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Kition ( Ancient Greek : Κίτιον , Kition ; Latin : Citium ; Egyptian : kꜣṯꜣj ; Phoenician : 𐤊𐤕 ‎ , KT , or 𐤊𐤕𐤉 ‎ , KTY ;) was an Ancient Greek city-kingdom on the southern coast of Cyprus (in present-day Larnaca ), one of the Ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus .

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80-626: Its most famous, and probably only known, resident was Zeno of Kition , born c. 334 BC in Kition and founder of the Stoic school of philosophy which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. The name of the city comes from the Phoenician 𐤊𐤕𐤉 ‎ ( KTY , pronounced Kitiya). This name was borrowed into Ancient Greek as Kítion ( Κίτιον ) and thence into Latin as Citium . During

160-637: A stratigraphic examination of the Bamboula mound to obtain information about the dating of the Phoenician colonization of Cyprus. They wanted to study the ceramic development and collect archaeological material to elucidate how the Phoenicians affected the development of the Cypriote culture. But, after three days of digging, they found a large deposit of sculptures and needed to subsequently enlarge

240-469: A wishing well or fountain. The modern construction practice of topping out can be considered an example of a votive practice with ancient roots. In archaeology , votive deposits differ from hoards ; although they may contain similar items, votive deposits were not intended to be recovered. In Europe , votive deposits are known from as early as the Neolithic , with polished axe hoards , reaching

320-456: A Greek or Greco-Phoenician background. The only things that historians know with certainty, are that Zeno had a Greek name , a Greek higher education and that there is no evidence he knew a language other than Greek. His father, Mnaseas, had a name ambiguously meaningful both in Phoenician ("one causing to forget") and in Greek ("mindful"). His mother and her name are not recorded. Most of

400-506: A crowd. Zeno, upon catching sight of this, covered them both with his cloak so as to prevent bystanders from witnessing the copulating couple, displaying his own inability to be apathetic to the expectations of society. Hence Crates, desirous of curing this defect in him, gave him a potful of lentil-soup to carry through the Ceramicus (the pottery district); and when he saw that Zeno was ashamed and tried to keep it out of sight, Crates broke

480-621: A dangerous voyage. In the Spanish-speaking world a milagro is a small metal offering, equivalent to the Orthodox tamata . Many Catholic churches still have areas where such offerings are displayed. Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, Paris , displays over 10,000, with a military specialization and including many military decorations given by their recipients. The Votive Church, Vienna is a late example of many churches which are themselves votive offerings, in this case built to give thanks for

560-409: A god or goddess. The offerings were in certain cases created by a separate person due to the gifter having an injury or other circumstances, which was allowed. Some Greek offerings, such as bronze tripods at Delphi , were apparently displayed for a period and then buried in groups. At Olympia many small figurines, mostly of animals, were thrown onto the huge pile of ashes from animal sacrifices at

640-745: A huge golden grape vine artifact outside of the holy site of the Temple in Jerusalem before its destruction by the Romans. The tradition of votive offerings has been carried into Christianity in both the East and the West. The particular type of the votive crown , originally Byzantine, was also adopted in the West. According to Sacred Tradition , after Constantine the Great 's conversion and subsequent victory at

720-771: A more rare and expensive tablet was made from metal. Historically, votive tablets can be found in Asian Buddhist lands, from Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, China, Indonesia and Malaysia. In Thailand, votive tablets are known as Thai Buddha amulets , a kind of Thai Buddhist blessed item used to raise temple funds by producing the amulets. Ayagapata is a type of votive slab associated with worship in Jainism . Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in India. Some of them date back to

800-492: A narrow escape from assassination by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria in 1853. Medieval examples include: Especially in the Latin world, there is a tradition of votive paintings, typically depicting a dangerous incident which the offeror survived. The votive paintings of Mexico are paralleled in other countries. In Italy, where more than 15,000 ex-voto paintings are thought to survive from before 1600, these began to appear in

880-513: A peak in the late Bronze Age . High status artifacts such as armor and weaponry (mostly shields , swords , spears and arrows), fertility and cult symbols, coins, various treasures and animal statuettes (often dogs, oxen and in later periods horses) were common offerings in antiquity. The votive offerings were sacrificed and buried or more commonly cast into bodies of water or peat bogs , whence they could not possibly have been recovered. In certain cases entire ships have been sacrificed, as in

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960-498: A storage vessel. During the excavation, they found no inscriptions that could inform us to whom this sanctuary was dedicated, although some of the sculptures might represent the god and thence give us an answer. Most of the sculptures dressed in lion’s skin and a club in the right hand, are a Cypriot variety of the Greek Heracles , which the Phoenicians identified with their god Melqart , the patron god of Kition. Therefore,

1040-425: A thing like this."– Then, when he had closed his fingers a little, – "Assent is like this." – Afterwards, when he had completely closed his hand, and showed his fist, that, he said, was Comprehension. From which simile he also gave that state a new name, calling it katalepsis (κατάληψις). But when he brought his left hand against his right, and with it took a firm and tight hold of his fist: – "Knowledge" – he said,

1120-491: A very restrained way. The titles of many of Zeno's writings are, however, known and are as follows: Votive offering A votive offering or votive deposit is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally made to gain favor with supernatural forces. While some offerings were apparently made in anticipation of

1200-784: A vow. cf Leviticus 22.23 where the Hebrew root letters for a freewill offering are נדב (nadab), but for a votive offering are נדר (nadar). In this verse a clear differentiation is made between the two. See Strongs numbers H5068 where the Hitpael is to volunteer, or make a free will offering and H5087 where the Qal is to vow a vow. When Solomon built the first temple he provided a number of furnishings above and beyond what had been commanded to Moses on Mount Sinai (see Temple of Solomon ). Oral tradition in Rabbinic Judaism also speaks of

1280-474: Is virtue , true good can only consist in virtue. Zeno deviated from the Cynics in saying that things that are morally adiaphora (indifferent) could nevertheless have value. Things have a relative value in proportion to how they aid the natural instinct for self-preservation. That which is to be preferred is a "fitting action" ( kathêkon /καθῆκον), a designation Zeno first introduced. Self-preservation, and

1360-582: Is a small sheet of tin or lead on which a message wishing misfortune upon someone else was inscribed. Usually found rolled up and deliberately deposited, there are five main reasons for dedicating a curse tablet: 1 – Litigation, 2 – Competition, 3 – Trade, 4 – Erotic Ambition, 5 – Theft Of those in Britain the vast majority are of type 5. The two largest concentrations are from the sacred springs at Aquae Sulis , where 130 examples are recorded, and at Uley, where over 140 examples are visible. The use of

1440-398: Is artistically working fire, which advances by fixed methods to creation. For he maintains that it is the main function of art to create and produce and that what the hand accomplishes in the productions of the arts we employ, is accomplished much more artistically by nature, that is, as I said, by artistically working fire, which is the master of the other arts. This divine fire, or aether,

1520-440: Is located around 500 metres north of the Bamboula site and sometimes referred to as "Kition Area II". The Department of Antiquities (under the direction of Vassos Karageorghis) started excavating in 1959 continuing until 1981. Excavations have revealed part of a defensive wall , dating from the 13th century BC and remains of five temples including cyclopean walls . The largest temple's (horizontal) dimensions were 35 m by 22 m. and

1600-467: Is said to have declined an invitation to visit Antigonus in Macedonia, although their supposed correspondence preserved by Laërtius is undoubtedly the invention of a later writer. Zeno instead sent his friend and disciple Persaeus , who had lived with Zeno in his house. Among Zeno's other pupils there were Aristo of Chios , Sphaerus , and Cleanthes who succeeded Zeno as the head ( scholarch ) of

1680-410: Is the basis for all activity in the universe, operating on otherwise passive matter, which neither increases nor diminishes itself. The primary substance in the universe comes from fire, passes through the stage of air, and then becomes water: the thicker portion becoming earth, and the thinner portion becoming air again, and then rarefying back into fire. Individual souls are part of the same fire as

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1760-482: The Athenian Treasury and Siphnian Treasury ) were buildings by the various Greek city-states to hold their own votive offerings in money and precious metal. The sites also contained large quantities of votive sculptures, although these were clearly intended to glorify each city in view of its rivals as well as to give thanks to the gods. Votive offerings were also used as atonement for sins committed against

1840-603: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge , he donated one of the crosses he carried in battle to the Church. This cross is reputed to be preserved on Mount Athos . One of the most famous Orthodox votive offerings is that by Saint John of Damascus . According to tradition , while he was serving as Vizier to Caliph Al-Walid I , he was falsely accused of treachery and his hand was cut off. Upon praying in front of an icon of

1920-612: The Church of Sweden , continued after the Reformation. In Buddhism , votive offerings usually take the form of a small clay or terracotta tablet bearing Buddhist images, usually Buddharupa and contain text. These tablets are left in sacred Buddhist sites by devotees as an offering during their pilgrimage. An example are Buddhist Tibetan votive tablets made for a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya . Votive tablets served both as meritorious offerings and as souvenirs. Most were made of clay, while

2000-526: The Classical period Kition was one of the principal local powers, along with its neighbour Salamis . In 499 BC Cypriot kingdoms (including Kition) joined Ionia's revolt against Persia. Persian rule of Cyprus ended in 332 BC. Ptolemy I conquered Cyprus in 312 BC and killed Poumyathon , the Phoenician king of Kition, and burned the temples. Shortly afterwards the Cypriot city-kingdoms were dissolved and

2080-574: The Late Bronze Age , the area was settled by Mycenaean Greeks who exploited the local copper deposits. This settlement was destroyed around 1200 BC but rebuilt soon after. The new town was rebuilt on a larger scale; its mudbrick city wall was replaced by a cyclopean wall . Around 1000 BC, the religious part of the city was abandoned, although life seems to have continued in other areas as indicated by finds in tombs. Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence also at Kition which

2160-631: The Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics , Stoicism laid great emphasis on goodness and peace of mind gained from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature . It proved very popular, and flourished as one of the major schools of philosophy from the Hellenistic period through to the Roman era , and enjoyed revivals in

2240-464: The Theotokos his hand was miraculously restored. In thanksgiving, he had a silver replica of his hand fashioned and attached it to the icon ( see image at right ). This icon, now called " Trojeručica " (The Three-handed) is preserved at Hilandar Monastery on Mount Athos . Orthodox Christians continue to make votive offerings to this day, often in the form of tamata , metal plaques symbolizing

2320-724: The University of Lyon started excavating in 1976. when traces of settlement dating to the tenth century BC were found along ramparts next to the port at Bamboula. The site also consists of a sanctuary of Astarte and a sanctuary of Melkart . The earliest sanctuary was built in the 9th century BC. 1987 saw the discovery of the Phoenician harbour for warships built in the 5th century BC. In its final stage, it consisted of ship sheds (six of them have been recorded), 6 metres wide and about 38 to 39 meters long, with shipways on which triremes were pulled up to dry under tiled roofs Five built tombs, or hypogea , have been discovered at Kition:

2400-417: The divine nature of the universe as well); and ethics , the end goal of which was to achieve eudaimonia through the right way of living according to Nature. Because Zeno's ideas were later expanded upon by Chrysippus and other Stoics, it can be difficult to determine precisely what he thought. But his general views can be outlined as follows: In his treatment of logic, Zeno was influenced by Stilpo and

2480-463: The world-soul of the universe. Following Heraclitus, Zeno adopted the view that the universe underwent regular cycles of formation and destruction. The nature of the universe is such that it accomplishes what is right and prevents the opposite, and is identified with unconditional Fate , while allowing it the free-will attributed to it. According to Zeno's beliefs, "[t]rue happiness" can only be found by obeying natural laws and living in tune with

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2560-480: The 1490s, probably modelled on the small predella panels below altarpieces . These are a form of folk art , typically painted on tin plates salvaged from packaging. Other examples may be large and grand paintings, such as Titian 's Jacopo Pesaro being presented by Pope Alexander VI to Saint Peter , given in thanks for a naval victory. The practice of votive offerings in Lutheran Churches , such as

2640-439: The 1st century. These slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the stupa , dharmacakra and triratna . A large number of ayagapata (tablet of homage) votive tablets for offerings and the worship of tirthankara were found at Mathura . These stone tablets bear a resemblance to the earlier Shilapatas , stone tablets that were placed under trees to worship Yakshas . However, this

2720-535: The 5th century BC. These votive offerings give evidence to the presence of literacy in Spartan culture. Placing greater emphasis on inscriptions which seem to have been made by the individual making the offering, archaeologists can interpret that, of the early dedicators, there were very few in number and that most, if not all, were from the upper classes. One piece of pottery was found that may have had measurement signs on it. This would indicate an everyday literacy among

2800-503: The Danish bog Nydam Mose . Often all the objects in a ritual hoard are broken, possibly 'killing' the objects to put them even further beyond utilitarian use before deposition. The purposeful discarding of valuable items such as swords and spearheads is thought to have had ritual overtones. The items have since been discovered in rivers, lakes and present or former wetlands by construction workers, peat diggers, metal-detectorists, members of

2880-400: The Phoenician dynasty of Kition was abolished. Following these events the area lost its religious character. However, a trading colony from Kition established at Piraeus had prospered to the point that, in 233 BC they requested and received permission for the construction of a temple dedicated to Astarte ". Cyprus was annexed by Rome in 58 BC. Strong earthquakes hit the city in 76 AD and

2960-523: The Renaissance as Neostoicism and in the current era as Modern Stoicism . Zeno was born c. 334 BC, in the colony of Citium in Cyprus . His ancestry is disputed between Phoenician and Greek , because Citium contained both Phoenician and Greek inhabitants. While a number of contemporary and modern historians regard Zeno as a Phoenician, other modern scholars have contested this arguing for

3040-601: The Spartans if this is true. Unfortunately, scholars have not recovered any other piece of pottery with a similar inscription to support that single find. The 13 Ancient Votive Stones of Pesaro were unearthed in 1737 on a local Pesaro farm in the Province of Pesaro e Urbino , Italy , and date to pre-Etruscan times. They are inscribed with the names of various Roman gods such as APOLLO , MAT[ER]-MATVTA , SALVS , FIDE , and IVNONII ( Juno ). A curse tablet or defixio

3120-478: The Stoic school in Athens. Zeno is said to have declined Athenian citizenship when it was offered to him, fearing that he would appear unfaithful to his native land, where he was highly esteemed, and where he contributed to the restoration of its baths, after which his name was inscribed upon a pillar there as "Zeno the philosopher". We are also told that Zeno was of an earnest, gloomy disposition; that he preferred

3200-913: The Vangelis Tomb, Godham's Tomb, the Phaneromeni , and the Turabi Tekke Tomb . Two important stele with inscriptions in the Phoenician script were found in the Turabi Tekke cemetery in the late nineteenth century. They are now in the British Museum 's collection. Kition Area I , "close to the west [city] wall of the Pre-Phoenician period, seems to have been a residential area" according to architectural and moveable finds. "Kition Area III" and "-IV" are names of other archaeological sites at Kition. The "mound gate" in

3280-468: The achievement of a particular wish, in Western cultures from which documentary evidence survives it was more typical to wait until the wish had been fulfilled before making the offering, for which the more specific term ex-voto may be used. Other offerings were very likely regarded just as gifts to the deity, not linked to any particular need. In Buddhism, votive offering such as construction of stupas

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3360-605: The altar outside the Temple of Zeus . Much of our knowledge of ancient Greek art in base metal comes from these and other excavated deposits of offerings. Arms and armour, especially helmets, were also given after a victory. In Mesoamerica , votive deposits have been recovered from the Olmec site of El Manati (dated to 1600–1200 BC) and the Maya Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza (850–1550 AD). Archaeologists have recovered some votive offerings in ancient Sparta from

3440-467: The archaeologists concluded that the sanctuary was dedicated to the city god of Kition, Heracles - Melqart . Einar Gjerstad explains the reason why the temenos were never rebuilt as a consequence of the last king of Kition, Pumiatihon. Pumiatihon sided with Antigonus in the struggle between him and Ptolemy I Soter . He lost his life and throne which meant that Kition ceased to be an independent state after Ptolemy’s conquest of Kition in 312 B.C. and since

3520-461: The archaeologists found remains of ash and carbonized matter. All through the periods votive gifts, mainly consisting of sculptures, were placed in the sanctuary, and each time the level was raised the sculptures were transferred to the new sanctuary. Throughout the Cypro-Classic I period , the temenos were rearranged entirely and became more monumental. This sanctuary was the last one before

3600-447: The best life, and that the gods' response was that he should take on the complexion of the dead. Whereupon, perceiving what this meant, he studied ancient authors." Zeno became a wealthy merchant. On a voyage from Phoenicia to Peiraeus he survived a shipwreck, after which he went to Athens and visited a bookseller. There he encountered Xenophon 's Memorabilia . He was so pleased with the book's portrayal of Socrates that he asked

3680-535: The bookseller where men like Socrates were to be found. Just then, Crates of Thebes  – the most famous Cynic living at that time in Greece  – happened to be walking by, and the bookseller pointed to him. Diogenes Laërtius describes Zeno as a haggard, dark-skinned person, living a spare, ascetic life despite his wealth. This coincides with the influences of Cynic teaching, and was, at least in part, continued in his Stoic philosophy. From

3760-578: The city wall was located in the vicinity northwest of the Phaneromeni Tomb . The site includes a sprawling necropolis which includes the Mnemata Site and Agios Georgios Kontou cemetery . Including burials from a number of periods, it is one of the most studied necropoleis in Cyprus. A Science Center uses the name Kition - Kition Planetarium & Observatory. One sports club uses

3840-423: The company of the few to the many; that he was fond of burying himself in investigations; and that he disliked verbose and elaborate speeches. Diogenes Laërtius has preserved many clever and witty remarks by Zeno, although these anecdotes are generally considered unreliable. Zeno died around 262 BC. Laërtius reports about his death: As he was leaving the school he tripped and fell, breaking his toe. Striking

3920-481: The course of fate. Like the Cynics , Zeno recognised a single, sole and simple good, which is the only goal to strive for. "Happiness is a good flow of life," said Zeno, and this can only be achieved through the use of right reason coinciding with the universal reason ( Logos ), which governs everything. A bad feeling ( pathos ) "is a disturbance of the mind repugnant to reason, and against Nature." This consistency of soul, out of which morally good actions spring,

4000-768: The curse-tablet in seeking restoration of stolen property is strong evidence of invoking divine power through a non-traditional religious ceremony, often involving some form of water-deposition. The usual form of divine invocation was through prayer, sacrifice and altar dedication so access to this information provides useful insights into Roman provincial culture. Many unrecovered ancient votive offerings are threatened in today's world, especially those submerged in wetlands or other bodies of water. Wetlands and other aquatic sites often protect and preserve materials for thousands of years, because of their natural occurring anaerobic environments. However, many seabeds have been disturbed, rivers and streams have been stretched out or re-routed in

4080-428: The day Zeno became Crates’ pupil, he showed a strong bent for philosophy, though with too much native modesty to assimilate Anaideia; Cynic “shamelessness” and the disregard for societal norms in favor of freedom. An example of this may be found in the writings of Apuleius who narrates an incident where Crates and Hipparchia , his wife and fellow Cynic, engaged in a public act of sexual intercourse and, as such, drew

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4160-450: The details known about his life come from the biography and anecdotes preserved by Diogenes Laërtius in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers written in the 3rd century AD, a few of which are confirmed by the Suda (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia). Diogenes reports that Zeno's interest in philosophy began when "he consulted the oracle to know what he should do to attain

4240-462: The direction of Einar Gjerstad ) until April 1930. The ruins can be found within the borders of the modern town of Larnaca . The ancient city was surrounded by massive walls which can still be traced today. At the Bamboula hill, in the northeastern part of the city, was the acropolis. Here, the Swedish archaeologists discovered a sanctuary dedicated to Heracles - Melqart . Between the acropolis and

4320-649: The direction of Xenocrates , and Polemo . Zeno began teaching in the colonnade in the Agora of Athens known as the Stoa Poikile (Greek Στοὰ Ποικίλη) in 301 BC. His disciples were initially called "Zenonians," but eventually they came to be known as "Stoics," a name previously applied to poets who congregated in the Stoa Poikile. Among the admirers of Zeno was king Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia , who, whenever he came to Athens, would visit Zeno. Zeno

4400-470: The end of the Cypro-Archaic II period when a new temenos was built on top of the old one. This temenos was enclosed by a massive peribolos wall. Furthermore, it seems like an inner temenos was created at the same place as the earlier walls had been. Within the inner temenos a low altar consisting of a square was found, as well as another pillar altar outside. Both on the altar itself and close to it

4480-553: The excavation. According to The Swedish Cyprus Expedition, the acropolis commenced as a settlement from the end of the Late Cypriote II and the beginning of Cypro Geometric I period before it became a sanctuary. Throughout the time of the Cypro-Archaic I something changed, and Kition began to be used as an open-air sanctuary. The Swedish Expedition did not find any votive sculptures from this early stage, therefore

4560-461: The ground with his fist, he quoted the line from the Niobe : I come, I come, why dost thou call for me? and died on the spot through holding his breath. At Zeno's funeral an epitaph was composed for him stating: And if thy native country was Phoenicia, What need to slight thee? Came not Cadmus thence, Who gave to Greece her books and art of writing? This signified that even though Zeno

4640-429: The incomprehensible, permitting for free-will the power of assent ( sinkatathesis /συνκατάθεσις) in distinguishing between sense impressions. Zeno said that there were four stages in the process leading to true knowledge , which he illustrated with the example of the flat, extended hand, and the gradual closing of the fist: Zeno stretched out his fingers, and showed the palm of his hand, – "Perception," – he said, – "is

4720-714: The landscape, and many wetlands have been fully or partially drained or landfilled for various reasons in the last 100–200 years. Therefore, many remaining objects are in danger of oxidation and eventual rapid deterioration. The leading causes of the disturbances are dredging , bottom trawling fishing boats, agricultural activities, peat cutting, groundwater extraction by water wells and establishments of larger infrastructural facilities like expressways, water treatment plants, and in some instances, large-scale nature re-establishment projects. The Torah makes provision for "free-will offerings" which may be made by any individual. These are different from votive offerings which are linked to

4800-558: The modern seashore was the ancient harbour. In 1879 the Government of Cyprus filled this marshy area with soil from the upper strata of the Bamboula Hill because they wished to get rid of the malaria mosquitos. Because of this the Bamboula Hill and especially the upper layers of the acropolis were much disturbed. A small part of the city was excavated as early as 1894 by british archeologists. The Swedish archaeologists attempted

4880-399: The name Kition - AEK Kition . 34°55′24″N 33°37′50″E  /  34.9233°N 33.6305°E  / 34.9233; 33.6305 Zeno of Citium Zeno of Citium ( / ˈ z iː n oʊ / ; Koinē Greek : Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς , Zēnōn ho Kitieus ; c. 334 – c. 262 BC) was a Hellenistic philosopher from Citium ( Κίτιον , Kition ), Cyprus . He was the founder of

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4960-410: The other Megarians . Zeno urged the need to lay down a basis for logic because the wise person must know how to avoid deception. Cicero accused Zeno of being inferior to his philosophical predecessors in his treatment of logic, and it seems true that a more exact treatment of the subject was laid down by his successors, including Chrysippus . Zeno divided true conceptions into the comprehensible and

5040-486: The pot with a blow of his staff. As Zeno began to run off in embarrassment with the lentil-soup flowing down his legs, Crates chided, "Why run away, my little Phoenician? Nothing terrible has befallen you." Apart from Crates, Zeno studied under the philosophers of the Megarian school , including Stilpo , and the dialecticians Diodorus Cronus , and Philo . He is also said to have studied Platonist philosophy under

5120-542: The public and archaeologists. A saying by Diogenes of Sinope as quoted by Diogenes Laërtius , indicates the high level of votive offering in Ancient Greece: When some one expressed astonishment at the votive offerings in Samothrace , his ( Diogenes ) comment was, 'There would have been far more, if those who were not saved had set up offerings.' The Treasuries at Olympia and Delphi (including

5200-403: The sanctuary was demolished in the Hellenistic period and secular buildings were erected in the same place. During the demolition, all the votive sculptures were buried, and the place was no longer used for sacred purposes. The Hellenistic house was divided into two parts and inside archaeologists found remains of a basalt press for pressing wine or oil, as well as rectangular drainage outlets and

5280-488: The subject of their prayers . Other offerings include candles , prosphora , wine, oil, or incense . In addition, many will leave something of personal value, such as jewelry, a pectoral cross or military decoration as a sign of devotion. In the Roman Catholic Church , offerings were made either to fulfill a vow made to God for deliverance, or a thing left to a Church in gratitude for some favor that

5360-458: The temple was the religious sign of the political independence of Kition it couldn't be rebuilt after the conquest. Archaeology is continuing near the Kathari site. A magnificent 20m-long Roman mosaic showing the labours of Hercules was discovered in a baths building in 2016. It was found under Kyriakou Matsi Street when clearing a sewer and is expected to be transferred to the museum. This site

5440-796: The things that contribute towards it, has only a conditional value; it does not aid happiness, which depends only on moral actions. Just as virtue can only exist within the dominion of reason, so vice can only exist with the rejection of reason. Virtue is absolutely opposed to vice, the two cannot exist in the same thing together, and cannot be increased or decreased; no one moral action is more virtuous than another. All actions are either good or bad, since impulses and desires rest upon free consent, and hence even passive mental states or emotions that are not guided by reason are immoral, and produce immoral actions. Zeno distinguished four negative emotions : desire, fear, pleasure and sorrow ( epithumia, phobos, hêdonê, lupê / ἐπιθυμία, φόβος, ἡδονή, λύπη), and he

5520-431: The votives might have been of a different kind or removed to a place outside the excavation. They did find a rectangular base of a statue called no. 560. The statue itself was missing with only the feet preserved. This sculpture was probably very big and could have been Kition’s cult statue . Later, the cult erected a rectangular altar made of rubble and chips of stone in front of the statue. The temenos were in use until

5600-539: The year after, but the city seems to have been prosperous during Roman times. A curator civitatis , or financial administrator of the city, was sent to Kition from Rome during the rule of Septimius Severus . The city was destroyed by successive earthquakes in 322 and 342 AD, which also destroyed Salamis and Pafos. Kition was first systematically excavated by the Swedish Cyprus Archaeological Expedition from October 1929 (under

5680-475: Was a prevalent practice in Ancient India, an example of which can be observed in the ruins of the ancient Vikramshila University and other contemporary structures. Votive offerings have been described in historical Roman era and Greek sources, although similar acts continue into the present day—for example, in traditional Catholic culture and, arguably, in the modern-day practice of tossing coins into

5760-587: Was built using ashlar blocks. Temple (2) was rebuilt—around 1200 BC. Temple (1) has Late Bronze Age graffiti of ships on the façade of the south wall. The site is located around 50 metres north of the Larnaca Museum . In 1845 the Sargon Stele was found here, together with a gilded silver plakette now in the Louvre . A British Expedition first excavated the site in 1913. A French team from

5840-402: Was granted. Today, votives can be lit votive candles , offered flowers, statues, vestments and monetary donations. Traditional special forms of votive offering ex votos include small silver models of the afflicted part of the body, inscribed stone tablets, folk art paintings of an incident of danger such as the votive paintings of Mexico and model ships donated by sailors who have survived

5920-419: Was his Republic , written in conscious imitation of, or opposition to, Plato 's Republic . Although it has not survived, more is known about it than any of his other works. It outlined Zeno's vision of the ideal Stoic society. A manuscript that was attributed to Zeno, matching a known title of one of Zeno's works, Περὶ φύσεως ( On Nature), was discovered in 1949 in an Old Armenian translation. In 1956 it

6000-510: Was honored with the golden crown, and a tomb was built in honor of his moral influence on the youth of his era. The crater Zeno on the Moon is named in his honour. Following the ideas of the Old Academy , Zeno divided philosophy into three parts: logic (a wide subject including rhetoric , grammar , and the theories of perception and thought ); physics (not just science , but

6080-478: Was of non-Greek background the Greeks still respected him, comparing him to the legendary Phoenician hero Cadmus who had brought the alphabet to the Greeks, as Zeno had brought Stoicism to them and was described as "the noblest man of his age" with a bronze statue being built in his honor. During his lifetime, Zeno received appreciation for his philosophical and pedagogical teachings. Among other things, Zeno

6160-500: Was of that character; and that was what none but a wise person possessed. The universe , in Zeno's view, is God : a divine reasoning entity, where all the parts belong to the whole. Into this pantheistic system he incorporated the physics of Heraclitus ; the universe contains a divine artisan-fire, which foresees everything, and extending throughout the universe, must produce everything: Zeno, then, defines nature by saying that it

6240-444: Was probably responsible for distinguishing the three corresponding positive emotions: will, caution, and joy ( boulêsis, eulabeia, chara / βούλησις, εὐλάβεια, χαρά), with no corresponding rational equivalent for pain. All errors must be rooted out, not merely set aside, and replaced with right reason. None of Zeno's original writings have survived except as fragmentary quotations preserved by later writers. The most famous of his works

6320-446: Was translated into Russian and published with an extensive commentary. Subsequent philological investigation concluded that the author could not have been Zeno and was instead an anonymous Christian philosopher of the late sixth century or a little later, writing in the tradition of ancient philosophy, but doing so as a Christian. He is now known as Pseudo-Zeno . His work shows an integration of Christian and philosophical concepts, but in

6400-571: Was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC. Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonized the area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the city's sanctuaries were rebuilt and reused by Phoenician settlers. The kingdom was under Egyptian domination from 570 to 545 BC. Persia ruled Cyprus from 545 BC. Kings of the city are referred to by name from 500 BC—in Phoenician texts and as inscriptions on coins. Marguerite Yon claims that literary texts and inscriptions suggest that by

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