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172-883: The scheme for education of Canadian army soldiers serving in Europe during the First World War evolved from classes conducted by army chaplains. They noted the need for books and courses and to provide vocational training for soldiers following demobilization. In the winter of 1917–18 chaplain Edmund Henry Oliver started what he called the "University of Vimy Ridge" in Flanders. The idea was given more support by Colonel Henry Marshall Tory with collaboration from Canadian Universities to start "Khaki colleges" in England. Oliver also worked with Colonel G.W. Birks who headed

344-680: A Halifax law firm. Borden also attended the School of Military Instruction in the city during the winter of 1878. In August 1878, Borden was called to the Nova Scotia Bar, placing first in the bar examinations. He went to Kentville, Nova Scotia , as the junior partner of the Conservative lawyer John P. Chipman. In 1880, Borden was inducted into the Freemasons St Andrew's lodge No. 1. In 1882, Borden, despite being

516-536: A creeping barrage , the Canadian Corps captured most of the ridge during the first day. The village of Thélus fell during the second day, as did the crest of the ridge, once the Canadian Corps overran a salient against considerable German resistance. The final objective, a fortified knoll outside the village of Givenchy-en-Gohelle , fell to the Canadians on 12 April. The German 6th Army then retreated to

688-798: A $ 50 million loan in New York City in 1915. Canada also succeeded in negotiating larger bond issues in New York in 1916 and 1917. In 1918, a Victory Bond of $ 300 million brought in $ 660 million. Overall, Victory Bond campaigns raised around $ 2 billion. American investment in Canada significantly increased whereas British investment declined. By 1918, imports of goods from the United States were 1,000 percent of British exports to Canada. In 1915, 1916, and 1917, Borden's government began to reverse their anti-taxation position, not least because of

860-553: A 35-page multi-phased fire support plan called Canadian Corps Artillery Instruction No.   1 for the Capture of Vimy Ridge to support the efforts of the infantry. The Canadian Corps received three times the artillery normally assigned to a corps for regular operations. To manage the supply of the extra guns, the Royal Artillery staff officer, Major Alan Brooke , coordinated communication and transport plans to work with

1032-559: A Liberal, accepted Wallace Graham 's request to move to Halifax and join the Conservative law firm headed by Graham and Charles Hibbert Tupper . In 1886, Borden broke with the Liberal Party after he disagreed with Premier William Stevens Fielding 's campaign to withdraw Nova Scotia from Confederation . In the autumn of 1889, when he was only 35, Borden became the senior partner following the departure of Graham and Tupper for

1204-580: A barrage that mostly advanced at a rate of 100 yd (91 m) in three minutes while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages further ahead against known defensive systems. During the early fighting, the German divisional artilleries, despite many losses, were able to maintain their defensive firing. As the Canadian assault advanced, it overran many of the German guns because large numbers of their draught horses had been killed in

1376-846: A component of the Khaki University. Oliver was a Chaplain in the 4th Divisional Wing and former Principal of the Presbyterian Theological College in Saskatoon, set up a course of instruction for soldiers in the 3rd Infantry Division, then fighting on the Western Front. Captain Edmund H. Oliver wrote "It was felt by the GOC, 3rd Division, that the long evenings of winter during the period when the men were in rest or in reserve could be utilized not only to relieve

1548-714: A component of the training for all soldiers in all divisions on 18 December 1917. After the War, Currie became the president and vice chancellor of McGill University in Montreal , Quebec. Under the general staff of the Canadian Army, the Khaki College became the educational services of Canadian Forces overseas in 1918. The program, which grew from the chaplain services of the Canadian Army and study groups of

1720-662: A density of one heavy gun for every 20 m (20 yd) and one field gun for every 10 m (10 yd) of the corps frontage, representing a considerable average increase, including three times the heavy guns over the distribution of artillery at the Battle of the Somme in 1916. On 8 February, the First Army issued a 3,000-word artillery plan devised by Horne and his principal artillery commander, Major General H. F. Mercer. Brigadier-General Edward Morrison developed and issued

1892-475: A depth of 10 m (33 ft) and used to connect reserve lines to front lines, permitting soldiers to advance to the front quickly, securely and unseen. Often incorporated into subways were light rail lines, hospitals, command posts, water reservoirs, ammunition stores, mortar and machine gun posts and communication centres. The Germans dug a number of similar tunnels on the Vimy front, to provide covered routes to

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2064-578: A fellow Nova Scotian. In 1896, Borden became president of the Nova Scotia Barristers' Society and took the initiative in organizing the founding meetings of the Canadian Bar Association in Montreal . On April 27, 1896, Borden went to Charles Tupper 's home for a dinner party. Tupper, who was about to succeed Mackenzie Bowell as prime minister, asked Borden to run for the federal electoral district of Halifax for

2236-423: A gas section of Royal Engineers, employing Livens Projectors , fired more than 40 drums of gas directly into the village of Givenchy-en-Gohelle to cause confusion. The defending German troops managed to drive back the initial Canadian assaults at around 4:00   am using small arms fire. The 10th Canadian Brigade attacked once again at 5:00   am, this time supported by a significant amount of artillery and

2408-484: A general strike as a result of the negotiations collapsing. Within hours of the Winnipeg general strike breaking out, nearly 30,000 workers resigned. Afraid that the strike would spark conflicts in other cities, Borden's government intervened. His Cabinet ministers Arthur Meighen and Gideon Robertson met with the anti-strike Citizens’ Committee but refused to meet with the pro-strike Central Strike Committee. Taking

2580-579: A key figure in the party. Tupper announced his resignation as party leader after he led the Conservatives to their second consecutive defeat at the polls in 1900 . Tupper, and his son Charles Hibbert Tupper (who was Borden's former colleague at the Halifax law firm) asked Borden to become leader, citing his work in Parliament and lack of enemies within the Conservative caucus. Borden at first

2752-616: A nation, it also ensured that each of the dominions could sign the Treaty of Versailles in its own right and receive a separate membership in the League of Nations . Also during the conference, Borden tried to act as an intermediary between the United States and other members of the British Empire delegation , particularly Australia and New Zealand over the issue of the League of Nations Mandate . Borden also discussed with Lloyd George

2924-727: A national divide known as the Conscription Crisis . Despite this, his Unionist Party composed of Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals was re-elected with an overwhelming majority in the 1917 federal election . At the Paris Peace Conference , Borden sought to expand the autonomy of Canada and other Dominions . On the home front, Borden's government dealt with the consequences of the Halifax Explosion , introduced women's suffrage for federal elections, nationalized railways by establishing

3096-399: A number of company commanders killed. This experience did not lessen the extent to which the Canadian Corps employed trench raiding with raids being conducted nightly between 20 March and the opening of the offensive on 9 April, resulting in approximately 1,400 additional Canadian casualties. The Germans operated an active patrolling policy and although not as large and ambitious as those of

3268-548: A spring offensive near Arras began, following a formal conference of corps commanders held at the First Army Headquarters (HQ) on 21 November 1916. In March 1917, the army HQ formally presented Byng with orders giving Vimy Ridge as the Canadian Corps objective for the Arras Offensive. A plan, adopted in early March 1917, drew on the briefings of staff officers sent to learn from the experiences of

3440-473: A steep drop on the eastern side, all but eliminating the possibility of counterattacks if the ridge was captured. The Germans were apprehensive about the inherent weakness of the Vimy Ridge defences. Their defensive scheme was to maintain a front line defence of sufficient strength to withstand an initial assault and move operational reserves forward, before the enemy could consolidate their gains or overrun

3612-414: A wider awareness of the battlefield. The new measures gave each platoon a clearer picture of how it fitted into the greater battle plan and in so doing, reduced the command problems that plagued First World War operations. Operations along the Vimy Ridge were accompanied by extensive excavations. The Arras–Vimy sector was conducive to tunnelling, owing to the soft, porous, yet extremely stable nature of

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3784-399: A zone approximately 3,300 ft (1,000 m) wide, as far back as the rear area. When the Canadian Corps attacked, each German company faced two or more battalions of approximately 1,000 men each. Reserve divisions were kept about 15 mi (24 km) back instead of assembling close behind the second line according to the defence-in-depth theory. The eight field artillery brigades of

3956-517: Is best known for his leadership of Canada during World War I . Borden was born in Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia . He worked as a schoolteacher for a period and then served his articles of clerkship at a Halifax law firm. He was called to the bar in 1878 and soon became one of Nova Scotia's most prominent barristers. Borden was elected to the House of Commons in the 1896 federal election , representing

4128-582: The Dominion Elections Act to allow women to run for the Parliament of Canada . However, these two laws prevented or discouraged Asian Canadian and Indigenous Canadian women and men from voting. Despite being knighted himself, Borden disapproved of the process by which Canadians were nominated for honours and in March 1917 drafted a policy stating that all names had to be vetted by

4300-472: The Wartime Elections Act allowed female relatives of soldiers (excluding Indigenous women) to vote. However, this law confiscated voting rights from German and Austrian immigrants (i.e. immigrants from "enemy nations") who moved to Canada during and after 1902 as well as those who exempted from the coming conscription draft, including conscientious objectors . Some believe that these laws put

4472-519: The 1908 federal election , Laurier's Liberals won for the fourth consecutive time. However, the Liberals experienced a drop in support as they won a slightly reduced majority. The Conservatives experienced a modest boost, gaining 10 seats. In 1910 and 1911, Laurier proposed a reciprocity free trade agreement with the United States. Borden opposed the treaty, stating that it would weaken ties with Britain, lead to Canadian identity being influenced by

4644-678: The British Navy . Laurier, now Opposition leader, argued that the bill would threaten Canadian autonomy. In May 1913, the bill was blocked by the Liberal-controlled Senate . On June 22, 1914, Borden was knighted ; King George V awarded him the Order of St Michael and St George . In late July, Borden and his wife, Laura, went for a vacation to the Muskoka District Municipality . However,

4816-625: The Canadian Expeditionary Force . He also became significantly interventionist by passing the War Measures Act which gave the government extraordinary powers. To increase government revenue to fund the war effort, Borden's government issued victory bonds , raised tariffs, and introduced new taxes including the income tax . In 1917, facing what he believed to be a shortage in Canadian soldiers, Borden introduced conscription , angering French Canada and sparking

4988-757: The Canadian National Railway , and controversially used the North-West Mounted Police to break up the 1919 Winnipeg general strike . Borden retired from politics in 1920. In his retirement, he was Chancellor of Queen's University from 1924 to 1930 and was president of two financial institutions, the Barclays Bank of Canada and the Crown Life Insurance Company from 1928 until his death in 1937. Borden places above-average among historians and

5160-926: The Canadian National Railways (CN) as a Crown Corporation . The organization originally consisted of four railways: the Intercolonial Railway , the Canadian Northern Railway , the National Transcontinental Railway , and the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway . In January 1923, a fifth one was added: the Grand Trunk Railway . All five of these railways were financially struggling as a result of their inability to borrow from banks (mainly British) during

5332-487: The Canadian Northern and Grand Trunk railways. Borden proposed for the railways to be government-owned and government-operated, stating the people would have a choice between "a government-owned railway or a railway-owned government." This position did not resonate with voters in the 1904 federal election ; the Liberals won a slightly stronger majority , while the Conservatives lost a few seats. Borden himself

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5504-537: The Conscription Crisis of 1917 ; most English Canadians supported the policy whereas most French Canadians opposed it, as seen by protests in Quebec . In a bid to settle Quebec opposition towards the policy, Borden proposed forming a wartime coalition government composed of both Conservatives and Liberals. Despite Borden offering the Liberals equal seats in the Cabinet in exchange for Liberal support for conscription,

5676-751: The Conservative Party . He replaced Charles Tupper as party leader in 1901, but was defeated in two federal elections by Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier in 1904 and 1908 . However, in the 1911 federal election , Borden led the Conservatives to victory after he claimed that the Liberals' proposed trade reciprocity treaty with the United States would lead to the US influencing Canadian identity and weaken ties with Great Britain. Borden's early years as prime minister focused on strengthening relations with Britain. Halfway through his first term, World War I broke out. To send soldiers overseas, he created

5848-502: The New England Planters . The Borden family had immigrated from Headcorn, Kent , England, to New England in the 17th century. Also arriving in this group was a great-great-grandfather, Robert Denison , who had come from Connecticut at about the same time. Perry had accompanied his father, Samuel Borden, the chief surveyor chosen by the government of Massachusetts to survey the former Acadian land and draw up new lots for

6020-511: The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) to the strike scene to maintain public order. As a result of the protestors beginning to riot, the NWMP charged at the protestors, beat them with clubs, and fired bullets. Two people were killed and the violent incident became known as " Bloody Saturday ". Within days, the strike ended. With his doctors recommending that he should leave politics immediately, Borden told his cabinet on December 16, 1919, that he

6192-458: The Oppy – Méricourt line. Historians attribute the success of the Canadian Corps to technical and tactical innovation, meticulous planning, powerful artillery support and extensive training, as well as the inability of the 6th Army to properly apply the new German defensive doctrine. The battle was the first occasion when the four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force fought together and it

6364-654: The Ottoman Empire . The internees faced intense labour; they worked in the national parks of Western Canada , built roads, cleared bush, and cut trails. They also had their personal wealth and property confiscated and never returned by the Borden government. Overall, 107 internees died. Six were shot dead while trying to escape and others died from disease, work-related injuries, and suicide. Another 80,000 Ukrainian Canadians were not imprisoned but were registered as " enemy aliens " and were compelled to report regularly to

6536-604: The War Measures Act , invoked martial law , and deployed more than 6,000 troops. The troops and rioters exchanged gunfire, resulting in four civilian deaths and as many as 150 casualties. Between 1914 and 1920, more than 8,500 Ukrainian Canadians were interned under the measures of the War Measures Act . Some immigrated from the Central Powers countries of the German Empire , Austria-Hungary , and

6708-626: The chalk underground. Mine warfare had been conducted on the Vimy sector since 1915 and Bavarian engineers had blown twenty mines in the sector by March 1915. By early 1916, German miners had gained an advantage over their French counterparts. British tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers took over from the French between February and May 1916. On their arrival, the British began offensive mining against German miners, first stopping

6880-478: The 13th British Brigade were called up from reserve to support the advance of the 2nd Canadian Division. By approximately 11:00   am, the Blue Line, including Hill 135 and the village of Thélus, had been captured. To permit the troops time to consolidate the Blue Line, the advance halted and the barrage remained stationary for 90 minutes while machine guns were brought forward. Shortly before 1:00   pm,

7052-425: The 24th Division of I Corps to the north. The German defensive artillery fire was late and too light to cause the assaulting troops great difficulty, allowing the Canadian Corps to exploit wide gaps and break into the German positions. The 10th Canadian Brigade, assisted by snow and a westerly wind, fought hastily entrained German troops to capture the entire Pimple by 6:00   pm. By nightfall on 12 April 1917,

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7224-407: The 4th Canadian Division had not yet captured Hill 145. The 3rd Canadian Division was thus called upon to establish a divisional defensive flank to its north. Although the German commanders were able to maintain open lines of communication and issue orders, even with swift staff work the tempo of the assault was such that the German decision cycle was unable to react decisively. The only portion of

7396-442: The 6th Army suffered 79,418 casualties during April and May 1917, 22,792 were classified as missing. Crown Prince Rupprecht estimated 85,000 casualties for the 6th Army, with 3,404 men taken prisoner at Vimy Ridge. Losses of the 79th Reserve Division from 1 to 11 April were 3,473 and in the 1st Bavarian Reserve Division 3,133. Casualties from the bombardment amongst reinforcements and Eingreif divisions are additional. Following

7568-539: The Arras sector, outnumbering the Luftstreitkräfte (Imperial German Air Service) by 2-to-1. Byng was given use of No. 2 Squadron , No. 8 (Naval) Squadron , No. 25 Squadron , No. 40 Squadron and No. 43 Squadron , with No. 16 Squadron permanently attached to the Canadian Corps and employed exclusively for reconnaissance and artillery-observation. Aerial reconnaissance was often a hazardous task because of

7740-618: The Associated Charities of the United States. The Bordens spent several weeks vacationing in England and Europe in the summers of 1891 and 1893. In 1894, Borden bought a large property and home on the south side of Quinpool Road, which the couple called Pinehurst. In 1893, Borden successfully argued the first of two cases which he took to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council . He represented many of

7912-482: The Blue Line, advancing units would once again leapfrog them and capture the Brown Line. Conducted properly, the plan would leave the German forces little time to exit their deep dugouts and defend their positions against the infantry. If the corps maintained its schedule, the troops would advance as much as 4,000 yd (2.3 mi; 3.7 km) and have the majority of the ridge under control by 1:00   pm on

8084-430: The Blue Line, encompassing the village of Thélus and the woods outside the village of Vimy and the Brown Line, which aimed at capturing Zwölfer-Graben (Twelve Trench) and the German second position. The infantry would advance close to a creeping barrage by field guns, advancing in timed 100 yd (100 m) increments. The medium and heavy howitzers would establish a series of standing barrages further ahead of

8256-490: The British plans. The mines were left in place after the assault and were only removed in the 1990s. Another mine, prepared by 176th Tunnelling Company against the German strongpoint known as the Pimple, was not completed in time for the attack. The gallery had been pushed silently through the clay, avoiding the sandy and chalky layers of the Vimy Ridge but by 9 April 1917 was still 21 m (70 ft) short of its target. In

8428-870: The Canadian Corps divisional artillery and two heavy artillery groups were reinforced with British artillery units. Four heavy artillery groups, nine field artillery brigades, three divisional artillery groups and the artillery complement of the 5th Division was attached to the Canadian Corps. Ten heavy artillery groups of the flanking I and XVII Corps were assigned tasks in support of the Canadian Corps. The artillery batteries of I Corps were particularly important because they enfiladed German gun positions behind Vimy Ridge. The British provided twenty-four brigade artillery groups consisting of four hundred and eighty 18 pounder field guns , one hundred and thirty-eight 4.5 inch howitzers , ninety-six 2 inch trench mortars , twenty-four 9.45 inch mortars , supported by 245 siege guns and heavy mortars. This firepower gave

8600-456: The Canadian Corps trench raiding developed into a training and leadership-building mechanism. The size of a raid would normally be anything from a few men to an entire company, or more, depending on the size of the mission. The four months before the April attack saw the Canadian Corps execute no fewer than 55 separate trench raids. Competition between units even developed with units competing for

8772-458: The Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge, having suffered 10,602 casualties; 3,598 men had been killed and 7,004 wounded. The 6th Army casualties were not known at first in the disorganisation after the defeat. Later sources state around 20,000 casualties, German historians credit the high number of German casualties to Canadian and British artillery. Approximately 4,000 men were taken prisoner . The German Historical Service estimated that

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8944-602: The Canadian Corps, they also engaged in trench raiding. As an example, a German trench raid launched by 79 men against the 3rd Canadian Division on 15 March 1917 was successful in capturing prisoners and causing damage. The RFC launched a determined effort to gain air superiority over the battlefield in support of the spring offensive. The Canadians considered activities such as artillery observation and photography of opposing trench systems, troop movements and gun emplacements essential to continue their offensive. The Royal Flying Corps deployed 25 squadrons totalling 365 aircraft along

9116-460: The Canadian Corps. The 16th Bavarian Division was located opposite the village of Souchez and responsible for the defence of the northernmost section of the ridge. The division had been created in January 1917 by amalgamating existing Bavarian formations and had so far only opposed the Canadian Corps. The 79th Reserve Division was responsible for the defence of the vast central section, including

9288-451: The Canadian assault that did not go as planned was the advance of the 4th Canadian Division, collapsing almost immediately after exiting their trenches. The commanding officer of one of the assaulting battalions requested that the artillery leave a portion of the German trench undamaged. Machine gun nests in the undamaged sections of the German line pinned down, wounded, or killed much of the 4th Canadian Division's right flank. The progress on

9460-399: The Canadian federal government established the Veterans' Rehabilitation Act. The Federal Apprenticeship Training Agreement (1944) was established followed by The Federal Vocational Schools Assistance Agreement (1945). In 1951, the War Emergency Training Program was re-established due to the Korean War . During the Second World War, Brigadier Ted G. E. Beament was appointed Officer Commanding

9632-415: The Canadian of the YMCA , was a forerunner of similar programs in the military forces of other countries. The goals were to provide morale during the war and for demobilized personnel, and to provide personnel an opportunity to continue their education in postwar preparation. Initially, the university-educated chaplains and officers acted as instructors, spiritual counsellors and guardians of morality. Once

9804-416: The Canadians could consolidate. The court concluded that 6th Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen failed to apply an elastic defence according to German defensive doctrine. Instead, the defensive system comprised strong points and lines of resistance, which the Allied artillery had isolated and destroyed. Hindenburg removed Falkenhausen from his command and transferred him to Belgium, where he served

9976-545: The Douai Plains, the ridge provides a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions. The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco-British and German forces attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France. The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to briefly capture

10148-453: The First World War. After the war, the working class experienced economic hardship. In a bid to address this problem, construction and metal trades workers in Winnipeg , Manitoba, sought better wages and better working conditions by negotiating with their managers. In May 1919, as a result of talks between the workers and their managers breaking down, several strikes started; on May 15, the Winnipeg Trades and Labor Council (WTLC) called for

10320-525: The French Army during the Battle of Verdun. For the first time the four Canadian divisions would fight together. The nature and size of the attack needed more resources than the Canadian Corps possessed and the British 5th Division , artillery, engineer and labour units were attached to the corps, bringing the nominal strength of the Canadian Corps to about 170,000 men, of whom 97,184 were Canadian. In January 1917, three Canadian Corps officers accompanied other British and Dominion officers attending lectures by

10492-483: The French Army on their experiences during the Battle of Verdun. The French counter-offensive devised by General Robert Nivelle had been one of a number of Allied successes of 1916. Following extensive rehearsal, eight French divisions had assaulted German positions in two waves along a 6 mi (10 km) front. Supported by extremely powerful artillery, the French had recovered lost ground and inflicted severe casualties on five German divisions. On their return from

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10664-487: The French. During the late hours of 8 April and early morning of 9 April the men of the leading and supporting wave of the attack were moved into their forward assembly positions. The weather was cold and later changed to sleet and snow. Although physically discomforting for everyone, the northwesterly storm provided some advantage to the assaulting troops by blowing snow in the faces of the defending troops. Light Canadian and British artillery bombardments continued throughout

10836-403: The German 79th Reserve Division, reported in late March that he believed the Canadian Corps was moving into an echelon formation and were preparing for a big attack. The Germans quickly planned Operation Munich ( Unternehmen München ), a spoiling attack to capture the northern section of the Zouave Valley, along the northernmost portion of the Canadian front. Munich was not undertaken because

11008-421: The German forces had spent two years constructing fortifications designed for rigid defence. An extensive network of tunnels and trenches south of Neuville St Vaast was known as "The Labyrinth". Little reconstruction based upon the new defence-in-depth doctrine had been accomplished by April 1917 because the terrain made it impractical. The ridge was 700 m (2,300 ft) across at its narrowest point, with

11180-409: The German troops pulled back. The German forces were evacuated off the ridge with German artillery batteries moved west of the Vimy–Bailleul railway embankment or to the Oppy–Méricourt line. By nightfall of 10 April, the only Canadian objective not yet achieved was the capture of the Pimple. The 4th Canadian Division faced difficulties at the start of the battle that forced it to delay its assault on

11352-482: The German underground advance and then developing a defensive strategy that prevented the Germans from gaining a tactical advantage by mining. From spring 1916, the British had deployed five tunnelling companies along the Vimy Ridge and during the first two months of their tenure of the area, 70 mines were fired, mostly by the Germans. Between October 1915 and April 1917 an estimated 150 French, British and German charges were fired in this 4.3 mi (7 km) sector of

11524-438: The Germans that a spring offensive in the area was being prepared. In February 1917, a German-born Canadian soldier deserted and helped confirm many of the suspicions held by the Germans, providing them with a great deal of useful information. By March 1917, the 6th Army knew that an offensive was imminent and would include operations aimed at capturing Vimy Ridge. General of Infantry Ernst August Marx von Bachmeister, commanding

11696-422: The Khaki University (principal). An extension department provided services for other camps in Great Britain and France. Beament was awarded the Governor General's Gold Medal upon his graduation from the Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) in 1929. Beament was awarded the Czechoslovakian Military Cross at the beginning of 1946. On his staff was Lieutenant-Colonel Tom F. Gelley, who taught History and English at

11868-420: The Khaki University was formally recognized by the government, universities began to send professors to Europe to help the skeleton force of teachers from military headquarters teach. Khaki University credits were recognized as equivalent to those of Canadian institutions. Major-General L.J. Lipsett organized the first educational courses. Captain Edmund H. Oliver became head of the University of Vimy Ridge (UVR),

12040-449: The Overseas Forces of Canada, the Khaki University of Canada. The Khaki colleges initially included a range of subjects from secondary, high school and matriculation to provide prerequisites for entry into Canadian and British universities. The scheme was backed by the Canadian general including Sir Robert Borden . The YMCA raised $ 500,000 and by armistice day about 14 colleges across England were in operation. Nearly 650000 soldiers attended

12212-434: The Peace; by the selflessness of those that died on that Battle-furrowed crest, and the mighty deeds of those that fought and lived, there was set up on that Triumphant day, the invisible Portals of the University of Vimy Ridge then-to-be, and its creation in these after-days is hallowed by the serene memory of those noble sons of Freedom who fought and died–that Canada might live. In 1917, 19 education centres were organized in

12384-441: The Pimple until 12 April. The Pimple was initially defended by the 16th Bavarian Infantry Division but the Canadian Corps' preliminary artillery bombardment leading up to the assault on 9 April caused heavy casualties amongst its ranks. On 11 April, the 4th Guards Infantry Division first reinforced and then relieved affected 16th Bavarian Infantry Division units. The night before the attack, artillery harassed German positions while

12556-569: The Planters in Nova Scotia. Through the marriage of his patrilineal ancestor Richard Borden to Innocent Cornell, Borden is descendant from Thomas Cornell of Portsmouth, Rhode Island . Borden's father, Andrew Borden, was judged by his son to be "a man of good ability and excellent judgement" and of a "calm, contemplative and philosophical" turn of mind, but "he lacked energy and had no great aptitude for affairs." His mother Eunice Jane Laird

12728-589: The RFC, the Luftstreitkräfte failed to prevent the British from carrying out its priority, air support of the army during the Battle of Arras with up-to-date aerial photographs and other reconnaissance information. German 6th Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen was responsible for the Cambrai–Lille sector and commanded 20 divisions, plus reserves. Vimy Ridge itself was principally defended by

12900-563: The RMC prior to the war and was the registrar of RMC following it. Major John F. Twiss was a professor of mathematics at the RMC both pre- and post-war. After the war, Beament was a prominent Ottawa lawyer who served as President of the RMC Club in 1952. Robert Borden Sir Robert Laird Borden (June 26, 1854 – June 10, 1937) was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the eighth prime minister of Canada from 1911 to 1920. He

13072-416: The US, and lead to American annexation of Canada. In the 1911 federal election , the Conservatives countered with a revised version of John A. Macdonald's National Policy , campaigned on fears of American influence on Canada and disloyalty to Britain, and ran on the slogan "Canadianism or Continentalism". The Conservatives triumphed; they won a strong majority, ending over 15 years of Liberal rule. To aid

13244-727: The Unionists in a favourable position. The Unionist election campaign criticized French Canada for its low enlistment rate to fight in the war. Fearing the possible event of a Liberal victory, one of the Unionist pamphlets highlighted ethnic differences, stating, "the French Canadians who have shirked their duty in this war will be the dominating force in the government of this country. Are the English-speaking people prepared to stand for that?" The Unionist campaign

13416-641: The United States, which perceived such a delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost a far larger proportion of its men compared to the US in the war (although not more in absolute numbers), Canada at least had the right to the representation of a "minor" power. Lloyd George eventually relented, and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of separate Canadian, Indian, Australian, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South African delegations. Not only did Borden's persistence allow him to represent Canada in Paris as

13588-465: The Verdun lectures, the Canadian Corps instilled the tactical change with vigour. The corps implemented the tactical doctrine for small units by assigning objectives down to the platoon. Assaulting infantry battalions used hills behind the lines as full-scale models of the battlefield. Taped lines demarcated German trench lines while officers on horseback carried flags to represent the advancing front of

13760-526: The War, Birks became a businessman, patron of the arts, was a painter and philanthropist. The programs were formalized in 1916 once Dr Henry Marshall Tory recommended in a report on discharged men from the army the establishment of an educational institution in England and France, to be called the Khaki College of Canada, with an extension department providing services for other camps in Great Britain. The educational services of Canadian forces overseas

13932-483: The Western Front, each with several large craters. To assess the consequences of infantry having to advance across cratered ground after a mining attack, officers from the Canadian Corps visited La Boisselle and Fricourt where the mines had been blown on the First day of the Somme . Their reports and the experience of the Canadians at The Actions of St Eloi Craters in April 1916, where mines had so altered and damaged

14104-440: The Western Front. In May 1916, Operation Schleswig-Holstein , a German infantry attack, forced the British back 700 yd (640 m), to stop British mining by capturing the shaft entrances. In the second half of 1916, the British constructed strong defensive underground positions and from August 1916, the Royal Engineers developed a mining scheme for a big infantry attack on the Vimy Ridge proposed for autumn 1916, although this

14276-586: The YMCA. On December 16, 1917 Oliver met Lt.General Sir Arthur Currie who assigned Oliver as Officer in Charge of Technical and Vocational Education. Initially the scheme in France under Oliver and the scheme in England under Tory had considerable differences. Colonel Tory's plan for a more formal "Khaki University" was approved on November 8, 1918 and provided for the establishment of a Department of Educational Services in

14448-492: The ad hoc Gruppe Vimy formation based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander General der Infanterie Karl von Fasbender . However, a division of Gruppe Souchez , under VIII Reserve Corps General of the Infantry Georg Karl Wichura, was involved in the frontline defence along the northernmost portion of the ridge. Three divisions were responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite

14620-446: The advance recommenced with both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reporting their final objective. The tank-supported advance via Farbus and directed at the rear of the 79th Reserve Division, was eventually halted by concentrated German fire short of the village. The Canadian 1st and 2nd Divisions were nonetheless able to secure the Brown Line by approximately 2:00   pm. The 4th Canadian Division had made an attempt to capture

14792-497: The advance resumed. Shortly after 7:00   am, the 1st Canadian Division captured the left half of its second objective, the Red Line and moved the 1st Canadian Brigade forward to mount an attack on the remainder. The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the village of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time. A mine explosion that killed many German troops of Reserve Infantry Regiment 262 manning

14964-658: The advance. To maintain communications during the battle, particularly with the artillery, field units laid over 870 mi (1,400 km) of telegraph and field telephone cabling, normally at a depth of 7 ft (2.1 m). The corps conducted coordinated counter-battery shoots before the battle. The First Army Field Survey Company printed barrage maps for all batteries, produced artillery boards and provided counter-battery support with their flash spotting groups and sound ranging sections. Using flash spotting, sound ranging and aerial reconnaissance from 16 Squadron and 1 & 2 Balloon Companies Royal Flying Corps (RFC) in

15136-622: The advice of the Citizens' Committee, Borden's government threatened to fire federal workers unless they returned to work immediately. The government also changed the Immigration Act to allow the deportation of British-born immigrants. On June 17, the government arrested 10 leaders of the Central Strike Committee and two members of the trade union , One Big Union . On June 21, Borden's government deployed troops from

15308-538: The artillery barrage. Recognizing that leaders were likely to be wounded or killed, soldiers learned the jobs of those beside and above them. At the First Army headquarters, a large plasticine model of the Vimy sector was constructed and used to show commissioned and senior non-commissioned officers the topographical features of the battlefield and details of the German trench system. Upwards of 40,000 topographical trench maps were printed and distributed to ensure that even platoon sergeants and section commanders possessed

15480-462: The artillery fired at once and the intensity of the barrage was varied to confuse the Germans about Canadian intentions. Phase two lasted the week beginning 2 April 1917 and employed all of the guns supporting the Canadian Corps, massing the equivalent of a heavy gun for every 18 m (20 yd) and a field gun for every 9.1 m (10 yd). The German soldiers came to refer to the week before

15652-424: The assault. To protect some advancing troops from German machine gun fire as they crossed no man's land during the attack, eight smaller Wombat charges were laid at the end of the subways to allow troops to move more quickly and safely enter the German trench system by creating an elongated trench-depth crater that spanned the length of no man's land. At the same time, 19 crater groups existed along this section of

15824-525: The attack as "the week of suffering". In the German account, their trenches and defensive works were almost completely demolished. The health and morale of the German troops suffered from the stress of remaining at the ready for eleven straight days under extremely heavy artillery bombardment. Compounding German difficulties was the inability of ration parties to bring food supplies to the front lines. On 3 April, General von Falkenhausen ordered his reserve divisions to prepare to relieve front line divisions over

15996-441: The barrage plans. A 1.6   million shell allotment allowed the artillery along the Canadian Corps front to maintain a high rate of fire. Improvements in the quality of the shells ensured fewer duds . The new instantaneous No. 106 fuze greatly improved the effectiveness of the artillery since this fuse burst reliably with the slightest of contact, unlike older timed fuses, making it especially effective at wire cutting before

16168-629: The bench and politics, respectively. His financial future guaranteed, on September 25, 1889, Borden married Laura Bond , the daughter of a Halifax hardware merchant. They had no children. Bond later became president of the Local Council of Women of Halifax , until her resignation in 1901. She also later became president of the Aberdeen Association, vice-president of the Women's Work Exchange in Halifax, and corresponding secretary of

16340-699: The camp educational classes. During this period, one of the commanding officers was Canadian historian W. Stewart Wallace . In 1939, the Canadian Legion Educational Services were established for Canadian Armed Forces at home and abroad. In 1939, the War Emergency Training Program was established. In 1942, the Canadian federal government established the Federal Vocational Training Coordination Act. In 1944,

16512-556: The camps and hospitals in England and in France. About 50 000 soldiers taking courses part-time in agriculture, business education, mechanics , teacher training, legal studies and medical instruction. Designed to be inclusive, courses spanned commercial subjects; practical science ; agriculture ; literacy , languages; matriculation work, undergraduate university courses; and subjects like singing , elocution and cooking . In addition, practical trades like carpentry were offered. Khaki university taught illiterate men to read and write all

16684-446: The country would cover the costs incurred by Canada. However, at the end of 1914, Britain was not able to lend money to Canada due to their own economic priorities. By 1917, Britain had become unable to pay for wartime shipments from Canada. During the war, Canada drastically increased imports of specialized metals and machinery needed for production of ammunition from the United States. This led Borden and White to successfully negotiate

16856-561: The country; the Conservatives won over English Canadians whereas the Liberals swept French-Canadian-dominated Quebec. The process of conscripting soldiers began in January 1918. Only 124,588 out of the 401,882 men who registered for conscription were drafted and only 24,132 actually fought in Europe. By spring 1918, the government removed certain exemptions. To suppress the anti-conscription "Easter Riots" that occurred in Quebec City between March 28 and April 1, Borden's government used

17028-408: The course of a long drawn-out defensive battle in a manner similar to the Battle of the Somme and the divisions were kept 24 km (15 mi) from the battlefield to avoid being shelled. The attack was to begin at 5:30   am on Easter Monday , 9 April 1917. The attack was originally planned for the morning of 8 April (Easter Sunday) but it was postponed for 24   hours at the request of

17200-507: The defeat, the chief of the German General Staff , Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , ordered Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command) to conduct a court of enquiry into the defensive collapse of the Arras sector. The court concluded that the 6th Army headquarters had disregarded reports from commanders in the front line noting a possible imminent attack and reserve units were too distant to counter-attack before

17372-525: The early days of the income tax. When the war ended in 1918, $ 8 million in income tax revenue had been recorded, which was a small fraction of the national net debt of $ 1.6 billion. Though Borden's government declared the income tax to be temporary, it has remained in place ever since. In 1917, facing skyrocketing prices, Borden's government established the Board of Grain Supervisors of Canada to distance

17544-412: The end, two mines were blown before the attack, while three mines and two Wombat charges were fired to support the attack, including those forming a northern flank. Trench raiding involved making small-scale surprise attacks on enemy positions, often in the middle of the night for reasons of stealth. All belligerents employed trench raiding as a tactic to harass their enemy and gain intelligence . In

17716-439: The experiences of the French. The final plan for the assault on Vimy Ridge drew on the experience and tactical analysis of the officers who attended the Verdun lectures. The First Army commander, General Henry Horne approved the plan on 5 March 1917. The plan divided the Canadian Corps advance into four coloured objective lines. The attack would be made on a front of 7,000 yd (4 mi; 6 km), with its centre opposite

17888-475: The extent of Canadian Corps artillery fire made it impracticable. The preliminary phase of the Canadian Corps artillery bombardment began on 20 March 1917, with a systematic two-week bombardment of German batteries, trenches and strong points. The Canadian Corps gunners paid particular attention to eliminating German barbed wire, a task made easier with the introduction of the No. 106 instantaneous fuse. Only half of

18060-491: The farmers who would have benefited had the reciprocity treaty been implemented, Borden's government passed the Canada Grain Act of 1912 to establish a board of grain commissioners that would supervise grain inspection and regulate the grain trade . This law would also allow the federal government to build or acquire and operate grain elevators at key points in the grain marketing and export system. Also in 1912,

18232-642: The first day. The experience of the Battle of the Somme led the German command to conclude that the policy of rigidly defending a trench position was no longer effective against the firepower that the Entente armies had accumulated. Ludendorff published a new defensive doctrine in December 1916, in which deeper defences were to be built, within which the garrison would have room to manoeuvre, rather than rigidly holding successive lines of trenches. Along Vimy Ridge,

18404-401: The front line and protection for headquarters, resting personnel, equipment, and ammunition. The Germans also conducted counter-mining against the British tunnellers and destroyed a number of British attempts to plant mines under or near their lines. Prior to the battle, the British tunnelling companies secretly laid 13 mines under German positions, to destroy surface fortifications before

18576-497: The front line, preceded the advance of the 3rd Canadian Division. The remaining German troops could do no more than man temporary lines of resistance until later manning a full defence at the German third line. As a result, the southern section of the 3rd Canadian Division was able to reach the Red Line at the western edge of the Bois de la Folie at around 7:30   am. At 9:00   am the division learned of its exposed left flank, as

18748-600: The governing body of the International Labour Organization . Borden departed Paris on May 11; his Cabinet ministers Charles Doherty and Arthur Sifton signed the Treaty of Versailles on his behalf. Eleven days before Canadians went to the polls in the 1917 election, Canada experienced the largest domestic disaster in its history: the Halifax Explosion that killed nearly 1,800 people. The tragedy occurring in his own hometown, Borden pledged that

18920-588: The government established the Dominion Bureau of Statistics through the Statistics Act . It was renamed Statistics Canada in 1971. Borden's government set up the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF). The force posted several combat formations of the Western Front during the war. In December 1914, Borden stated, "there has not been, there will not be, compulsion or conscription ." As

19092-471: The government extraordinary and emergency powers, including the right to censor and suppress communications, the right to arrest, detain, and deport people without charges or trials, the right to control transportation, trade and manufacturing, and the right to seize private property during times of "war, invasion or insurrection". The act also allowed Borden to govern by Order in Council , meaning that Cabinet

19264-620: The government would be "co-operating in every way to reconstruct the Port of Halifax: this was of utmost importance to the Empire". Borden helped set up the Halifax Relief Commission that spent $ 30 million on medical care, repairing infrastructure, and establishing pensions for injured survivors. On May 24, 1918, female citizens 21 and over were granted the right to vote in federal elections. In 1920, Borden's government passed

19436-629: The height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements. The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 but only captured the village of Souchez at the western base of the ridge. The Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach. The French suffered approximately 150,000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory. The French Tenth Army

19608-511: The highest point of the ridge, Hill 145. The 79th Reserve Division had fought for two years on the Eastern Front before being transferred to the Vimy sector at the end of February 1917. The 1st Bavarian Reserve Division had been in the Arras area since October 1914 and held the villages of Thélus, Bailleul and the southern slope of the ridge. Byng commanded four attacking divisions, one division in reserve and numerous support units. He

19780-470: The honour of the greatest number of prisoners captured or most destruction wrought. The policy of aggressive trench raiding was not without its cost. A large-scale trench raid on 13 February 1917, involving 900 men from the 4th Canadian Division , resulted in 150 casualties. An even more ambitious trench raid, using chlorine gas, on 1 March 1917, once again by the 4th Canadian Division, failed and resulted in 637 casualties including two battalion commanders and

19952-581: The hospital to meet wounded and shell shocked soldiers and became determined that the soldiers' sacrifices should not be in vain, and that therefore, the war must end. With volunteer enlistment slowing down, Borden believed that the war should finish through only one method: conscription. Reversing their pledge to not introduce the policy, Borden's government passed the Military Service Act to introduce conscription. The act became law on August 29, 1917. The disputes over conscription triggered

20124-711: The important Halifax businesses and sat on the boards of Nova Scotian companies, including the Bank of Nova Scotia and the Crown Life Insurance Company. By the mid-1890s, Borden's firm was so prominent that it attracted notable clients, such as the Bank of Nova Scotia, Canada Atlantic Steamship, and the Nova Scotia Telephone Company. Borden had several court cases in Ottawa , and while in that city he frequently met with Prime Minister John Sparrow David Thompson ,

20296-466: The infantry against defensive positions. The plan called for units to leapfrog as the advance progressed, to maintain momentum during the attack. The initial wave would capture and consolidate the Black Line and then push forward to the Red Line. The barrage would pause for reserve units to move up, then move forward with the units pushing beyond the Red Line to the Blue Line. Once the troops secured

20468-408: The initial gas attack . The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective, the Black Line, by 6:25   am. The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later. After a planned pause when the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions consolidated their positions,

20640-517: The landscape as to render occupation of the mine craters by the infantry all but impossible, led to the decision to remove offensive mining from the central sector allocated to the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge. Further British mines in the area were vetoed following the blowing by the Germans on 23 March 1917 of nine craters along no man's land as it was probable that the Germans were aiming to restrict an attack to predictable points. The three mines laid by 172nd Tunnelling Company were also dropped from

20812-458: The lectures with an enrolment of 50000 and nearly 2000 registered at the Khaki University at Ripon. Padres and officers had organized educational classes and Bible study groups for enlisted men from the start of the Great War in 1914. Although Padres J.M. Almond and Clarence MacKinnon wanted the Khaki University under the control of the chaplain services, ultimately, a formal educational program

20984-408: The lectures, the Canadian Corps staff officers produced a tactical analysis of the Verdun battles and delivered corps and divisional-level lectures to promote the primacy of artillery and stress the importance of harassing fire and company and platoon flexibility. The report of the 1st Canadian Division commander, Arthur Currie , highlighted the lessons he believed the Canadian Corps could learn from

21156-407: The left flank was eventually impeded by harassing fire from the Pimple that was made worse when the creeping barrage got too far ahead of the advancing troops. In view of the German defence, the 4th Canadian Division did not attempt a further frontal assault throughout the afternoon. Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division came forward and once again attacked the German positions on the top of

21328-460: The longest distance. Byng planned for a healthy reserve for contingencies that included the relief of forward troops, help in consolidating positions and aiding the 4th Canadian Division with the capture of the Pimple. As a result, the 9th Canadian Brigade and the British 15th and 95th Brigades were kept in corps reserve. Foreign intelligence gathering by the Germans, big Allied trench raids and troop concentrations seen west of Arras, made it clear to

21500-560: The marketing of crops grown in 1917 and 1918 away from the private grain companies. It was succeeded by the Canadian Wheat Board for the 1919 crop. The board was dissolved in 1920, despite the concept being popular among farm organizations. In Spring 1917, Borden visited Europe and attended the Imperial Conference . There, he participated in discussions that included possible peace terms and helped spearhead

21672-479: The monotony of the daily routine, but as well, in some measure, to equip men for greater efficiency in business, the professions, agriculture and the other great industries of the Dominion." The name was suggested by his executive assistant, Rev. Cpt. William Gilmour (1880–1938), after the great victory at the Battle of Vimy Ridge a few months earlier: Vimy Ridge, Canada's Glory in the war will be Canada's Glory in

21844-400: The necessity of flying at slow speeds and low altitudes. The task was made more dangerous with the arrival of German air reinforcements, including the highly experienced and well-equipped Jasta 11 which led to a sharp increase in RFC losses. Although significantly outnumbering the Germans, the RFC lost 131 aircraft during the first week of April ( Bloody April ). Despite the losses suffered by

22016-608: The need for more government revenue. The government introducing wartime savings bonds and raising import tariffs was not enough. In 1915, a luxury tax on tobacco and alcohol and taxes on transport tickets, telegrams, money orders, cheques, and patent medicines were introduced. By the end of the war, staple items were taxed. In a politically motivated move in 1916, the government introduced the Business Profits War Tax to address increasing concerns about businesses practising war profiteering . The tax expired in 1920 but

22188-495: The night but stopped in the few minutes before the attack, as the artillery recalibrated their guns in preparation for the synchronized barrage. At 5:30   am, every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing. Thirty seconds later, engineers detonated the mine charges laid under no man's land and the German trench line, destroying a number of German strong points and creating secure communication trenches directly across no man's land. Field guns laid down

22360-407: The northern half of Hill 145 at around 3:15   pm, briefly capturing the peak before a German counterattack retook the position. The Germans occupying the small salient on the ridge soon found themselves being attacked along their flanks by continuously reinforced Canadian Corps troops. When it became obvious that the position was completely outflanked and there was no prospect of reinforcement,

22532-495: The passage of Resolution IX which called for a post-war constitutional conference to "provide effective arrangements for continuous consultation in all important matters of common Imperial concern, and for such necessary concerted action, founded on consultation, as the several Governments may determine." He also assured leaders of the Allied countries that Canada was committed to the war. Also during his trip, Borden made visits to

22704-532: The police. Their freedom of speech, movement, and association were also restricted. Throughout the war, Borden stressed the need for Canada to participate in British decisions; in a January 1916 letter to the High Commissioner of Canada in the United Kingdom , George Perley , Borden wrote: "It can hardly be expected that we shall put 400,000 or 500,000 men in the field and willingly accept

22876-558: The position of having no more voice and receiving no more consideration than if we were toy automata." On October 27, 1918, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George requested Borden to visit Britain for possible peace talks. Borden replied stating, "the press and the people of this country take it for granted that Canada will be represented at the Peace Conference." World War I ended shortly after on November 11, 1918. Borden told his wife, Laura, that "Canada got nothing out of

23048-538: The possibility of Canada taking over the West Indies but no agreement was reached. On May 6, 1919, Borden issued a memorandum calling for Canada, as a member, to have the right to be elected to the League's council. This proposal was accepted by Lloyd George, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson , and French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau . These three leaders also included Canada's right to contest for election to

23220-562: The prime minister before the list was sent to Westminster . In mid-1917, Borden agreed with MP William Folger Nickle 's proposal to abolish Hereditary titles in Canada. In addition to the abolition of the Hereditary titles, it was later learned that with the exception of military distinctions, honours would not be granted to residents of Canada without the approval or the advice of the Canadian prime minister. On June 6, 1919, through an Order in Council , Borden's government established

23392-468: The proposal was rejected by Liberal leader Laurier. In October, Borden formed the Unionist Party , a coalition of Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals (known as Liberal–Unionists ). Laurier, maintaining his anti-conscription position, refused to join the Unionist government and instead created the " Laurier Liberals ", a party of Liberals opposed to conscription. The 1917 federal election

23564-774: The provinces of Manitoba , Ontario , and Quebec were expanded through the Manitoba Boundaries Extension Act , the Ontario Boundaries Extension Act , and the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act . These three provinces would take up the southern portion of the Northwest Territories . In 1912 and 1913, Borden's government sought to pass a naval bill that would have sent $ 35 million for the construction of three dreadnoughts for

23736-523: The public in rankings of prime ministers of Canada . Borden was the last prime minister born before Confederation and the last prime minister to be knighted , having accepted a knighthood in 1914. Borden was born and educated in Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia , a farming community at the eastern end of the Annapolis Valley . His great-grandfather, Perry Borden Sr. of Tiverton, Rhode Island , had taken up Acadian land in this region in 1760 as one of

23908-467: The remainder of the war as governor-general. The Germans did not see the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps as a loss. Contemporary German sources viewed the action, at worst, as a draw, given that no breakthrough occurred following the attack. The Germans did not attempt to recapture the ridge, even during the Spring Offensive , and it remained under British control until the end of

24080-496: The remaining German positions. The German defence at Vimy Ridge relied largely on the firepower of machine guns. Three divisions, comprising seven infantry regiments were responsible for the immediate defence of the ridge. The paper strength of each division was approximately 15,000 men but their actual strength was significantly lower. In 1917, a full-strength German rifle company was 264 men; at Vimy Ridge, each rifle company contained approximately 150 men. Each German regiment held

24252-672: The responsibilities of life." There, Borden developed an interest in the Greek , Latin , and Hebrew languages. At age 14, Borden became the assistant master for classical studies. In late 1873, Borden began working as a professor for classics and mathematics at the Glenwood Institute in Matawan, New Jersey . Seeing no future in teaching, he returned to Nova Scotia in 1874. Despite having no formal university education, Borden went to serve his articles of clerkship for four years at

24424-457: The ridge to combat the German mining operations and German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916. On 21 May 1916, after shelling the British forward trenches and divisional artillery positions from eighty hidden batteries on the reverse slope of the ridge, the German infantry began Unternehmen Schleswig Holstein , an attack on the British lines along a 2,000 yd (1,800 m) front, to eject them from positions along

24596-402: The ridge. Persistent attacks eventually forced the German troops holding the southwestern portion of Hill   145 to withdraw after they ran out of ammunition, mortar rounds, and grenades. Towards midday, the 79th Reserve Division was ordered to recapture the portions of its third line lost during the progression of the Canadian attack. However, it was not until 6:00   pm that the force

24768-564: The ridge. The Germans captured several British-controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and digging in. Small counter-attacks by battalions of the 140th and 141st Brigades took place on 22 May but were failed. The Canadian Corps relieved IV Corps along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916. On 28 May 1916, Byng took command of the Canadian Corps from Lieutenant-General Sir Edwin Alderson . Discussions for

24940-461: The third line near Acheville and Arleux , with the remainder of the division arriving the following day. The British moved three fresh brigades up to the Red Line by 9:30   am on 10 April to support the advance of the 1st and 2nd Canadian Division, whereupon they were to leapfrog existing units occupying the Red line and advance to the Blue Line. Fresh units including two sections of tanks and

25112-454: The trip was cut short after World War I broke out in Europe. On July 31, the Bordens were on a train for Toronto . The next day, he returned to Ottawa . The British declaration of war on August 4, 1914, automatically brought Canada into the war. On August 22, 1914, Parliament passed the controversial War Measures Act (with support from both Conservatives and Liberals), which gave

25284-607: The upcoming election. Borden accepted the request. Campaigning in favour of his party's National Policy , Borden was elected as a member of Parliament (MP) in the 1896 federal election as a Conservative. However, the Conservative Party as a whole was defeated by the Liberals led by Wilfrid Laurier . Though an MP in Ottawa, Borden still practised law back in Halifax. He also remained loyal to Tupper. Borden participated in many House committees and over time emerged as

25456-417: The use of the platoon as the basic tactical unit. The pamphlet noted the importance of specialist hand grenade, rifle grenade, rifle and Lewis gun sections in suppressing enemy strong points by exploiting the characteristics of different weapons to fight forward, allowing other units to advance. Coupled with the observations and suggestions made by Currie in the report he submitted in January 1917 following

25628-497: The village of Vimy , to the east of the ridge. The first objective, the Black Line, was the German forward defensive position. The final objective of the northern flank was the Red Line, taking the highest point on the ridge, the fortified knoll known as the Pimple, la Folie Farm, the Zwischen-Stellung (intermediate position) and the hamlet of Les Tilleuls. The southern two divisions were to achieve two more objectives,

25800-838: The war dragged on, more troops for the CEF were deployed through the voluntary force . In July 1915, the number of CEF soldiers increased to 150,000 before being increased to 250,000 in October 1915 before doubling to 500,000 in January 1916. By mid-1916, the rate of volunteers enlisting started to slow down. Despite the threat of an economic collapse and the need for more revenue to fund the war effort, Borden's finance minister , William Thomas White , rejected calls for direct taxation on Canadian citizens in 1914, though this position would be shortly reversed. White cited his beliefs that taxation would cost too much to implement and would interfere with provincial taxation systems. Borden and White instead opted for "business as usual" with Britain by assuming that

25972-501: The war except recognition." Borden attended the 1919 Paris Peace Conference , though boycotted the opening ceremony, protesting at the precedence given to William Lloyd , the prime minister of the much smaller Newfoundland , over Borden. Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe, Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at the Conference. This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by

26144-632: The war. The loss of Vimy Ridge forced the Germans to reassess their defensive strategy in the area. Instead of mounting a counterattack, they pursued a scorched earth policy and retreated to the Oppy–Méricourt line. The failure of the French Nivelle Offensive in the week after the Arras Offensive placed pressure on Field Marshal Douglas Haig to keep the Germans occupied in the Arras sector to minimize French losses. The Canadian Corps participated in several of these actions including

26316-506: The way to the instruction of 1,000 Canadian soldiers enrolled in university-level students. The training was delivered via lectures , small study and reading groups, classes and directed readings and practical hands-on training. Libraries were established and textbooks were approved by all Canadian provinces. In England, there were 11 Khaki Colleges by May 1918, with 400 Canadians taking courses at London University. In some cases, noted scholars and public figures such as Bernard Shaw lectured at

26488-557: The week before the battle, the counter-battery artillery under command of Lieutenant-Colonel Andrew McNaughton fired 125,900 shells, harassing an estimated 83 per cent of the German gun positions. In February 1917, the British General Staff released a training pamphlet SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action , espousing the return to the pre-war emphasis on fire and movement tactics and

26660-417: Was able to organize and counterattack, clearing the Canadian Corps troops out of the ruined village of Vimy, but not recapturing the third line south of the village. By night time, the German forces holding the top of the ridge believed they had overcome the immediate crisis for the time being. Additional German reinforcements began arriving and by late evening portions of the 111th Infantry Division occupied

26832-709: Was allowed to implement pieces of legislation without the need for a vote in the House of Commons and Senate . Borden's government created the Canadian Patriotic Fund to give financial and social assistance to the families of soldiers. The government also raised tariffs on some high-demand consumer items to boost the economy. In 1916, Borden's government established the National Research Council Canada for scientific and industrial research. In 1918, to gain information on Canada's population, social structure, and economy,

27004-419: Was an overwhelming success; the government won a powerful majority (114 Conservatives and 39 Liberals), won the highest share of the popular vote in Canadian history, and won the largest percentage of seats in Canadian history at the time (at 65.1%). The Liberals on the other hand lost seats and won their smallest share of the popular vote since the 1882 federal election . The election revealed ethnic divides in

27176-660: Was brought back in the Second World War . In 1917, Borden's government introduced the income tax which came into effect on September 20, 1917. The tax exempted the first $ 1,500 of income for single people (unmarried persons and widows and widowers without dependent children); the tax exempted the first $ 3,000 for everyone else. Single people were taxed at four percent while the tax rate ranged from two to 22 percent for married Canadians with dependents and an annual income over $ 6,000. Due to its several exemptions, only two to eight percent of Canadians filed tax returns during

27348-634: Was defeated in his Halifax seat but re-entered the House of Commons the next year via a by-election in Carleton (Ontario) . In 1907, Borden announced the Halifax Platform. The Conservative Party's new policy called for reform of the Senate and the civil service, a more selective immigration policy, free rural mail delivery, government regulation of telegraphs, telephones, and railways and eventually national ownership of telegraphs and telephones. In

27520-844: Was going to resign. Some cabinet members begged him to stay in office and take a year-long vacation. Borden took a vacation for an unspecified amount of time and returned to Ottawa in May 1920. Borden announced his retirement to his Unionist caucus on Dominion Day , July 1, 1920. Before he retired, the caucus asked him to choose his successor as leader and prime minister. Borden favoured his Finance Minister William Thomas White . With White refusing, Borden persuaded cabinet minister Arthur Meighen to succeed him. Meighen succeeded Borden on July 10, 1920. Borden retired from politics altogether in that same month. Battle of Vimy Ridge Other engagements Associated articles 1915 1916 1917 1918 Associated articles The Battle of Vimy Ridge

27692-537: Was held on December 17. The election was Canada's first in six years; it was supposed to be held in 1916 due to the constitutional requirement that Parliament last no longer than five years, but was delayed by one year due to the war. Months before the election was called, Borden's government introduced the Military Voters Act that allowed all 400,000 conscripted Canadian soldiers — including those who were underage and born in Britain, to vote. The act also allowed current and former Indigenous veterans to vote. In addition,

27864-452: Was implemented among their soldiers. Colonel Gerald Birks , a World War I double flying ace with the Royal Flying Corps, supervisor of the YMCA Canadian Overseas, sought to offer educational courses to keep soldiers busy in their spare time with a view to stave off the evils of gambling and / or drinking. He asked Henry Marshall Tory to write a report which recommended the formalization of educational services of Canadian forces overseas. After

28036-554: Was made a symbol of Canadian national achievement and sacrifice. A 100 ha (250-acre) portion of the former battleground serves as a memorial park and site of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial . Vimy Ridge is an escarpment 8 km (5.0 mi) northeast of Arras on the western edge of the Douai Plain. The ridge rises gradually on its western side and drops more quickly on the eastern side. At approximately 7 km (4.3 mi) in length and culminating at an elevation of 145 m (476 ft) or 60 m (200 ft) above

28208-516: Was more driven, possessing "very strong character, remarkable energy, high ambition and unusual ability". Her ambition was transmitted to her first-born child, who applied himself to his studies while assisting his parents with the farm work he found so disagreeable. Borden's cousin, Frederick Borden , was a prominent Liberal politician. At age nine, Borden became a day student for the local private academy, Acacia Villa School. The school sought to "fit boys physically, morally, and intellectually, for

28380-407: Was not keen to become leader, stating, "I have not either the experience or the qualifications which would enable me to successfully lead the party...It would be an absurdity for the party and madness for me." However, he later changed his position and on February 6, 1901, he was selected by the Conservative caucus as party leader. The Liberal prime minister, Wilfrid Laurier, proposed the building of

28552-399: Was organized and planned by Dr Henry Marshall Tory who became president of the Khaki College in 1917, while he was on leave as president of the University of Alberta . After the War, Tory returned as president of the University of Alberta , then founded colleges which became Carleton University and the University of British Columbia . General Arthur Currie approved Khaki University as

28724-422: Was part of the Battle of Arras , in the Pas-de-Calais department of France , during the First World War . The main combatants were the four divisions of the Canadian Corps in the First Army , against three divisions of the German 6th Army . The battle occurred from 9 to 12 April 1917, marking the commencement of the Battle of Arras and serving as the inaugural assault of the Nivelle Offensive . The objective

28896-542: Was postponed. After September 1916, when the Royal Engineers had completed their network of defensive galleries along most of the front line, offensive mining largely ceased although activities continued until 1917. The British gallery network beneath Vimy Ridge eventually grew to a length of 7.5 mi (12 km). The Canadian Corps was posted to the northern part of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 and preparations for an attack were revived in February 1917. Twelve subways , up to 1.2 km (0.75 mi) long were excavated at

29068-482: Was relieved in February 1916 by XVII Corps (Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng ) and transferred to join in the Battle of Verdun . The British soon discovered that German tunnelling companies had taken advantage of the relative calm on the surface to build an extensive network of tunnels and deep mines from which they would attack French positions by setting off explosive charges underneath their trenches. The Royal Engineers sent specialist tunnelling companies to

29240-403: Was responsible for the narrow central section of the ridge, including the capture of La Folie Farm. The 2nd Canadian Division , which later included a brigade from the 5th Division, was directly south of the 3rd Canadian Division and entrusted with the capture of the village of Thélus. The 1st Canadian Division was responsible for the broad southern sector of the corps advance and expected to cover

29412-403: Was supported to the north by the 24th Division , I Corps, which advanced north of the Souchez River and by the XVII Corps to the south. The 4th Canadian Division was responsible for the northern portion of the advance that included the capture of the highest point of the ridge, followed by the elaborately fortified Pimple just west of the village of Givenchy-en-Gohelle . The 3rd Canadian Division

29584-408: Was to draw German reserves away from the French forces, preparing for a crucial offensive along the Aisne and the Chemin des Dames ridge several days later. The Canadian Corps were to capture the German-held high ground of Vimy Ridge, an escarpment on the northern flank of the Arras front. This would protect the First Army and the Third Army farther south from German enfilade fire. Supported by

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