55-672: Kittur Chennamma (14 November 1778 – 21 February 1829) was the Indian Queen of Kittur , a former princely state in present-day Karnataka . She led an armed resistance against the British East India Company , in defiance of the Paramountcy , in an attempt to retain control over her dominion . She defeated the Company in the first revolt, but died as a prisoner of war after the second rebellion. As one of
110-676: A central place in early Mahāyāna, also because they "may have given access to fresh revelations and inspiration". Indian Mahāyāna traditions refer to numerous forms of samādhi , for example, Section 21 of the Mahavyutpatti records 118 distinct forms of samādhi and the Samadhiraja Sutra has as its main theme a samādhi called 'the samādhi that is manifested as the sameness of the essential nature of all dharma s' ( sarva-dharma-svabhavā-samatā-vipañcita-samādhi ). Buddhist Pali texts describe three kinds of samādhi which
165-547: A force of 20,797 men and 437 guns, mainly from the third troop of Madras Native Horse Artillery in order to fight the war. In the first round of war, during October 1824, British forces lost heavily and St John Thackeray, collector and political agent, was killed in the war. Amatur Balappa, a lieutenant of Chennamma, was mainly responsible for his killing and losses to British forces. Two British officers, Sir Walter Elliot and Mr Stevenson were also taken as hostages. Rani Chennamma released them with an understanding with Chaplain that
220-417: A gross level the breath is equal in both nostrils, and on the subtle level pranic flow in ida and pingala nadis is balanced. This is called the sushumna breath because the residual prana of the sushuma, the kundalini , flows in sushumna nadi, causing sattva guna to dominate. "It creates a feeling of peace. That peace is ānanda". In sānanda samādhi the experience of that ānanda, that sattvic flow,
275-528: A meditation object: Etymologies for sam - ā - dhā include: Particular Hindu/yoga interpretations include: Common Chinese terms for samādhi include the transliterations sanmei (三昧) and sanmodi (三摩地 or 三摩提), as well as the translation of the term literally as ding (定 "stability"). Kumarajiva 's translations typically use sanmei (三昧), while the translations of Xuanzang tend to use ding (定 "stability"). The Chinese Buddhist canon includes these, as well as other translations and transliterations of
330-512: A new interpretation. Kalupahana also argues that the Buddha "reverted to the meditational practices" he had learned from Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. In the sutras, jhāna is entered when one 'sits down cross-legged and establishes mindfulness'. According to Buddhist tradition, it may be supported by ānāpānasati , mindfulness of breathing, a core meditative practice which can be found in almost all schools of Buddhism. The Suttapiṭaka and
385-500: A single process that leads to awakening. She concludes that "the fourth jhāna is the optimal experiential event for the utter de-conditioning of unwholesome tendencies of mind and for the transformation of deep epistemological structures. This is because one embodies and actualizes an awakened awareness of experience." The earliest extant Indian Mahāyāna texts emphasize ascetic practices, forest-dwelling, and states of meditative oneness, i.e. samādhi . These practices seem to have occupied
440-487: A six-stage model, explicitly rejecting Vacaspati Misra's model. Vijnana Bikshu regards joy ( ānanda ) as a state that arises when the mind passes beyond the vicara stage. Whicher agrees that ānanda is not a separate stage of samādhi . According to Whicher, Patanjali's own view seems to be that nirvicara-samādhi is the highest form of cognitive ecstasy. According to Sarasvati Buhrman, " Babaji once explained that when people feel blissful sensations during sādhanā , on
495-450: A state of equanimity and mindfulness , in which one keeps access to the senses in a mindful way, avoiding primary responses to the sense-impressions. The origins of the practice of dhyāna are a matter of dispute. According to Crangle, the development of meditative practices in ancient India was a complex interplay between Vedic and non-Vedic traditions. According to Bronkhorst, the four rūpa jhāna may be an original contribution of
550-442: Is "Samma Samadhi" (Right Concentration), and only the first four Jhanas are considered "Right Concentration". When all the jhanas are mentioned, the emphasis is on the "Cessation of Feelings and Perceptions" rather than stopping short at the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception". According to Gunaratana , the term ' samādhi ' derives from the roots ' sam-ā-dhā ', which means 'to collect' or 'bring together', and thus it
605-536: Is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivation of Samādhi through various meditation methods is essential for the attainment of spiritual liberation (known variously as nirvana , moksha ). In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path . In the Ashtanga Yoga tradition, it is the eighth and final limb identified in
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#1732790992755660-473: Is also interpreted as the identification with the Absolute: Various interpretations for the term's etymology are possible, either with the root sam ("to bring together") or sama ( "the same, equalized, the convergence of two distinct things"). According to Dan Lusthaus , samadhi refers to either bringing to consciousness the samskaras ("buried latencies"), or meditative concentration on
715-420: Is controversial, but it seems to me that the third and fourth jhanas are thus quite unlike the second." Alexander Wynne states that the dhyana -scheme is poorly understood. According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as sati , sampajāno , and upekkhā , are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states, whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving
770-402: Is generally translated as "concentration." In the early Buddhist texts, samādhi is also associated with the term samatha (calm abiding). In the commentarial tradition, samādhi is defined as ekaggata , one-pointedness of mind ( Cittass'ekaggatā ). Buddhagosa defines samādhi as "the centering of consciousness and consciousness concomitants evenly and rightly on a single object [...]
825-548: Is in Bailhongal. On 11 September 2007 a statue of Rani Chennamma was unveiled at the Indian Parliament Complex by Pratibha Patil , the first woman President of India. On the occasion, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh , Home Minister Shivraj Patil , Lok Sabha speaker Somnath Chatterjee , BJP leader L. K. Advani , Karnataka Chief Minister H. D. Kumaraswamy and others were present, marking
880-552: Is retained in Zen and Dzogchen. The stock description of the jhānas , with traditional and alternative interpretations, is as follows: Appended to the jhana -scheme are four meditative states, referred to in the early texts as arupas or as āyatana . They are sometimes mentioned in sequence after the first four jhānas and thus came to be treated by later exegetes as jhānas. The immaterial are related to, or derived from, yogic meditation, and aim more specific at concentration, while
935-405: Is untainted by any other vrittis , or thoughts, save the awareness of the pleasure of receiving that bliss". According to Maehle, asamprajñata samādhi (also called nirvikalpa samādhi and nirbija samādhi ) leads to knowledge of purusha or consciousness, the subtlest element. Heinrich Zimmer distinguishes nirvikalpa samādhi from other states as follows: Nirvikalpa samādhi , on
990-539: The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali . In Jain meditation , samadhi is considered one of the last stages of the practice just prior to liberation. In the oldest Buddhist sutras , on which several contemporary western Theravada teachers rely, it refers to the development of an investigative and luminous mind that is equanimous and mindful. In the yogic traditions and the Buddhist commentarial tradition, on which
1045-625: The Agama s describe four stages of rūpa jhāna . Rūpa refers to the material realm, in a neutral stance, as different from the kāma -realm (lust, desire) and the arūpa -realm (non-material realm). While interpreted in the Theravada-tradition as describing a deepening concentration and one-pointedness, originally the jhānas seem to describe a development from investigating body and mind and abandoning unwholesome states , to perfected equanimity and watchfulness, an understanding which
1100-663: The Institute of Noetic Sciences , has compared the experience of seeing the earth from space, also known as the overview effect , to savikalpa samādhi . According to Ian Whicher, the status of ānanda and āsmitā in Patanjali's system is a matter of dispute. According to Maehle, the first two constituents, deliberation and reflection, form the basis of the various types of samāpatti . According to Feuerstein: "Joy" and "I-am-ness" [...] must be regarded as accompanying phenomena of every cognitive [ecstasy]. The explanations of
1155-633: The Rinzai school of Zen stress sudden insight, while the Sōtō school of Zen lays more emphasis on shikantaza , training awareness of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference. Historically, many traditional Japanese arts were developed or refined to attain samādhi , including incense appreciation (香道, kodō ), flower arranging (華道, kadō ), the tea ceremony (茶道, sadō ), calligraphy (書道, shodō ), and martial arts such as archery (弓道, kyūdō ). The Japanese character 道 means
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#17327909927551210-427: The jhanas proper are related to the cultivation of the mind. The state of complete dwelling in emptiness is reached when the eighth jhāna is transcended. The four arupas are: Although the "Dimension of Nothingness" and the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception" are included in the list of nine jhanas attributed to the Buddha, they are not included in the Noble Eightfold Path . Noble Path number eight
1265-481: The jhānas and the contemporary criticisms of the commentarial interpretation. Based on this research, and her own experience as a senior meditation-teacher, she gives a reconstructed account of the original meaning of the dhyanas . She argues that the four jhānas are the outcome of both calming the mind and developing insight into the nature of experience and cannot not be seen in the suttas as two distinct and separated meditation techniques, but as integral dimensions of
1320-522: The Buddha to the religious landscape of India, which formed an alternative to the painful ascetic practices of the Jains, while the arūpa jhāna were incorporated from non-Buddhist ascetic traditions. Alexander Wynne argues that dhyāna was incorporated from Brahmanical practices, in the Nikayas ascribed to Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta. These practices were paired to mindfulness and insight , and given
1375-606: The Burmese Vipassana movement and the Thai Forest tradition rely, it is interpreted as a meditative absorption or trance attained by the practice of dhyāna . Samadhi may refer to a broad range of states. A common understanding regards samadhi as meditative absorption: In a Buddhist context, a more nuanced understanding sees samadhi as a state of intensified awareness and investigation of bodily and mental objects or experiences: In Hinduism, samadhi
1430-520: The Pali canon, but explicitly enumerated in the Visuddhimagga, such as mindfulness of breathing ( ānāpānasati ) and loving kindness ( mettā ). While the Theravada-tradition interprets dhyana as one-pointed concentration, this interpretation has become a matter of debate. According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four rupa-jhanas describes two different cognitive states: "I know this
1485-547: The Spirit as the object of meditation all become one. The separate wave of the soul meditating in the ocean of Spirit becomes merged with the Spirit. The soul does not lose its identity, but only expands into Spirit. In savikalpa samādhi the mind is conscious only of the Spirit within; it is not conscious of the exterior world. The body is in a trancelike state, but the consciousness is fully perceptive of its blissful experience within. Apollo 14 astronaut Edgar Mitchell , founder of
1540-568: The classical commentators on this point appear to be foreign to Patanjali's hierarchy of [ecstatic] states, and it seems unlikely that ānanda and asmita should constitute independent levels of samādhi . Ian Whicher disagrees with Feuerstein, seeing ānanda and asmitā as later stages of nirvicara-samāpatti . Whicher refers to Vācaspati Miśra (900–980 CE), the founder of the Bhāmatī Advaita Vedanta who proposes eight types of samāpatti : Vijnana Bikshu (c. 1550–1600) proposes
1595-480: The commentarial tradition identify as the 'gates of liberation ' ( vimokṣamukha ): According to Polak, these are alternative descriptions of the four dhyanas, describing the cognitive aspects instead of the bodily aspects. According to Polak, in the final stages of dhyana no ideation of experience takes place, and no signs are grasped ( animitta samādhi ), which means that the concentrated attention cannot be directed ( appaṇihita samādhi ) towards those signs, and only
1650-406: The dichotomy of being and non-being. 'Aimlessness', also translated as 'uncommittedness' or 'wishlessness' ( Chinese wúyuàn 無願 , lit. ' non-wishing ' , or wúzuò 無作 , lit. ' non-arising ' ), literally means 'placing nothing in front'. According to Dan Lusthaus, aimlessness-samadhi is characterised by a lack of aims or plans for the future and no desire for
1705-696: The fictitious coastal town in the 2008 novel Between the Assassinations by Aravind Adiga ( Belagavi District has no coast, which rules out the real Kittur being the setting). [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Chisholm, Hugh , ed. (1911). " Kittur ". Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 841. Samadhi Samādhi ( Pali and Sanskrit : समाधि ), in Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , Sikhism and yogic schools,
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1760-587: The first and few female rulers to lead kittur forces against British colonisation , she continues to be remembered as a folk heroine in Karnataka, she is also an important symbol of the Indian independence movement . Kittur Chennamma was born on 14 November 1778, in Kakati, a small village in the present Belagavi District of Karnataka, India. Kakati was a small deshgat (a small princely state). Chennamma's father
1815-572: The guerrilla war to 1829, in vain, until his capture. Rayanna wanted to install the adopted boy Shivalingappa as the ruler of Kittur, but Rayanna was caught and hanged. Shivalingappa was also arrested by the British. Chennamma's legacy and first victory are still commemorated in Kittur, during the Kittur Utsava held on 22–24 October every year. Rani Chennamma's samadhi or burial place
1870-465: The importance of the function. The statue was donated by Kittur Rani Chennamma Memorial Committee and sculpted by Vijay Gaur . There are also statues commemorating her at Bengaluru , Belagavi , Kittur and Hubballi . Kittur Kittur , historically known as Kittoor , is a town and a taluk in the Belagavi district of the Indian state of Karnataka. It was part of Bailhongal taluka but
1925-406: The object of meditation. Samādhi is of two kinds, with and without support of an object of meditation: According to Paramahansa Yogananda , in this state one lets go of the ego and becomes aware of Spirit beyond creation. The soul is then able to absorb the fire of Spirit-Wisdom that "roasts" or destroys the seeds of body-bound inclinations. The soul as the meditator, its state of meditation, and
1980-434: The objects of perception. According to Nagarjuna, aimlessness-samadhi is the samādhi in which one does not search for any kind of existence ( bhāva ), letting go of aims or wishes ( praṇidhāna ) regarding conditioned phenomena and not producing the three poisons (namely, passion, aggression, and ignorance) towards them in the future. According to Nagarjuna, emptiness-samadhi is the samādhi in which one recognises that
2035-505: The other hand, absorption without self-consciousness, is a mergence of the mental activity ( cittavṛtti ) in the Self, to such a degree, or in such a way, that the distinction ( vikalpa ) of knower, act of knowing, and object known becomes dissolved — as waves vanish in water, and as foam vanishes into the sea. Swami Sivananda describes nirbija samādhi (lit. "samādhi" without seeds) as follows: "Without seeds or Samskaras [...] All
2090-543: The perception of the six senses remains, without a notion of "self" ( suññata samādhi ). In the Chinese Buddhist tradition these are called the 'three doors of liberation' ( sān jiětuō mén , 三解脫門 ): These three are not always cited in the same order. Nagarjuna , a Madhyamaka Buddhist scholar, in his Maha-prajnaparamita-sastra , listed apraṇihita before ānimitta in his first explanation on these "three samādhi ", but in later listings and explanations in
2145-556: The right of ruling the State reverted or "lapsed" to the suzerain . In 1823, Rani Chennamma sent a letter to Mountstuart Elphinstone , Lieutenant-Governor of the Bombay province pleading her case, but the request was turned down, and war broke out. The British placed a group of sentries around the treasury and crown jewels of Kittur, valued at around 1.5 million rupees upon the outbreak of war in order to protect them. They also mustered
2200-543: The same work reverted to the more common order. Others, such as Thích Nhất Hạnh , a Thien Buddhist teacher, list apraṇihita as the third after śūnyatā and ānimitta . Nagarjuna lists these three kinds of samādhi among the qualities of the bodhisattva . According to Nagarjuna, signlessness-samadhi is the samādhi in which one recognises all dharmas are free of signs ( ānimitta ). According to Thích Nhất Hạnh, "signs" refer to appearances or form, likening signlessness samadhi to not being fooled by appearances, such as
2255-509: The seeds or impressions are burnt by the fire of knowledge [...] all the Samskaras and Vasanas which bring on rebirths are totally freed up. All Vrittis or mental modifications that arise from the mind-lake come under restraint. The five afflictions, viz., Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Raga-dvesha (love and hatred) and Abhinivesha (clinging to life) are destroyed and the bonds of Karma are annihilated [...] It gives Moksha (deliverance from
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2310-564: The sense objects. Several western teachers (Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Leigh Brazington, Richard Shankman) make a distinction between 'sutta-oriented' jhana and ' Visuddhimagga -oriented' jhāna . Thanissaro Bhikkhu has repeatedly argued that the Pali Canon and the Visuddhimagga give different descriptions of the jhanas, regarding the Visuddhimagga -description to be incorrect. Keren Arbel has conducted extensive research on
2365-540: The state in virtue of which consciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single object, undistracted and unscattered". According to Buddhaghosa, the Theravada Pali texts mention four attainments of samādhi : According to Buddhaghosa, in his influential standard-work Visuddhimagga , samādhi is the "proximate cause" to the obtainment of wisdom . The Visuddhimagga describes 40 different objects for meditation, which are mentioned throughout
2420-400: The term. Samma-samadhi , "right samadhi ," is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path . When samadhi is developed, things are understood as they really are. Samma-samadhi is explicated as dhyana , which is traditionally interpreted as one-pointed concentration. Yet, in the stock formula of dhyāna samādhi is only mentioned in the second dhyana , to give way to
2475-734: The throne. She is famous for her campaigns against the British East India Company . On the outskirts of the town lie the ruins of the palace within a fort. The palace was the residence of the Rani Chennamma. In the 18th century, Kittur was ruled by the Marathas , until the Third Anglo-Maratha War , when it came under British suzerainty. In connection with a disputed succession to this chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray, Commissioner of Dharwad,
2530-695: The true natures of all dharmas are absolutely empty ( atyantaśūnya ), and that the five aggregates are not the self ( anātman ), do not belong to the self ( anātmya ), and are empty ( śūnya ) without self-nature . Indian dhyāna was translated as chán in Chinese, and zen in Japanese. Ideologically the Zen-tradition emphasizes prajñā and sudden insight , but in the actual practice prajñā and samādhi, or sudden insight and gradual cultivation, are paired to each other. Especially some lineages in
2585-413: The war would be terminated but Chaplain continued the war with more forces. During the second assault, subcollector of Solapur , Munro, nephew of Thomas Munro was killed. Rani Chennamma fought fiercely with the aid of her deputy, Sangolli Rayanna , but was ultimately captured and imprisoned at Bailhongal Fort, where she died on 21 February 1829 due to health deterioration. Sangolli Rayanna continued
2640-488: The way or the path and indicates that disciplined practice in the art is a path to samādhi . Traditional Samādhi is the eighth limb of the Yoga Sūtras, following the sixth and seventh limbs of dhāraṇā and dhyāna respectively. According to Taimni, dhāraṇā , dhyāna , and samādhi form a graded series: Samādhi is oneness with the object of meditation. There is no distinction between act of meditation and
2695-416: The wheel of births and deaths). With the advent of the knowledge of the Self, ignorance vanishes. With the disappearance of the root-cause, viz., ignorance, egoism, etc., also disappear". Ramana Maharshi distinguished between kevala nirvikalpa samadhi and sahaja nirvikalpa samādhi : Sahaja samadhi is a state in which a silent level within the subject is maintained along with (simultaneously with)
2750-551: Was Dhulappa Desai and her mother's name was Padmavati. She belonged to the Lingayat community and received training in horse riding, sword fighting and archery from a young age. She married Raja Mallasarja of the Desai family at the age of 15, after looking up to him since the age of 9, Chennamma's husband died in 1816, leaving her with a son and a state full of volatility. This was followed by her son's death in 1824. Rani Chennamma
2805-472: Was declared as an independent taluka on 23 October 2012 by the Chief Minister of Karnataka on the inauguration of Kittur Utsav. It is 177th Taluk of Karnataka State. It is a place of historical importance because of the armed rebellion of Kittur Chennamma (1778–1829), Rani of the State of Kittur against the British East India Company , during which a British Commissioner, St John Thackeray
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#17327909927552860-568: Was killed in a battle when approaching the Kittur fort. Later another unit stormed Kittur and captured Queen Chennamma , who was imprisoned in Bailhongal Jail where she died. Rani Chennamma became a legend. Her death was followed by subsequent revolts by her general Sangolli Rayanna , who also waged several campaigns against the British East India Company. He was later hanged in 1831. The town lends its name to
2915-585: Was killed. At the 2011 census, it was a village under Sampagaon C D Block with a location code number 598110. Kittur was known as Geejaganahalli in the 12th century. In 1746, Kittur came under the Maratha Empire when it was handed over to them by the Nawab of Savanur . In 1782, Mallasarja, the most powerful of the rulers of Kittur ascended the throne. His only son predeceased him, and so on his death in 1816, his second wife, Chennamma succeeded him to
2970-504: Was left with the state of Kittur and an uphill task to maintain its independence from the British. Following the death of her husband and son, Rani Chennamma adopted Shivalingappa in the year 1824 and made him heir to the throne. This irked the East India Company, who ordered Shivalingappa's expulsion. The state of Kittur came under the administration of Dharwad collectorate in charge of St John Thackeray of which Mr Chaplain
3025-408: Was the commissioner, both of whom did not recognize the new rule of the regent , and notified Kittur to accept the British control. This is seen as a predecessor of the later Doctrine of lapse Policy introduced later by Lord Dalhousie , Governor General of India, to annex independent Indian States from 1848, a doctrine based on the idea that in case the ruler of an independent state died childless,
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