ( 米拉沟 ). (apparently, within today's Minhe Hui and Tu Autonomous County ). Tai Baba's top student, Ma Laichi had learned everything the school had to offer by the age of 18. Tai Baba ordained the young Ma as an ahong and initiated him into Sufism, passing onto him

3192-575: The Light of Fearless Indestructible Wisdom by Khenpo Tsewang Dongyal: the term tülku "designates one who is 'noble' (or 'selfless' according to Buddha's usage) and used in Buddhist texts to denote a highly achieved being who has attained the first bhumi, a level of attainment which is truly egoless, or higher." Higher Vajrayana practitioners who have attained siddhis and mastered the bardo of dying, bardo of dharmata or bardo of becoming can be reborn as

3306-585: The Ming and Qing dynasties . It is thought to have had its origin in the earlier Huihe ( 回紇 ) or Huihu ( 回鶻 ), which was the name for the Uyghur State of the 8th and 9th centuries. Although the ancient Uyghurs were not Muslims the name Huihui came to refer to foreigners, regardless of language or origin, by the time of the Yuan (1271–1368) and Ming dynasties (1368–1644). The use of Hui to denote all foreigners—Muslims, Nestorian Christians, or Jews—reflects bureaucratic terminology developed over

3420-457: The Nyingma tradition was recognized as a tulku and brought to Palyul Monastery in 1936 at the age of four. He recounted that as a young tulku in Tibet, inspired by seeing the skull relic, he made prayers to find Ahkon Lhamo's incarnation. Though most of the kapala relic was pulverized into dust during the Cultural Revolution , one Tibetan man managed to save a silver dollar-size piece on which

3534-656: The Nyingma tradition. All three performed hair-cutting ceremonies and bestowed names, as is traditional. As the reincarnation of Jamgon Kongtrul, Lodrö is entitled to be called " Rinpoche ". Khyentse tulkus are the main custodians of the lineage of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820–1892), a teacher, scholar and tertön of 19th-century Tibet . He was a leading figure in the Rimé movement . Several tulkus of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, including those of body (sku) , speech (gsung) , mind (thugs) , qualities (yon tan) and activity ( Wylie : ' phrin las ) , were recognized in Tibet. Of these,

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3648-778: The Panchen Lamas , the Samding Dorje Phagmos , Khyentses , the Zhabdrung Rinpoches , and the Kongtruls . The process of recognizing tulkus involves a combination of traditional and supernatural methods. When a tulku passes away, a committee of senior lamas convenes to identify the reincarnation. They may look for signs left by the departed tulku, consult oracles, rely on dreams or visions, and sometimes even observe natural phenomena like rainbows. This process combines mysticism and tradition to pinpoint

3762-419: The Rimé movement (non-sectarian), compiling what is known as the "Five Great Treasuries". He achieved great renown as a scholar and writer, especially among the Nyingma and Kagyu lineages and composed over 90 volumes of Buddhist writing, including his magnum opus, The Treasury of Knowledge . There have been several recognized tulkus of Lodro Thaye. The current lineage holder as the 4th Jamgon Kongtrul

3876-557: The Tang period on. Before the " Yihewani " movement, a Chinese Muslim sect inspired by the Middle Eastern reform movement, northern Hui Sufis blended Taoist teachings and martial arts practices with Sufi philosophy. Tulku Samding Dorje Phagmo A tulku ( Tibetan : སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་ , Wylie : sprul sku , ZYPY : Zhügu , also tülku , trulku ) is a distinctive and significant aspect of Tibetan Buddhism , embodying

3990-562: The Uyghurs . The Hui predominantly speak Chinese , while using some Arabic and Persian phrases. The Hui ethnic group is unique among Chinese ethnic minorities in that it is not associated with a non- Sinitic language . The Hui have a distinct connection with Islamic culture . For example, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork , the most commonly consumed meat in China, and have therefore developed their own variation of Chinese cuisine . They also have

4104-539: The ethnonym Dungan . Joseph Fletcher cited Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century Kashgarian Sufi master Muhammad Yūsuf (or, possibly, his son Afaq Khoja ) inside the Ming Empire (in today's Gansu and/or Qinghai ), where the preacher allegedly converted ulamā-yi Tunganiyyāh (i.e., "Dungan ulema ") into Sufism . As early as the 1830s, Dungan , in various spellings appeared in both English and German, referring to

4218-805: The leader of the Khufiyya was inherited by his son, Ma Guobao - an act that came to be strongly criticized by the founder of the competing Jahriyya menhuan , Ma Mingxin . Ma Guobao was later succeeded by Ma Wuyi. Ma Laichi's grave in Linxia City was restored in 1986. The shrine complex, which includes a mosque and is known as Hua Si Gongbei ( 华寺拱北 ), continues to be the center of the Hua Si Khufiyya menhuan . Hui people The Hui people are an East Asian ethnoreligious group predominantly composed of Chinese-speaking adherents of Islam . They are distributed throughout China, mainly in

4332-711: The northwestern provinces and in the Zhongyuan region. According to the 2010 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people. Outside China, the 170,000 Dungan people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan , the Panthays in Myanmar , and many of the Chin Haws in Thailand are also considered part of the Hui ethnicity. The Hui were referred to as Hanhui during the Qing dynasty to be distinguished from

4446-482: The (presumably Chinese-speaking) Muslims more assimilated into the Chinese mainstream society. In the 1930s, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) defined the term Hui as indicating only Sinophone Muslims. In 1941, this was clarified by a CCP committee comprising ethnic policy researchers in a treatise entitled "On the question of Huihui Ethnicity" (回回民族问题, Huíhui mínzú wèntí). This treatise defined

4560-992: The 12th-century founder of the Kara-Khitan Khanate , defeating the Huihui Dashibu ( 回回大食部 ) people near Samarkand —apparently, referring to his defeat of the Khwarazm ruler Ahmed Sanjar in 1141. Khwarazm is referred to as Huihuiguo in the Secret History of the Mongols as well. While Huihui or Hui remained a generic name for all Muslims in Imperial China, specific terms were sometimes used to refer to particular groups, e.g. Chantou Hui (" turbaned Hui") for Uyghurs, Dongxiang Hui and Sala Hui for Dongxiang and Salar people , and sometimes even Han Hui ( 漢回 ) ("Chinese Hui") for

4674-570: The 6,781,500 Sunni Hui in China followed 58.2% Gedimu , 21% Yihewani , 10.9% Jahriyya , 7.2% Khuffiya, 1.4% Qadariyya and 0.7% Kubrawiyya Sufi schools. Among the northern Hui, Central Asian Sufi schools such as Kubrawiyya , Qadiriyya , and Naqshbandiyya ( Khufiyya and Jahriyya ) were strong influences, mostly of the Hanafi Madhhab . Hui Muslims have a long tradition of synthesizing Confucian teachings with Qur'anic teachings and reportedly have contributed to Confucianism from

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4788-542: The Chinese government to one of China's ten historically Islamic minorities. Today, the Chinese government defines the Hui people as an ethnicity without regard to religion, and includes those with Hui ancestry who do not practice Islam. Chinese census statistics count among the Hui (and not as officially recognized separate ethnic groups) the Muslim members of a few small non-Chinese-speaking communities. These include several thousand Utsuls in southern Hainan Province , who speak an Austronesian language ( Tsat ) related to

4902-518: The Chinese. The Trungpa tülkus are a line of incarnate Tibetan lamas who traditionally head Surmang monastery complex in Kham , now Surmang . There have been twelve such Trungpa tulkus. They are members of the Karma Kagyu tradition as well as the Nyingma tradition. These tulkus are recognized as reincarnations of Künga Gyaltsen (15th century), a student of Trungmase. The 11th Trungpa tulku

5016-826: The Dalai Lamas, Panchen Lamas and Mongolian lamas. Traditionally, the Panchen Lama is the head of Tashilhunpo Monastery , and holds religious and secular power over the Tsang region centered in Shigatse , independent of the Ganden Podrang authority led by the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama are closely connected, and each participates in the process of recognizing the other's reincarnations. The current 11th Panchen Lama, Gedhun Choekyi Nyima ,

5130-945: The Dutch settlers no longer observe Islam and their descendants embrace the Chinese folk religion . The Taiwanese branch of the Guo (Kuo in Taiwan) clan with Hui ancestry does not practice Islam, yet does not offer pork at their ancestral shrines. The Chinese Muslim Association counts these people as Muslims. Also on Taiwan , one branch of the Ding (Ting) clan that descended from Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar resides in Taisi Township in Yunlin County . They trace their descent through him via

5244-721: The Hui disliked the term Dungan, calling themselves either Huihui or Huizi. In the Soviet Union and its successor countries, the term "Dungans" (дунгане) became the standard name for the descendants of Chinese-speaking Muslims who emigrated in the 1870s and 1880s to the Russian Empire , mostly to today's Kyrgyzstan and south-eastern Kazakhstan . The Panthay are a group of Chinese Muslims in Myanmar (Burma) and Yunnan Province . In Thailand , Chinese Muslims are referred to as Chin Ho ( จีนฮ่อ ). The Utsuls of Hainan are

5358-635: The Hui people of Xinjiang. For example, James Prinsep in 1835 mentioned Muslim "Túngánis" in Chinese Tartary . The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani", sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired currency in English and other western languages when books in the 1860–70s discussed the Dungan Revolt . Later authors continued to use variants of the term for Xinjiang Hui people. For example, Owen Lattimore , writing ca. 1940, maintained

5472-565: The Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect   ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because

5586-536: The Kadampa tradition and refrained from starting a tulku system. Therefore, although Gendun Drup grew to be a very important Gelugpa lama, after he died in 1474 there was no question of any search being made to identify his incarnation. Despite this, when the Tashilhunpo monks started hearing what seemed credible accounts that an incarnation of Gendun Drup had appeared nearby and repeatedly announced himself from

5700-477: The Mongols, and descended from a mixture of Chinese, Iranian and Turkic peoples. They also reported that the T'ung-kan were Shafi'ites , as were the Khorezmians . The Hui people of Yunnan and Northwestern China resulted from the convergence of Mongol, Turkic, and Iranian peoples or other Central Asian settlers recruited by the Yuan dynasty, either as artisans or as officials (the semu ). The Hui formed

5814-436: The Muslim Hui and Salar people in Gansu and Qinghai . He also converted to Islam numerous Tibetan, Mongol, and Monguor -speaking communities in Qinghai , sometimes after winning a religious debate with a local " Living Buddha ". Some of these communities still belong to the Khufiyya, and their members still revere Ma Laichi as the saint who brought their ancestors into Islam. After the death of Ma Laichi, his position as

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5928-400: The Muslims of China are not significantly related, East Asians, Han Chinese, and most of the Hui and Dongxiang of Linxia share more genes with each other. This indicates that native East Asian populations were culturally assimilated, and that the Hui population was formed through a process of cultural diffusion . An overview study in 2021 estimated that West Eurasian -related admixture among

6042-401: The Panchen Lama. Gedhun Choekyi Nyima has never been publicly seen since 1995. The first Genyenma Ahkon Lhamo, a meditator recognized as a wisdom dakini was one of the main disciples of Namchö Mingyur Dorje (1645–1667) and sister of Rigdzin Kunzang Sherab, Migyur Dorje's Dharma heir and the First Throneholder of Palyul Monastery (founded 1665). She was credited as being instrumental to

6156-646: The Qing dynasty, Chinese Muslim (Han Hui) was sometimes used to refer to Hui people, which differentiated them from non-Chinese-speaking Muslims. However, not all Hui are Muslims, nor are all Chinese Muslims, Hui. For example, Li Yong is a famous Han Chinese who practices Islam and Hui Liangyu is a notable atheist Hui. In addition, most Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kirghiz and Dongxiang in China are Muslims, but are not Hui. John Stuart Thomson , who traveled in China, called them "Mohammedan Chinese". They have also been called "Chinese Mussulmans", when Europeans wanted to distinguish them from Han Chinese . Throughout history,

6270-407: The Quanzhou Ding family of Fujian. While pretending to be Han Chinese in Fujian, they initially practiced Islam when they came to Taiwan 200 years ago, but their descendants have embraced Buddhism or Taoism. An attempt was made by the Chinese Islamic Society to convert the Fujian Hui of Fujian back to Islam in 1983, by sending four Ningxia imams to Fujian. This futile endeavour ended in 1986, when

6384-563: The Republic of China at the time and the founder of the Chinese Muslim Association . Some scholars refer to this group as Han Chinese Muslims or Han Muslims , while others call them Chinese Muslims , Chinese-speaking Muslims or Sino-Muslims . The Hui were officially recognised as an ethnic group by the People's Republic of China government in 1954. The government defines the Hui people to include all historically Muslim communities not included in China's other ethnic groups; they are therefore distinct from other Muslim groups such as

6498-573: The Republic of China. A traditional Chinese term for Islam is " 回教 " ( pinyin : Huíjiào , literally "the religion of the Hui"). However, since the early days of the PRC, thanks to the arguments of such Marxist Hui scholars as Bai Shouyi , the standard term for "Islam" within the PRC has become the transliteration " 伊斯蘭教 " (pinyin: Yīsīlán jiào , literally "Islam religion"). The more traditional term Huijiao remains in use in Singapore, Taiwan and other overseas Chinese communities. Qīngzhēn : ( 清真 , literally "pure and true") has also been

6612-431: The Tibetan government and acknowledged by the emperors of Qing China . In her first incarnation, as Chökyi Drönma (1422–1455 CE ), she was the student and consort of the famous polymath Thang Tong Gyalpo , who first identified her as an emanation of Vajravārāhī , and the consort of Bodong Panchen. The seat of the Samding Dorje Phagmo is at Samding Monastery , in Tibet. The current (12th) Samding Dorje Pakmo Trülku

6726-414: The Turkic Salars called "Sala Hui" (Salar Muslim), while Turkic speakers often referred to Hui as "Dungan". Zhongyuan ren : During the Qing dynasty , the term Zhongyuan ren ( 中原人 ; 'people from the Central Plain ') was the term for all Chinese, encompassing Han Chinese and Hui in Xinjiang or Central Asia. While Hui are not Han, they consider themselves to be Chinese and include themselves in

6840-434: The Turkic-speaking Muslims, which were referred to as Chanhui . The Republic of China government also recognised the Hui as a branch of the Han Chinese rather than a separate ethnic group. In the National Assembly of the Republic of China , the Hui were referred to as Nationals in China proper with special convention . The Hui were referred to as Han people Muslims by Bai Chongxi, the Minister of National Defense of

6954-427: The Yuan and Ming dynasties. Arab were white cap , Persians black cap and Jews blue cap Huihui. Islamic mosques and Jewish synagogues at the time were denoted by the same word, Qīngzhēnsì ( 清真寺 : Temple of Purity and Truth). Kublai Khan called both foreign Jews and Muslims in China Huihui when he forced them to stop halal and kosher methods of preparing food: "Among all the [subject] alien peoples only

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7068-451: The age of two, their curiosity was aroused. It was some 55 years after Tsongkhapa's death when eventually, the monastic authorities saw compelling evidence that convinced them the child in question was indeed the incarnation of their founder. They felt obliged to break with their own tradition and in 1487, the boy was renamed Gendun Gyatso and installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's tulku, albeit informally. Gendun Gyatso died in 1542 and

7182-488: The area. Several medieval Chinese dynasties, particularly the Tang , Song and Mongol , witnessed foreign immigration from predominantly Muslim Persia and Central Asia , with both dynasties welcoming foreign Muslim traders from these regions and appointing Central Asian officials. In subsequent centuries, the immigrants gradually spoke Chinese and settled down, eventually forming the Hui. A study in 2004 calculated that 6.7 percent of Hui peoples' matrilineal genetics have

7296-468: The average Northwestern Chinese minority groups was at ~9.1%, with the remainder being dominant East-Eurasian ancestry at ~90.9%. The study also showed that there is a close genetic affinity among these ethnic minorities in Northwest China (including Uyghurs , Huis, Dongxiangs , Bonans , Yugurs and Salars ) and that these cluster closely with other East Asian people , especially in Xinjiang , followed by Mongolic , and Tungusic speakers , indicating

7410-407: The body incarnation was Dzongsar Khyentse Jamyang Chökyi Wangpo, who was enthroned at Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo's main seat at Dzongsar Monastery but died in an accident c. 1909. The activity incarnation Dzongsar Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö , who was originally enthroned at Katok Monastery succeeded him. The speech incarnation was the Second Beru Khyentse and the mind incarnation Dilgo Khyentse . Since

7524-519: The censuses of Russia and Central Asian nations, the Hui are distinguished from Chinese, termed Dungans. However, in both China and Central Asia members of this ethnic group call themselves Lao Huihui or Zhongyuanren, rather than Dungan. Zhongyuan 中原, literally means "The Central Plain," and is the historical name of Shaanxi and Henan provinces. Most Dungans living in Central Asia are descendants of Hui people from Gansu and Shaanxi. Hui people are referred to by Central Asian Turkic speakers and Tajiks by

7638-469: The characteristics of the Hui nationality as an ethnic group associated with, but not defined by, Islam and descended primarily from Muslims who migrated to China during the Mongol-founded Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), as distinct from the Uyghur and other Turkic-speaking ethnic groups in Xinjiang. The Nationalist government by contrast recognised all Muslims as one of "the five peoples"—alongside the Manchus , Mongols , Tibetans and Han Chinese —that constituted

7752-430: The command". The current Tai Situpa, Pema Tönyö Nyinje , is the 12th. He is the head of Palpung Monastery . The Samding Dorje Phagmo ( Tibetan : བསམ་སྡིང་རྡོ་རྗེ་ཕག་མོ ) is the highest female tulku in Tibet and the third highest-ranking person in the hierarchy after the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama . She was listed among the highest-ranking reincarnations at the time of the 5th Dalai Lama , recognized by

7866-420: The concept of enlightened beings taking corporeal forms to continue the lineage of specific teachings. The term "tulku" has its origins in the Tibetan word "sprul sku", which originally referred to an emperor or ruler taking human form on Earth, signifying a divine incarnation. Over time, this term evolved within Tibetan Buddhism to denote the corporeal existence of highly accomplished Buddhist masters whose purpose

7980-400: The contemporary highly respected masters Shakya Śri and Lama Shang as the Karmapa, a manifestation of Avalokiteśvara , whose coming was predicted in the Samadhiraja Sutra and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra . The Karmapa is a long line of consciously reborn lamas. A Karmapa's identity is confirmed through a combination realized lineage teachers supernatural insight, prediction letters left by

8094-445: The earlier model of monastic governance, in which a celibate religious head acted as abbot, while his brother, a married administrative head, continued the family line, with his eldest son becoming the next religious head, creating an uncle-nephew system of inheritance. The first recognized tulku was perhaps Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama . Giuseppe Tucci traced the origin of the tulku concept to Indian Vajrayana , particularly in

8208-521: The early 1960s, Dilgo Khyentse, single-handedly upholding the unique tradition of Khyentse incarnations, propagated Buddhism tirelessly in India, Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet , and the West. Dudjom Lingpa (1835–1904) was a Tibetan meditation master, spiritual teacher and tertön . He stands out from the norm of Tibetan Buddhist teachers in the sense that he had no formal education, nor did he take ordination as

8322-653: The empowerment of Yamantaka from the Dalai Lama and the empowerment of Vajrayogini from the Dalai Lama's tutor, Trijang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso . She has been trained in the Bodongpa tradition and remains the head of the Samding Monastery . She simultaneously holds the post of a high government cadre in the Tibet Autonomous Region . She has as a result been accused of collaborating with

8436-459: The final Ningxia imam left. A similar endeavour in Taiwan also failed. Until 1982, a Han could "become" Hui by converting to Islam. Thereafter, a converted Han counts instead as a "Muslim Han". Symmetrically, Hui people consider other Hui who do not observe Islamic practices as still Hui, and that their Hui nationality cannot be lost. For both of these reasons, simply calling them "Chinese Muslims"

8550-674: The first to bear the title "Grand Situ " ( Chinese : 大司徒 ; pinyin : Dà Sītú ), conferred upon him in 1407 by the Yongle Emperor of Ming China . He was a close disciple of Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama , who appointed him abbot of Karma Goen, the Karmapa's principal monastery at the time. The full title bestowed was Kenting Naya Tang Nyontse Geshetse Tai Situpa which is shortened to Kenting Tai Situ . The full title means "far reaching, unshakable, great master, holder of

8664-644: The first to third Panchen Lamas posthumously. In 1713, the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty granted the title Panchen Erdeni to the 5th Panchen Lama . In 1792, the Qianlong Emperor issued a decree known as the 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet , and Article One of the decree was designed to be used in the selection of rinpoches, lamas and other high offices within Tibetan Buddhism, including

8778-622: The founding of Palyul (now one of the Nyingma's six main or "mother" monasteries ) and for leaving a relic that is important to Palyul. During the cremation of her body, her kapala (top half of the skull) is said to have flown three kilometers and come to rest at the foot of the teaching throne of her brother. Found to be miraculously embossed with the sacred syllable AH, the kapala became an important relic housed at Palyul monastery in Tibet. The Third Drubwang Padma Norbu ("Penor") Rinpoche , 11th Throneholder of Palyul Monastery, former Supreme Head of

8892-584: The identity of Hui people has been fluid, often changing as was convenient. Some identified as Hui out of interest in their ancestry or because of government benefits. These Hui are concentrated on the southeast coast of China, especially Fujian province. Some Hui clans around Quanzhou in Fujian, such as the Ding and Guo families, identify themselves by ethnicity and no longer practice Islam. In recent years, more of these clans have identified as Hui, increasing

9006-508: The institutions and traditions which constitute Tibetan Buddhism as one of the Four Olds . As a result, Tibetan Buddhism has flourished in areas of Tibetan culture not under Chinese rule, such as Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of North India . In India, the traditional monastic system is largely intact and the tulku system remains politically relevant. Compounded with the inherent transnational character of proselytizing religions, Tibetan Buddhism

9120-486: The intermediate state of absolute reality, by taking refuge and praying to their teacher in the intermediate state they can close the way to an unfavorable womb and choose a favorable rebirth. Propelled by compassion and bodhichitta, they depart to a pure buddhafield or, failing that, take birth as a tulku born to parents who practice the Dharma. In that next life they will be liberated. In addition to Tibet, Tibetan Buddhism

9234-550: The language of the Vietnamese Champa Muslim minority . According to anthropologist Dru Gladney , they descend from Champa people who migrated to Hainan . A small Muslim minority among Yunnan 's Bai people are classified as Hui as well, although they speak Bai . Some groups of Tibetan Muslims are classified as Hui as well. Huihui ( 回回 ) was the usual generic term for China's Muslims (White Hui), Persian Christians (Black Hui) and Jews (Blue Hui) during

9348-582: The larger group of Zhongyuan ren . The Dungan people , descendants of Hui who fled to Central Asia, called themselves Zhongyuan ren in addition to the standard labels lao huihui and huizi . Zhongyuan ren was used by Turkic Muslims to refer to ethnic Chinese. When Central Asian invaders from Kokand invaded Kashgar , in a letter the Kokandi commander criticised the Kashgari Turkic Muslim Ishaq for allegedly not behaving like

9462-493: The legend told by Ma Laichi's followers, Ma Jiajun was still childless at the age of forty, and, desirous to have a son, he went to Xining , to ask for a blessing from Afaq Khoja , a Naqshbandi shaykh visiting from Kashgar , and a reputed miracle worker. After reciting some prayers, the Kashgarian Sufi master told Ma Jiajun to go back to Hezhou and to marry a certain non-Muslim woman, who had previously been engaged

9576-494: The lineage of Dalai Lama tulkus finally became firmly established when the third incarnation, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), came forth. He made himself known as the tulku of Gendun Gyatso and was formally recognised and enthroned at Drepung in 1546. When Gendun Gyatso was given the titular name "Dalai Lama" by the Tümed Altan Khan in 1578, his two predecessors were accorded the title posthumously and he became known as

9690-463: The majority of whom were Muslims who came from western regions, were labelled as Semu people, but were also mistaken by Chinese for Uyghur, due to them coming from the west (Uyghur lands). The name "Hui Hui" was applied to them, and eventually became the name applied to Muslims. Another, probably unrelated, early use of the word Huihui comes from the History of Liao , which mentions Yelü Dashi ,

9804-499: The mind incarnation of Ngawang Namgyal existed in Tibet, and was represented by Namkhai Norbu , who lived in Italy. The recognition of Panchen Lamas began with Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen , tutor of the 5th Dalai Lama , who received the title "Panchen Bogd" from Altan Khan and the Dalai Lama in 1645. Bogd is Mongolian, meaning "holy". Khedrup Gelek Pelzang , Sönam Choklang and Ensapa Lobsang Döndrup were subsequently recognized as

9918-405: The monk who came to be known as the ' First Dalai Lama ', but only from 104 years after he died. There had been resistance, since first he was ordained a monk in the Kadampa tradition and for various reasons, for hundreds of years the Kadampa school had eschewed the adoption of the tulku system to which the older schools adhered. Tsongkhapa largely modelled his new, reformed Gelugpa school on

10032-400: The occasion of her enthronement ceremony as Jetsunma Ahkon Lhamo at Kunzang Palyul Choling (KPC) in 1988. The relic remains at KPC and is displayed on auspicious days. Kongtrul tulkus are the main custodians of Jamgon Kongtrul (1813–1899). Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé was a Tibetan Buddhist scholar, poet, artist, physician, tertön and polymath. He is credited as one of the founders of

10146-477: The official population. They provided evidence of their ancestry and were recognized as Hui. Many clans across Fujian had genealogies that demonstrated Hui ancestry. These clans inhabited Fujian, Taiwan, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. None of these clans were Muslims but they do not offer pork during their ancestral worship . In Taiwan, the Hui clans who followed Koxinga to Formosa to defeat

10260-529: The original Zhabdrung, the country sank into warring factionalism for the next 200 years. The body incarnation lineage died out in the mid-18th century, while the mind and speech incarnations of the Zhabdrung continued into the 20th century. The mind incarnation was the one generally recognized as the Zhabdrung . Besides the mind incarnation, there was also a line of claimants for the speech incarnation. At

10374-500: The philosophical system of trikaya or three bodies of Buddha , nirmanakaya is the Buddha's "body" in the sense of the bodymind (Sanskrit: nāmarūpa ). Thus, the person of Siddhartha Gautama , the historical Buddha, is an example of nirmanakaya. Over time, indigenous religious ideas became assimilated by the new Buddhism; e.g. sprul became part of a compound noun, སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་'sprul.sku' ("incarnation body" or 'tülku', and 'btsan',

10488-625: The poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision." The widespread and rather generic application of the name Huihui in Ming China was attested to by foreign visitors as well. Matteo Ricci , the first Jesuit to reach Beijing (1598), noted that "Saracens are everywhere in evidence . . . their thousands of families are scattered about in nearly every province" Ricci noted that

10602-947: The population formed through male-dominated migration, potentially via a northern route, followed by massive assimilation of Guizhou aborigines into Han Chinese and Hui Muslims. The East Asian Y-chromosome haplogroup O-M122 is found in large quantities, about 24–30%, in other Muslims groups close to the Hui like the Dongxiangs , Bo'an , and Salar people . While the Y chromosome haplogroup R1a (found among Central Asians , South Asians and Europeans) are found among 17–28% of them. Western mtDNA makes up 6.6% to 8%. Other haplogroups include D-M174 , N1a1-Tat , and Q , commonly found among East Asians and Siberians. The majority of Tibeto-Burmans, Han Chinese, and Ningxia and Liaoning Hui share paternal Y chromosomes of East Asian origin which are unrelated to Middle Easterners and Europeans. In contrast to distant Middle Easterners and Europeans with whom

10716-479: The previous Karmapa, and the young child's own self-proclamation and ability to identify objects and people known to its previous incarnation. After the first Karmapa died in 1193, a lama had recurrent visions of a particular child as his rebirth . This child (born c.  1205 ) was recognized as the Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama (1204–1283), thus beginning the Tibetan tulku tradition. Karma Pakshi

10830-459: The probability of a shared recent common ancestor of "Altaic speakers". A genome study, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found only 3.66% West-Eurasian-like admixture among Hui people, while the Uyghurs harbored the relative highest amount of West-Eurasian-like admixture at 36.30%. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the term "Hui" was applied by

10944-466: The problem of succession. To neutralize the power of future Zhabdrung incarnations, the Druk Desi, Je Khenpo and penlops conspired to recognize not a single person but rather as three separate persons—a body incarnation ( Ku tulku ), a mind incarnation ( Thu tulku or Thugtrul ), and a speech incarnation ( Sung tulku or Sungtrul ). In spite of their efforts to consolidate the power established by

11058-447: The scarcity and imprecision of existing Chinese and Arabic sources, different researchers have come up with different versions and dates for Ma Laichi's great Hajj : the standard Chinese account by Ma Tong tells of Ma sailing to Arabia from Guangzhou (after studying for 3 months with a famous ahong there), and coming back by the sea route as well; other accounts have him traveling to the west by land, via Central Asia, and studying for

11172-579: The second-highest stratum in the Yuan ethnic hierarchy (after the Mongols but above Chinese). A proportion of the ancestral nomad or military ethnic groups were originally Nestorian Christians , many of whom later converted to Islam under the Ming and Qing dynasties. However, Hui peoples from Gansu , along with their Dongxian neighbors, did not receive substantial gene flow from Western and Central Asia or European populations during their Islamization. Most Hui people are Sunni Muslims , and their Islamic sects can be divided into: Ma Tong recorded that

11286-500: The son of Chögyam Trungpa . Initially, Westerners were not recognized as tulkus by the wider Tibetan diaspora. The recognition of Westerners as tulkus began in the 1970s, following the spread of Tibetan Buddhism to modern Western countries such as the United States . The first recognized Western tulku was Dylan Henderson, an American boy identified as his father's teacher, or alternatively Ossian MacLise. MacLise, however,

11400-540: The southeast coast (e.g., Guangdong , Fujian ) and in major trade centers elsewhere in China, some are of mixed local and foreign descent. The foreign element, although greatly diluted, came primarily from Iranian ( Bosi ) traders, who brought Islam to China. These foreigners settled and gradually intermarried, while assimilating into Chinese culture. Early European explorers speculated that T'ung-kan (Dungans, i.e. Hui, called "Chinese Mohammedans") in Xinjiang , originated from Khorezmians who were transported to China by

11514-809: The successor who will carry forward the teachings of their predecessor. A Western tulku is the recognized successor to a lama or dharma master born in the West, commonly of non- Tibetan ethnic heritage. This recognition has sparked debates and discussions regarding the cultural adaptation and authenticity of Westerners within the traditional Tibetan tulku system. Some argue that Westerners should explore their own forms of Buddhism rather than attempting to fit into this system. Western tulkus may struggle to gain recognition among laypeople and even other monastics. Generally, Western tulkus do not follow traditional Tibetan monastic life, and commonly leave their home monasteries for alternative careers, not necessarily chaplaincy. The word སྤྲུལ or 'sprul' (Modern Lhasa Tibetan [ʈʉl] )

11628-469: The syllable "AH" appears. Penor Rinpoche acquired it from him on a return trip to Tibet in 1987. He had it preserved in a crystal lotus bowl. In 1987, Penor Rinpoche officially recognized Alyce Louise Zeoli as the tulku of Genyenma Ahkon Lhamo during her visit to his Namdroling Monastery in Bylakuppe , Karnataka , India. He gave her the crystal lotus bowl containing the relic of Ahkon Lhamo just prior to

11742-699: The term Huihui or Hui was applied by Chinese not only to "Saracens" (Muslims) but also to Chinese Jews and supposedly even to Christians. In fact, when the reclusive Wanli Emperor first saw a picture of Ricci and Diego de Pantoja , he supposedly exclaimed, "Hoei, hoei. It is quite evident that they are Saracens", and had to be told by a eunuch that they actually weren't, "because they ate pork". The 1916 Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics , Volume 8 said that Chinese Muslims always called themselves Huihui or Huizi, and that neither themselves nor other people called themselves Han, and they disliked people calling them Dungan. French army Commandant Viscount D'Ollone wrote

11856-501: The term for the imperial ruler of the Tibetan Empire, became a kind of mountain deity). Valentine summarizes the shift in meaning of the word tülku : "This term that was originally used to describe the Buddha as a 'magical emanation' of enlightenment, is best translated as 'incarnation' or 'steadfast incarnation' when used in the context of the tulku system to describe patriarchs that reliably return to human form." According to

11970-615: The terminological distinction between these two related groups: the Donggan or "Tungkan" (the older Wade-Giles spelling for "Dungan"), described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in the 17–18th centuries, vs. e.g. the "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems". The name "Dungan" sometimes referred to all Muslims coming from China proper , such as Dongxiang and Salar in addition to Hui. Reportedly,

12084-453: The third in the lineage. The Tai Situpa lineage is one of the oldest tulku lineages in the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism In Tibetan Buddhism tradition, Kenting Tai Situpa is considered as emanation of Bodhisattva Maitreya and Padmasambhava and who has been incarnated numerous times as Indian and Tibetan yogis since the time of the historical Buddha . Chokyi Gyaltsen was

12198-497: The time the monarchy was founded in 1907, Choley Yeshe Ngodub (or Chogley Yeshey Ngodrup) was the speech incarnation and also served as the last Druk Desi. After his death in 1917, he was succeeded by Chogley Jigme Tenzin (1919–1949). The next claimant, unrecognized by the Bhutan government, lived at Tawang monastery in India and was evacuated to the western Himalayas during the 1962 Sino-Indian War . Another line of claimants to be

12312-498: Was Chögyam Trungpa (1940–1987). He was one of the most influential teachers of Buddhism in the West and founded Shambhala Buddhism . Choseng Trungpa Rinpoche is the 12th and current Trungpa tulku. In Bhutan , the title Zhabdrung Rinpoche refers to Ngawang Namgyal (1594–1651), the founder of the Bhutanese state, or one of his successive reincarnations . Following his death, the ruling authorities in Bhutan were faced with

12426-573: Was "grafted onto the tradition of recognizing reincarnations, not the other way around." Turrell V. Wylie wrote that the tulku system "developed in Tibetan Buddhism primarily for political reasons" while Reginald Ray argued that such a view ignores "miss[es] what is perhaps its most distinctive feature" which is its "important ideological and religious dimensions", being "deeply rooted" in the bodhisattva concept. Tulku have been associated with ruling power since its origination, expressing indigenous Tibetan notions of kingship. This system supplanted

12540-462: Was a verb in Old Tibetan literature and was used to describe the བཙན་པོ་ btsanpo ('emperor'/天子) taking a human form on earth. So the sprul idea of taking a corporeal form is a local religious idea alien to Indian Buddhism and other forms of Buddhism (e.g. Theravadin or Zen). The term tülku became associated with the translation of the Sanskrit philosophical term nirmanakaya . According to

12654-478: Was born in Kathmandu, Nepal . Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama ( Wylie : Dus gsum Mkhyen pa , 1110–1193), was a disciple of the Tibetan master Gampopa . A talented child who studied Buddhism with his father from an early age and who sought out great teachers in his twenties and thirties, he is said to have attained enlightenment at the age of fifty while practicing dream yoga . He was henceforth regarded by

12768-532: Was originally called Dashi Jiao during the Tang dynasty , when Muslims first appeared in China. "Dashi Fa" literally means "Arab law" in Old Chinese . Since almost all Muslims in China were exclusively foreign Arabs or Persians at the time, it was rarely mentioned by the Chinese, unlike other religions like Zoroastrism or Mazdaism , and Nestorian Christianity , which gained followings in China. As an influx of foreigners, such as Persians, Jews and Christians,

12882-464: Was recognized by the 14th Dalai Lama on 14 May 1995. Three days later, the six-year-old Panchen Lama was kidnapped by the Chinese government and his family was taken into custody. The Chinese government instead named Gyaincain Norbu as the 11th Panchen Lama. Their nomination has been widely rejected by Buddhists in Tibet and abroad, while governments have called for information about and the release of

12996-487: Was the first recognized tulku in Tibetan Buddhism that predicted the circumstances of his rebirth. The 8th, 10th, and 12th incarnations, as well as the 16th Karmapa , each faced conflicts during their recognition, which were ultimately resolved. There was a controversy over the enthronement of two 17th Karmapas. Gendun Drup (1391–1474), a disciple of the founder Je Tsongkapa , was the ordination name of

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