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52-578: Khin Nyo was an officer in the service of Prince Kyawswa , then governor of Pinle and heir-presumptive of the Pinya Kingdom . After the death of King Thihathu in 1325, the northern part of the kingdom, Sagaing , formally broke away. It was a mere formality; Sagaing had been de facto independent since 1315. The root cause of secession was Thihathu's appointment of his adopted son Uzana I as heir-apparent. Thihathu's eldest son Saw Yun vehemently opposed

104-490: A Mongol vassal nine months earlier. The brothers placed a puppet king, and ruled from their base in Kyaukse . The Mongols invaded once again in 1300–01 but could not break through. They withdrew altogether from northern Burma in 1303. The brothers went on to reassemble the core regions of the fallen empire. In the north, they regained up to Tagaung but no further. Various Shan states , nominal Mongol vassals, now dominated

156-526: A contemporary inscription, he had already declared himself king at least since 1342, and became the undisputed ruler in 1344. Kyawswa I (r. 1344–50) brought a brief period of unity, at least in the core region. He successfully reunified Pinya's military corps in Central Burma, and formed elite cavalry and shielded infantry units. However, Pinya's hold on more remote places, Toungoo in particular, remained weak. Two Toungoo governors were assassinated in

208-478: A deal that allowed the rebel leader Thawun Nge to remain in office in exchange for his nominal submission to Pinya. The deal with Toungoo proved to be the model for Sagaing as well. The king allowed Saw Yun to remain in office at Sagaing in exchange for his son's nominal submission. He was resigned to the fact that his kingdom would break apart once he died. The kingdom formally split into two right after Thihathu's death in 1325. Saw Yun (r. 1315–27) now controlled

260-546: A deal with the Mongols in 1355, they turned their attention to their south, launching their first raid into Sagaing territory in 1356. Recognizing the eventual threat to his own realm farther south, Kyawswa II in 1357/58 agreed to an alliance with Sagaing. However, the Pinya king could not fulfill his commitment. His vassals by and large ignored his decree to provide conscripts. Gov. Theingaba of Toungoo outright revolted during

312-451: A face-saving way out. The king handed over the power to Gov. Sithu of Myinsaing , uncle and father-in-law of Kyawswa, on 1 September 1340, and became a monk at Mekkhaya . Father-in-law or not, Kyawswa apparently did not recognize Sithu either. According to an inscription donated on 17 June 1342 by Kyawswa's chief queen consort Atula Sanda Dewi , Kyawswa had already claimed himself king. A contemporary inscription shows that Kyawswa became

364-403: A full force to reclaim Sagaing. He did order two small expeditions, the first led by Crown Prince Uzana and the second led by Prince Kyawswa. But by the end of 1316–17 dry season, both expeditions had failed to dislodge Saw Yun. Sagaing got a breather in 1317 when Toungoo and Taungdwin revolted. Thihathu bought peace with Taungdwin but Toungoo required an expedition. In the end, Pinya agreed to

416-515: A golden bowl at the shrine of the Mahagiri nat spirit. Not having had any food for three days, he could not resist and ate the food. He then entered the bedchamber, and saw that the king was sound asleep. With his sword aimed at Saw Yun's head, he stood conflicted. Because he had just eaten the food donated by Saw Yun, according to Burmese Buddhist belief, he now owed a debt ( kyezu , "obligation") to Saw Yun. The would-be assassin reasoned that

468-639: A great grandson of Thihathu, seized the throne. Unlike Uzana II, Thado Minbya proved an able and ambitious ruler. He quickly consolidated his hold on the Sagaing vassals, and looked to reunify all of Upper Burma. He took Pinya in September 1364. Over the next six months, he feverishly built a new citadel at a more strategic location at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and the Myitnge in order to defend against

520-576: A legitimate successor to the Pagan line, Thihathu ranked his stepson Uzana, of Pagan royalty from both sides, first; and Kyawswa, of Pagan royalty the maternal side, second.) On 7 February 1313, Kyawswa was appointed governor of Pinle by Thihathu who had become the sole ruler of Myinsaing, later known as the Pinya Kingdom . The governorship of his father's old fief was second only in importance behind Thihathu's appointment of Uzana as heir-apparent. (Thihathu's other children did not get any appointments.) While

572-563: A new capital at Pinya , also in the Kyaukse valley but closer to the Irrawaddy . He decided to keep his capital in the premier granary instead of returning to Pagan (Bagan) because Pinya was closer to the Mu valley granary in the north. On 7 February 1313, Thihathu, of non-royal birth, was crowned king as the rightful heir of the Pagan kings by Queen Pwa Saw herself. For the first time since

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624-788: Is said to have become a nat (spirit) with the name Nga-zi Shin Nat . He is still venerated as one of the Outer Thirty Seven Spirits. Kyawswa had four sons and four daughters by his two principal queens consort. He also had at least one junior queen, Saw Gyi, daughter of Gov. Sithu of Myinsaing. Furthermore, he had another son with the title Thettawshay, who was an ancestor of kings Mingyi Nyo and Tabinshwehti of Toungoo. The royal chronicles do not necessarily agree on his birth, death, and reign dates. Pinya Kingdom The Pinya Kingdom ( Burmese : ပင်းယခေတ် , pronounced [pɪ́ɰ̃ja̰ kʰɪʔ] ), also known as

676-427: Is unclear if Sagaing could have been taken if Thihathu ordered a larger expedition as he did with Toungoo. But the king accepted Saw Yun's nominal submission, and did not again order another attack. Though Uzana remained the official crown prince, Saw Yun was already the de facto ruler of the northern country. Thihathu was resigned to the fact that his kingdom would be split into two after his death. As Thihathu feared,

728-494: The Ava Kingdom in 1365. Pinya was a microcosm of the small kingdoms period (1287–1555) of Burmese history . Weakened by internal divisions, Pinya despite controlling two of the three main granaries never reached its potential. Although its successor Ava would prove more successful in reassembling major parts of the erstwhile empire, it too would be hampered by fierce regional rivalries, and Myanmar would remain divided into

780-679: The Vijaia State (၀ိဇယတိုင်း) and Kingdom of Pinya was the kingdom that ruled Central Myanmar (Burma) from 1313 to 1365. It was the successor state of Myinsaing , the polity that controlled much of Upper Burma between 1297 and 1313. Founded as the de jure successor state of the Pagan Empire by Thihathu , Pinya faced internal divisions from the start. The northern province of Sagaing led by Thihathu's eldest son Saw Yun successfully fought for autonomy in 1315−17, and formally seceded in 1325 after Thihathu's death. The rump Pinya Kingdom

832-414: The 1280s, the entire Irrawaddy valley between Prome in the south and Tagaung in the north was under a single ruler. However, Pinya's authority over the frontier regions such as Prome and Toungoo was nominal. The Myinsaing-Pinya rulers had inherited the longstanding problem that had existed since the late Pagan period: between one and two-thirds of Upper Burma's cultivated land had been donated to religion, and

884-536: The Maw Shan raid of 1358–59, and raided up to Yamethin , 200 km north of Toungoo. Kyawswa II had no response as the Maw forces broke through the Sagaing lines and breached Pinya territory in early 1359. The king died during the raid which ransacked much of his country. Pinya was now on its last legs. Most of its vassals were practically independent. King Narathu (r. 1359–64) reversed his brother's policy, and broke

936-450: The Maw raids. On 26 February 1365, the king proclaimed the foundation of the city of Ava (Inwa), as the capital of the successor state of Pinya and Sagaing kingdoms. Pinya kings continued to employ Pagan's administrative model of solar polities in which the high king ruled the core while semi-independent tributaries, autonomous viceroys, and governors actually controlled day-to-day administration and manpower. The court, Hluttaw ,

988-458: The Maw ruler was unhappy with Pinya's porous blockade, and ordered his forces to attack Pinya across the river. The Maw forces sacked the city in May. The raiders brought the loot and Narathu back to their country. The latest Maw invasion left Upper Burma in tatters. Narathu's eldest brother, Uzana II (r. 1364) succeeded the Pinya throne. At Sagaing, a young prince named Thado Minbya (r. 1364–67),

1040-494: The Pinya kingdom formally separated into two at his death in 1325. Uzana's rump Pinya Kingdom ruled the eastern and southern Central Burma while Saw Yun's Sagaing Kingdom ruled the northern and western parts. Kyawswa did not openly challenge Uzana. But he continued to have his own army and conducted his own policy. Indeed, it was Kyawswa, who famously ordered his commander Khin Nyo to assassinate Saw Yun. The assassination attempt did not succeed but Kyawswa turned his attention to

1092-426: The Pinya throne. Circa 1326, Kyawswa sent his trusted officer Khin Nyo to assassinate his half-brother Saw Yun. Chronicles recount that Khin Nyo, as ordered, went to Sagaing. He managed to enter the fortified city but had to hide in the woods outside the palace for three days. On the third night, he slipped past the guards and got inside the palace. On his way to the royal bedchamber, he saw cooked food (rice and beef) in

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1144-601: The Pinya-recognized ruler of Toungoo. Nor did it take any action when Ramanya attacked Prome (Pyay) in 1330, or when Arakan attacked Thayet in 1334. The rivalry came to a head in 1340. Kyawswa had collected five white elephants , considered auspicious symbols of Burmese monarchs. Instead of handing them over to his overlord Uzana, he kept them. Uzana asked for them twice. Both times, Kyawswa refused, and sent two regular elephants instead. The refusals signaled war. Uzana ultimately backed down, and looked for

1196-479: The Sagaing secession in 1325, and about 80,000 km² after the Toungoo secession in 1358. Pinya was a military weakling. Thihathu claimed to have controlled at least 20,000 troops. But after Thihathu, the Pinya military was divided between Uzana I and Kyawswa I, who maintained their own militias. Uzana I's special military units totaled just 640 shielded knights, 1040 cavalry, and 300 archers. Kyawswa I reunified

1248-485: The alliance with Sagaing. It won no reprieve: Maw forces raided deep into Pinya territory in 1362–63. In desperation, Narathu sought an alliance with the Maw ruler Tho Kho Bwa (r. 1340–71). In 1363, the two rulers agreed to a joint attack on Sagaing, with Pinya as the junior partner. In 1364, they laid siege to the city of Sagaing, with Pinya responsible for a naval blockade. The Maw forces sacked Sagaing in April 1364. But

1300-410: The appointment and left with his followers to Sagaing , across the river in 1315. Saw Yun went on to fortify Sagaing, and repulse Pinya's two attempts to retake it by 1317. Saw Yun nominally remained loyal to his father but the kingdom formally split into two after Thihathu's death. Uzana succeeded the rump Pinya Kingdom but his half-brother Kyawswa, another natural son of Thihathu, remained a rival for

1352-412: The charade of Saw Hnit 's nominal status as king. The old power structure at Pagan led by the dowager queen Pwa Saw was not happy but there was little she or Saw Hnit could do. It is not clear what the two elder brothers made of their brother's announcement. At any rate, the elder brothers died in 1310 and 1312/13, and Thihathu became the undisputed ruler. To commemorate his reign, Thihathu founded

1404-405: The chronicles lay within a 250 km radius from Pinya. Indeed, during the rivalry between Uzana I and Kyawswa I, Pinya did not even control all of the core region. Judging by where Uzana I's battalions were stationed, Pinya's effective power extended no more than 150 km from Pinya. The following table is a list of key vassal states mentioned in the chronicles. Other vassal states listed in

1456-531: The chronicles were Pindale , Pyinzi , Yindaw , Hlaingdet , Kyaukpadaung , Pahtanago , Mindon , Taingda , Mindat , Kanyin, Myaung , Myede , Salin , Paunglaung , Legaing , Salay , Kugan Gyi, Kugan Nge, Ywatha , Talok , Ten tracts of Bangyi , Yaw , Htilin , Laungshay , and Tharrawaddy . At its founding, Pinya under Thihathu controlled much of Upper Burma from Tagaung to Tharrawaddy. The approximate area would be at least 140,000 km². The kingdom's nominal claim became about 100,000 km² after

1508-603: The commander and his family for years. Kyawswa awarded lavish gifts to Khin Nyo. Kyawswa I of Pinya Kyawswa I of Pinya ( Burmese : ငါးစီးရှင် ကျော်စွာ , pronounced [ŋázíʃɪ̀ɰ̃ tɕɔ̀zwà] ; lit.   ' Lord of the Five White Elephants ' ; 1299–1350) was king of Pinya from 1344 to 1350. His six-year reign briefly restored unity in southern Upper Burma although his authority over his southernmost vassals remained largely nominal. He suddenly died in 1350, and came to be regarded as one of

1560-409: The control of Pinya in the following years. Both he and Uzana maintained separate specialized military units (shielded infantry, cavalry, war elephants) around their core region of Kyaukse . The brothers' rivalry greatly limited Pinya's effective power. Its southernmost vassals were practically independent, and had to fend for themselves. Pinya took no action with the 1325 assassination of Saw Hnit ,

1612-468: The crown had lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. Furthermore, "markedly drier weather during the late 13th and much of the 14th centuries" in Upper Burma forced large migrations from the established granaries ( Kyaukse , Minbu , and Mu valley ) "to better watered districts farther south". To compound the problem, Pinya was hit with a dynastic feud from

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1664-620: The eldest son Uzana who had weak or paralyzed legs). The appointment apparently did not go well with his brother Nawrahta, who defected to Sagaing in 1349. The king built the Lay-Myet-Hna Pagada in Pinya. He also commissioned a study of the state of the Buddhist clergy but the court fearing his wrath left out the corruption of the so-called monks from the report. The king died on 12 December 1350. According to tradition, he suddenly fell ill, and died in his 9th year of reign. He

1716-446: The eldest son's repeated protestations. Saw Yun remained deeply unhappy for he still did not command an army as did Uzana and Kyawswa. The simmering resentment led to Saw Yun's insurrection. The young prince upgraded Sagaing's timber walls to brick without his father's permission in 1315–16. Thihathu seemed conflicted about punishing his teenage son. The king, who had never liked to share power — even with his own brothers — never sent

1768-516: The entire northwestern-to-southeastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. In the south, the brothers established suzerainty down to Prome (Pyay), and Toungoo (Taungoo). They did not try to regain Ramanya farther south, or Arakan in the west. The regency of the triumvirate was short-lived. Thihathu, the youngest and most ambitious brother, was never satisfied with a mere regent status, and declared himself king in 1309. The proclamation ended

1820-409: The first three years of his reign. Kyawswa had to be satisfied with the nominal submission by the usurpers. Similarly, his attempt to check the power of the Buddhist clergy was not successful, not least because the court did not fully cooperate. On balance, Kyawswa I brought a much needed period of stability to the country. But he suddenly died in 1350. He is said to have become a nat (spirit) with

1872-423: The full punishment for having failed to complete the assigned task. He presented the ruby studded sword of Saw Yun to Kyawswa, and explained why he did not carry out the task. To his surprise, Kyawswa did not punish him. After carefully considering Khin Nyo's explanation, the prince pronounced that if Khin Nyo genuinely believed in the debt of one bowl of rice, then he must be truly loyal to his lord, who had supported

1924-422: The governorship was likely a titular title in the beginning, by 1315, Kyawswa like Uzana was given command of his own military units (1000 shielded infantry, 80 cavalry, 10 elephants). In 1316–17, Kyawswa became ensnared in palace succession intrigues. The king asked Kyawswa to retake Sagaing which Saw Yun had fortified after unsatisfied with what the prince perceived to be a second-class status. When Kyawswa got

1976-437: The latter governor of Pinle, his old job. He also successfully persuaded Uzana's younger son Gov. Thihapate of Yamethin not to revolt. However, his hold over the southernmost vassals was still limited. Prome under Pinya-appointed Gov. Saw Yan Naung remained calm but more remote Toungoo was another matter. Within the first three years of Kyawswa's accession, two Toungoo rulers were assassinated. Kyawswa had to be satisfied with

2028-480: The major Burmese folk spirits , known as Nga-zi Shin Nat . Born in 1299, Kyawswa was the elder son of Queen Mi Saw U of Pagan and Thihathu , Co-Regent of Myinsaing . He grew up at the Pinle Palace with his younger brother Nawrahta ; three half-siblings Uzana , Saw Yun , and Saw Pale; and one stepbrother Tarabya . Kyawswa grew up as second in the line of succession after Uzana. (Eager to be seen as

2080-548: The mid-16th century. Pinya was the successor state of Myinsaing , the polity that succeeded the Pagan Empire in Upper Burma. After the Mongol invasions (1277–87) , the Mongols seized northern Burma to Tagaung , and the rest of the empire broke up into several petty states. Pagan was left holding only a small region around the capital. In 1297, the three former Pagan commanders— Athinkhaya , Yazathingyan and Thihathu —overthrew King Kyawswa of Pagan (r. 1289–97), who had become

2132-454: The name Nga-zi Shin Nat . Pinya struggled to remain relevant after Kyawswa I's death. King Kyawswa II (r. 1350–59) never had much control over the vassals. As a result, he like his father before him tried to regain resources in the core region from the clergy. (His 1359 decree to check on tax-free glebe lands was the earliest extant land survey ( sittan ) in Myanmar. ) One notable change

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2184-452: The nominal submission by the usurpers. Outside of Toungoo, the kingdom was largely peaceful. He successfully reunified Pinya's military corps in the core region. An avid horse rider, the king formed elite cavalry and shielded infantry units. He not only liked to review military parades but also take part in the military dances of elite shielded units while singing military songs. He appointed his second son Kyawswa II his heir-apparent (over

2236-416: The northern Shan state of Maw . Two Maw raids in 1358–59 and 1362–63 thoroughly devastated Pinya's countryside during which Toungoo successfully broke away. Narathu switched sides and aided the Maw attack on Sagaing in 1363–64. But after the Maw troops sacked both Sagaing and Pinya in succession in 1364, Thihathu's great grandson Thado Minbya of Sagaing seized both devastated capitals in 1364, and founded

2288-525: The northern country to Tagaung while Uzana I (r. 1325–40) became king of the southern country to Prome and Toungoo. But the control of the southern kingdom was further split between Uzana and Kyawswa. The half-brothers continued to maintain their own military units throughout Central Burma. Kyawswa openly conducted his own policy, for example ordering an attempt on Saw Yun's life . The rivalry greatly sapped Pinya's ability to control its own vassals or defend them. Pinya did nothing when Gov. Saw Hnit of Toungoo

2340-477: The order, Uzana had already tried, and failed. But Kyawswa's expedition too failed. The king seemed halfhearted about punishing Saw Yun, and did not mobilize all his forces. Uzana and Kyawswa had march with their own small army, separately. But when Toungoo (Taungoo) revolted in 1317, Thihathu asked both Uzana and Kyawswa with a combined army to march to Toungoo. The two brothers got Toungoo's ruler Thawun Nge to submit. The Sagaing affair remained unresolved. It

2392-460: The price of killing someone to whom he was indebted would be exorbitantly high: he would descend to the depths of Naraya , making his escape from samsara immensely longer. He decided against killing the king, and instead took the king's ruby-studded royal sword by the bed. The sword had been bestowed to Saw Yun by Thihathu, and Khin Nyo knew that his lords at Pinya would recognize it. Chronicles continue that Khin Nyo returned to Pinle, expecting

2444-554: The start. So eager was Thihathu to be seen as a legitimate king of Pagan, he made his adopted stepson Uzana, biological son of King Kyawswa of Pagan and Queen Mi Saw U , his heir-apparent. He also appointed Kyawswa I , his biological son by Mi Saw U, governor of Pinle , the second most coveted position. On the other hand, the king did not appoint Saw Yun , his eldest biological son by a commoner queen, Yadanabon , or Tarabya his stepson by Yadanabon, to any meaningful positions. He appointed Saw Yun governor of Sagaing in 1314 only after

2496-468: The undisputed ruler of Pinya on 29 March 1344. Kyawswa's the reign name was Pawara Pandita Thihathura Dhamma Yaza but was popularly known as Nga-zi Shin ( ငါးစီးရှင် , "Lord of the Five White Elephants"). The new king quickly consolidated his hold over the core region of Kyaukse and its periphery. He was able to buy off his potential rivals by using bribery, flattery and indeed the threat of force. He appeased his younger brother Nawrahta by appointing

2548-550: Was assassinated in 1325; Ramanya attacked Prome in 1330; Arakan raided Thayet in 1333–34; or Sagaing raided Mindon in 1339. The rivalry came to a head in 1340. The brothers came close to war but Uzana ultimately backed down. He abdicated the throne to Gov. Sithu of Myinsaing , who was also Kyawswa's father-in-law. Sithu the regent never wielded any power; chronicles do not mention him at all. Though Sithu made an alliance with King Kyaswa of Sagaing (r. 1339–49), Kyawswa never seemed concerned about his father-in-law. According to

2600-452: Was his Sagaing policy. He agreed to a truce with the northern rival in 1351. Prior to the truce, the relations between them had been worsening with Sagaing having accepted high-level Pinya defections in 1349–51. A key driver for the truce may have been the emergence of the Shan state of Maw (Mong Mao), which had fought a successful war against its Mongol overlords (1342–48). After Maw reached

2652-469: Was left embroiled in an intense rivalry between Thihathu's other sons Uzana I and Kyawswa I until 1344. Pinya had little control over its vassals; its southernmost vassals Toungoo (Taungoo) and Prome (Pyay) were practically independent. Central authority briefly returned during Kyawswa I's reign (1344−50) but broke down right after his death. In the 1350s, Kyawswa II repaired Pinya's long-strained relationship with Sagaing, in order to face off against

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2704-423: Was the center of administration, representing at once executive, legislative and judiciary branches of the government. The court administered the kingdom at three general levels: taing ( တိုင်း , province), myo ( မြို့ , town), and ywa ( ရွာ , village). Unlike the Pagan government, the Pinya court's reach was limited mainly to the Kyaukse region and its vicinity. The majority of the vassal states reported in

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