100-631: Kiandra is an abandoned gold mining town and the birthplace of Australian skiing. The town is situated in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales , Australia , in the Snowy Monaro Regional Council inside the Kosciuszko National Park . Its name is a corruption of Aboriginal 'Gianderra' for 'sharp stones for knives'. It was earlier called Gibson's Plains , named after a Dr. Gibson, a settler in
200-711: A combination of factors including the depletion of easily accessible gold deposits, harsh weather conditions, and the political instability at the time. The Welsh gold rush occurred in Wales , more so in the Dolgellau area of Gwynedd , during the 19th century. Gold deposits were discovered in Welsh mountains, with reports of gold being found in rivers Mawddach and Tryweryn . By the mid-19th century, commercial mining operations had begun. Wales' gold gained popularity for its quality and rarity, leading to its use in royal jewelry for
300-722: A critical source of income and livelihood, providing employment opportunities and economic support in regions with limited alternative options. Artisanal mining operations vary in scale, from individuals panning for gold in rivers and streams, to small groups working collectibely in informal mining camps, often referred to as ' galamsey ' in West Africa . Gold mining can create employment opportunities in mining operations and related sectors. Howevers, these jobs may be temporary. The sector's reliance on fluctuating global gold prices can lead to economic stability for communities dependent on mining. The discovery of significant gold deposits in
400-437: A gravel screening plant and sluice box floating in a temporary pond. The pond is excavated in the gravel bar and filled from the natural water table. "Pay" gravel is excavated from the front face of the pond and processed through the floating plant, with the gold trapped in the onboard sluice box and tailings stacked behind the plant, steadily filling in the back of the pond as the operation moves forward. This type of gold mining
500-471: A large scale to extract gold from extensive alluvial (loose sediment) deposits, such as those at Las Medulas . Mining was under the control of the state but the mines may have been leased to civilian contractors some time later. The gold served as the primary medium of exchange within the empire, and was an important motive in the Roman conquest of Britain by Claudius in the first century AD; although there
600-488: A lower grade. Tailings can contain lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic. These toxins can pose health risks for local communities. Arsenic is typically found in gold-containing ores, and gold processing may contaminate groundwater or the atmosphere. This pollution may persist for decades. Furthermore, mining operations use large quantities of water for processing ore and can result in the contamination of water sources with heavy metals, such as mercury and cyanide , used in
700-721: A member of the Club, together with four members of the Ski Club of Australia made the first historic ski traverse from Kiandra to the Hotel Kosciusko. Their eventful journey is retold in Klaus Hueneke 's book " Kiandra to Kosciusko " and was commemorated by 150 ski tourers in 1977 in an event organised by the Kosciusko Huts Association . The Kiandra courthouse closed as a police station in 1937, and
800-1043: A number of heritage-listed sites, including: Historic Kiandra: A Guide to the History of the District , by D. G. Moye (editor) was published by the Cooma-Monaro Historical Society to mark the centenary of the Kiandra Goldrush in 1959, and remains in print. Australian High Country enthusiast Klause Hueneke has written two books on the Kiandra region: Huts of the High Country , 1982 and Kiandra to Kosciusko , 1987. The Kiandra Pioneer Ski Club published two histories: Kiandra – Gold Fields to Ski Fields (2006) and Lapland Snow Shoes in Australia (2010). The poet Barcroft Boake wrote
900-493: A number of ski clubs operating. As the number of skiers increased, services, facilities and means of access were improved, and Perisher's first lodges were constructed. Telemark and the Snow Revellers Club being completed in 1952. In the winter of 1953 the first oversnow transport operated to Perisher Valley. It was greeted by the inhabitants with cheers and celebrations. In 1958, Svere Kaaten, another pioneer of
1000-459: A poem about skiing at Kiandra, entitled "The Demon Snow Shoes: A Legend of Kiandra". Banjo Paterson referenced Kiandra in his poetry - as in A Mountain Station (The Bulletin, 19 December 1891). Patrick White 's first novel, Happy Valley (1939), has Kiandra thinly disguised as the township of "Kambala". The 2011 time travel/science fiction adventure novel Falling into History , by Peter Fleming,
1100-463: A region often sees a flood of resources and development, which lasts as long as the mines are economic. When goldfields begin to decline in production, local economies find themselves destabilised and overly reliant upon an industry that will inevitably abandon the region when gold deposits are sufficiently depleted; leaving the areas without proper rehabilitation. Perisher Ski Resort Perisher Ski Resort (known as Perisher Blue until 2009)
SECTION 10
#17327647476291200-528: A series by Charles Kerry , and a scene of Chinese miners near the Township. Owing to its elevation, Kiandra has a cold oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ), as at least 4 months see a mean temperature above 10 °C (50 °F), bordering on a Subpolar oceanic climate ( Cfc ); having cold and very snowy winters, alongside summers that are quite cool with the odd snowfall. Kiandra receives an average of 47.5 snowy days annually. If using
1300-747: A tributary of the Klondike River by George Carmack and his Indigenous companions, Skookum Jim Mason and Tagish Charlie . As prospectors arrived in Klondike, makeshift towns and settlements sprang up along the rivers, including Dawson City , which because the largest town in Yukon at the height of the gold rush. Prospectors employed various mining techniques to extract gold from the Klondike's streams and riverbeds, including placer mining, dredging, and hydraulic mining. The Carlin Trend of Nevada, U.S.,
1400-575: Is 360m. Blue Cow's 14 ski lifts open daily during winter from 8.30am to 5.00pm weather permitting. There is also snowmaking over an area serviced by six lifts. Guthega Resort was established in the 1950s along with Perisher Valley and Smiggin Holes, when improved access to the mountains, created by the Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Scheme , and the associated influx of European migrants with skiing experience, stimulated
1500-454: Is 42% beginner, 45% intermediate and 12% advanced. The Snowy Mountains region is thought to have had Aboriginal occupation for some twenty thousand years. Large gatherings were held in the High Country during summer for collective feasting on the bogong moth . The area was first explored by Europeans in 1835, and in 1840, Edmund Strzelecki ascended Mount Kosciuszko and named it after a Polish patriot. High country stockmen followed who used
1600-411: Is 6.3 kilometres (3.9 mi) long, and at its deepest point it is 550 metres (1,800 ft) below the surface. Perisher has either a subarctic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfc ) or a subpolar oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfc ), depending on whether the 0 °C (32 °F) or −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is used, with cool summers and cold winters, although
1700-418: Is a cyanide extraction method, or gold cyanidation, introduced in the late 1800s. This a metallurgical technique used to extract gold from lower grade ores by converting gold into a water-soluble coordination complex. Finely ground rock is treated with a solution of sodium cyanide . The extract is absorbed onto carbon and then removed from the carbon with a solution of caustic soda and cyanide. Gold cyanide
1800-429: Is a method of extracting gold from alluvial deposits such as sand, gravel, and sediment. These are known as placer deposits which are typically found in riverbeds, stream beds, and floodplains. These deposits typically contain minerals that are resistant to weathering and eroision like gold , platinum , diamonds , and more. They are characterized by their relatively high concentration of valuable minerals compared to
1900-415: Is characterized by its low cost, as each rock is moved only once. It also has low environmental impact, as no stripping of vegetation or overburden is necessary, and all process water is fully recycled. Such operations are typical on New Zealand's South Island and in the Klondike region of Canada. Also called a cradle, a rocker box uses riffles located in a high-walled box to trap gold in a similar manner to
2000-616: Is done by small-scale miners using suction dredges. These are small machines that float on the water and are usually operated by one or two people. A suction dredge consists of a sluice box supported by pontoons, attached to a suction hose which is controlled by a miner working beneath the water. This method is particularly popular in areas where gold is found at river bottoms or submerge deposits . Suction dredging can have environmental impacts, moreso on aquatic habitats and water quality. Regulations and best practices are often in place to minimize these impacts. State dredging permits in many of
2100-436: Is essentially a man made channel with riffles set in the bottom. The riffles are designed to create dead zones in the current to allow gold to drop out of suspension. The box is placed in the stream to channel water flow. Gold-bearing material is placed at the top of the box. The material is carried by the current through the volt where gold and other dense material settles out behind the riffles. Less dense material flows out of
SECTION 20
#17327647476292200-868: Is estimated that the total gold production in Karnataka to date is 1000 tons. The mining of the Hungarian deposit (present-day Slovakia) primarily around Kremnica was the largest of the Medieval period in Europe. In South America, gold mining in the Andes dates back to thousands of years, with the Inca empire employing extensive gold mining operations in regions such as present-day Peru and Ecuador . They used stone tools and simple mining techniques to extract gold from rivers, streams, and surface deposits. During
2300-547: Is in July and August, with the official season running from the second weekend in June to the first weekend of October. Perisher consists of 47 lifts: The Village Eight Express, an eight-seater chairlift (built in 2003), two high-speed quad detachable chairlifts, five fixed-grip quad chairlifts, three double chairlifts, two triple chairlifts, eighteen T-Bars, two J-bars, eight ski carpets, and two rope tows. The run difficulty distribution
2400-698: Is only one known Roman gold mine at Dolaucothi in west Wales. Gold was a prime motivation for the campaign in Dacia when the Romans invaded Transylvania in what is now modern Romania in the second century AD. The legions were led by the emperor Trajan, and their exploits are shown on Trajan's Column in Rome and the several reproductions of the column elsewhere (such as the Victoria and Albert Museum in London ). Under
2500-570: Is partially set in Kiandra. The Township has been subject to various archaeological studies, including a project by the Australian National University Department of Archaeology and Anthropology under the direction of Drs Mike Smith, Ken Heffernan and Annie Clark in the mid-1990s. The Kiandra Historical Society remains a useful resource of record for the history of the town. A number of interesting photographic studies were taken of life at Kiandra, including
2600-966: Is produced by major corporations, there are an estimated 10 to 15 million small-scale artisanal gold miners worldwide. Around 4.5 million of them are women, and an estimated 600,000 children work in illegal artisanal gold mines. Artisanal miners use rudimentary methods to extract and process gold. Many of these people are mining to escape extreme poverty , unemployment and landlessness . In Ghana, galamsey miners are estimated to number 20,000 to 50,000. In neighboring francophone countries, such workers are called orpailleurs . In Brazil, Venezuela, Suriname, and French Guiana, workers are called garimpeiros . These workers are not required to claim responsibility for their social and environmental impacts. Miners risk government persecution, mine shaft collapses, and toxic poisoning from unsafe chemicals used in processing, such as mercury. For example, in Ghana during 2009,
2700-475: Is snow-covered during winter and is subject to high winds. It lies in the Australian Alps montane grasslands bioregion according to Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia . After decades of decline, restoration work on the remaining buildings at Kiandra took place from 2009 to 2020, including work on the historic Kiandra Courthouse Chalet and Wolgal Lodge fishing cottage being conducted by
2800-585: Is the largest ski resort in the Southern Hemisphere . Located in the Australian Snowy Mountains , the resort is an amalgamation of four villages ( Perisher Valley , Smiggin Holes , Guthega , and Blue Cow ) and their associated ski fields, covering approximately 12 square kilometres (5 sq mi), with the base elevation at 1,720 metres (5,640 ft) AHD , and the summit elevation of 2,054 metres (6,739 ft) at
2900-516: Is the main village of the Perisher Ski resort and features the majority of on-snow accommodation. The largest hotels in Perisher are The Marritz Hotel , The Perisher Manor, The Man from Snowy River, The Perisher Manor and The Eiger Chalet. The high Snowy Mountains were long used by graziers for summer pasturelands. The name "Smiggin Holes" is said to be of Scottish origin and a reference to
3000-633: Is then converted to relatively pure gold through gold parting . There are many environmental hazards associated with this extraction method, largely due to the high toxicity of the cyanide compounds. Furthermore, there are potentials for accidental spills or leaks to cause harm to aquatic ecosystems and human health. For example, in 2000, the Baia Mare cyanide spill in northern Romania released approximately 100,000 cubic metres (3,500,000 cu ft) of waste water contaminated with heavy metal sludge and up to 120 long tons (122 t) of cyanide into
3100-532: Is unknown, but some of the oldest known gold artifacts were found in the Varna Necropolis in Bulgaria . The graves of the necropolis were built between 4700 and 4200 BC, indicating that gold mining could be at least 6,724 years old. During a series of excavations carried out between 1878 and 1992, several graves were found with more than 6kg of gold. A group of German and Georgian archaeologists claims
Kiandra, New South Wales - Misplaced Pages Continue
3200-635: The British royal family . During the 19th century, numerous gold rushes in remote regions around the globe caused large migrations of miners, such as the California Gold Rush of 1849. This is one of the most famous gold rushes in history. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California sparked a massive migration of people from around the world to California in search of gold. The rush significantly accelerated westward expansion in
3300-722: The Bronze Age , sites in the Eastern Desert became a great source of gold-mining for nomadic Nubians, who used "two-hand-mallets" and "grinding ore extraction ." By the Old Kingdom , the oval mallet was introduced for mining. By the Middle Kingdom , stone mortars to process ores and a new gold-washing technique were introduced. During the New Kingdom , Nubian mining expanded under Egyptian occupation with
3400-578: The Dompoase mine collapse killed 18 workers. It was the worst mining disaster in Ghanaian history. Children in these mines suffer extremely harsh working conditions and various hazards such as collapsing tunnels, explosions, and chemical exposure. Children may be especially vulnerable to these hazards and many suffer from serious respiratory conditions, hearing, and vision problems. Gold mining by large multi-national corporations produces about 80% of
3500-690: The Kolar gold fields was mined to a depth of 50 metres (160 ft) during the Gupta period in the fifth century AD. During the Chola period in the 9th and 10th century AD, the scale of the operation grew. The metal continued to be mined by the eleventh century kings of South India, the Vijayanagara Empire from 1336 to 1560, and later by Tipu Sultan , the king of Mysore state and the British. It
3600-541: The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) and volunteers, enabling occasional amenities and limited accommodation at Kiandra. The remaining buildings in the town were either destroyed or severely damaged during the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season . In November 1859, gold was discovered by mountain cattlemen, the Pollock brothers, and by March 1860, some 10,000 miners and storekeepers had raced to
3700-462: The Sakdrisi site in southern Georgia , dating to the 3rd or 4th millennium BC, may be the world's oldest known gold mine. Gold has been prized by humans since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence suggests that humans were mining gold as far back as 4000 BCE, with some the earliest known gold artifacts dating back to ancient Mesopotamia . Particularly in the region of present-day Iraq, gold
3800-517: The Tisza River. Historically, mercury was used extensively in placer gold mining in order to form mercury-gold amalgam with smaller gold particles, and thereby increase the gold recovery rates. First, the gold ore is crushed and ground to a fine powder to expose the gold particles for amalgamation. Then, this finely ground ore is mixed with liquid mercury to amalgamate it. Mercury forms an amalgam, an alloy, with gold particles to allow for
3900-534: The 0 °C (32.0 °F) isotherm , Kiandra qualifies for the continental ( Dfb ) climate type which is extremely rare in the Southern Hemisphere and arguably nonexistent in Australia. Indeed, using the original −3 °C (26.6 °F) isotherm, it is firmly a cold oceanic climate. Climate statistics were compiled at the Kiandra Chalet site, elevation 1,395 metres (4,577 ft), from
4000-536: The 1960s fishing cottage was in part conducted to create and demonstrate a market demand for Kiandra-based accommodation, which, according to the Snowy Times , could prove a "market based argument for restoring the Kiandra Courthouse and Chalet for accommodation". Easter 2013 saw all four of Kiandra's buildings in public use for the first time in decades - with guided tours and exhibitions - including
4100-612: The 2009 ski season when it was replaced by the Township Triple Chair (retaining the name "Township" in reference to the Kiandra Township hill run). The last resident left Kiandra in 1974, after which the NPWS took over the town and completed its demolition of most of its buildings. This decision by the NPWS not to preserve much of the human heritage of the township remains a source of resentment in some quarters in
Kiandra, New South Wales - Misplaced Pages Continue
4200-574: The Amazon rainforest, Indigenous peoples have been killed and had their rightfully owned land stolen from them. As a consequence of this, some have left the rainforest to move to cities which further puts them at risk to disease, homelessness, and poverty. Artisanal gold mining is widespread across Africa , occurring in numerous countries including Ghana , Mali , Burkina Faso , Tanzania , Zimbabwe , and many others. For many individuals and communities in rural Africa, artisanal gold mining represents
4300-659: The Car Park chairlift was installed, which overcame the need for visitors to walk some distance uphill to the upper end of the village to reach the bottom lift, thus making the resort more appealing to day visitors. In 1991, Guthega was purchased by the Alpine Australia Group Pty Limited, the then operator of the Blue Cow Resort. This led to the operation of two resorts becoming integrated in 1992, thus providing day access into Guthega via
4400-918: The Eastern Roman Empire Emperor Justinian's rule, gold was mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Egypt, and Nubia. In the area of the Kolar Gold Fields in Bangarpet Taluk , Kolar district of Karnataka state, India; gold was first mined prior to the 2nd and 3rd century AD by digging small pits. Golden objects found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro have been traced to Kolar through the analysis of impurities – the impurities include 11% silver concentration, found only in KGF ore. The Champion reef at
4500-469: The Highlands during the 16th and 17th century. Gold deposits were discovered in rivers and streams, leading to a surge in prospecting and mining activity. The Scottish Crown took an interest in gold discoveries, in hopes of aiding the kingdom's economy and revenue. King James IV of Scotland established a royal mint to produce gold coins from Scottish gold. The Scottish gold rush eventually waned due to
4600-1016: The Kosciuszko National Park in 1967. The four resort bases of Perisher had their origins as separate ski resorts, which developed between 1939 and 1987. Smiggins had its origins as a service point for the journey to Charlotte Pass, while the development of Perisher and Guthega were spurred by construction of the Snowy Mountains Scheme and Blue Cow was the last resort development in the Snowy Mountains. In 1995, Perisher Smiggins and Alpine Australia Group (Blue Cow/Guthega) merged to form Perisher Blue, which merged all four resorts as they are today, now known as Perisher. In 2009 Perisher had 47 lifts covering 1,245 hectares and four village base areas: Perisher Valley, Blue Cow, Smiggin Holes and Guthega. A story, which may be apocryphal, credits James Spencer, who settled in
4700-656: The Matthew's Cottage exhibition and the Pattinson's cottage house museum. During the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, on 3 January 2020, the Dunns Road fire burned from Batlow into Kosciuszko National Park and burning much of the northern part of the park. The courthouse was severely damaged, the fire burning so hot that the glass and aluminium in the windows melted. Wolgal Hut and Pattisons Huts were also feared to have been destroyed. The Kosciuszko National Park has
4800-954: The Middle Ages, Europe experience several gold rushes. Most notably in regions like Transylvania, Scotland, and Wales. These rushes were often small-scale and localised compared to later rushes in history. The Transylvania gold rush took place in the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Romania ), primarily in the region of Transylvania during the medieval period. Transylvania was known for its rich mineral resources including gold, silver, and other metals. Miners in Transylvania used both surface and underground mining techniques to extract gold from alluvial deposits and veins. These methods include panning, sluicing, and rudimentary shaft mining. The Scottish gold rush occurred in Scotland, primarily in
4900-580: The NPWS entry booth (which is only attended during the snow season). This stamper was used to crush rock and quartz in order to free the embedded gold. The Wig and Pen Brewery in Canberra commemorates this chapter in Australia's High Country history with a pale golden pilsner beer in the Czech style, named "Kiandra Gold". Kiandra is often isolated by deep snow which made it inaccessible during winter. In 1861, Norwegian miners introduced recreational skiing to
5000-426: The Perisher Range ski fields. Until then, these areas were served by a single road of limited capacity that was and still often is, adversely affected by snow and ice during winter. The Skitube was deemed to be the most efficient and environmentally acceptable alternative available. When it was decided to go ahead with the development of Mount Blue Cow in 1984, Skitube was the most practical option for providing access to
5100-401: The Skitube alpine railway and the Blue Cow and Link Management Unit ski slopes. During the 2013-14 summer, the Freedom Quad Chair was constructed. It opened for the 2014 season, providing access to skiable terrain without the use of T-Bars or J-Bars . It replaced the former Cow Pastures J-Bar. Initially, Skitube alpine railway was designed as a winter based access system to improve entry to
SECTION 50
#17327647476295200-424: The Snowy Mountains for grazing during the summer months. Banjo Paterson 's famous poem The Man From Snowy River recalls this era. The cattle graziers have left a legacy of mountain huts scattered across the area. The Kosciuszko National Park in which Perisher ski resort is situated, came into existence as the National Chase Snowy Mountains on 5 December 1906. In 1944 this became the Kosciuszko State Park, and then
5300-410: The United States and had profound effects on the region's economy and society. The gold rushes began in 1851 when Edward Hargraves , a prospector, discovered gold near Bathhurst , New South Wales . The most well known gold rush in Australia was the Victorian Gold Rush . Thousands of people, known as 'diggers', came from around the world to Australia in search of gold, which ultimately contributed to
5400-484: The United States gold dredging areas specify a seasonal time period and area closures to avoid conflicts between dredgers and the spawning time of fish populations. Some US states, such as Montana, require an extensive permitting procedure, including permits. Some large suction dredges [100 horsepower (75 kW) & 250 mm (10 in)] are used in commercial production throughout the world. Small suction dredges are much more efficient at extracting smaller gold than
5500-455: The arduous ski to the Kosciusko Chalet. The Kosciuszko National Park came into existence as the National Chase Snowy Mountains on 5 December 1906. In 1944 this became the Kosciuszko State Park, and then the Kosciuszko National Park in 1967. The name was misspelt as Kosciusko until 1997. The existence of the Park ensured the decline of the summer grazing industry, but the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme development of 1949-1974 ensured
5600-458: The area in the 1840s with saying 'What a perisher' when caught in a storm. The area was used by mountain graziers during the summer months for many years. It was the construction of the vast Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme from 1949 that really opened up the Snowy Mountains for large scale development of a ski industry and led to the establishment of Perisher as a leading Australian resort. The first ski lodges opened in 1951 and by 1957,
5700-580: The box as tailings . Larger commercial placer mining operations employ screening plants, or trommels , to remove the larger alluvial materials such as boulders and gravel, before concentrating the remainder in a sluice box or jig plant. After the gold is sorted through trommels, it is then placed through regular sluice boxes for further sorting. These operations typically include diesel powered, earth moving equipment including excavators, bulldozers, wheel loaders , and rock trucks. Although this method has largely been replaced by modern methods, some dredging
5800-410: The ceremony. The later additions to the original courthouse at the rear of the building remain in a state of outward disrepair, although National Parks intended to continue the restoration in stages, aiming to preserve the cultural history of the site across its many previous uses. In 2012, public accommodation returned to Kiandra with the opening of the restored Wolgal Lodge for bookings. The opening of
5900-417: The delay in the completion of the Skitube alpine railway beyond Perisher) the response to the facilities and the mountain was overwhelmingly positive. Today Blue Cow includes the facilities of Blue Cow Resort Centre at 1905m and Guthega Ski Centre at 1640m. The highest lifted point on the Blue Cow Side of Perisher is 1960m reached by the Summit Quad Chairlift. The vertical drop to the base of the Ridge at 1605m
6000-494: The development of Blue Cow Mountain in the 1980s. In 1987 the Swiss designed Skitube Alpine Railway opened to deliver skiers from Bullocks Flat , on the Alpine Way , to Perisher Valley and to Blue Cow, which also opened in 1987. The operators of Blue Cow purchased Guthega in 1991, and the new combined resort later merged with Perisher-Smiggins to become the largest ski resort in the Southern Hemisphere . The resort opened in July 1987 and despite transport difficulties (caused by
6100-512: The digitised records available for the years 1957–1974 displayed in the following table, the lowest temperature recorded is −17.8 °C (0 °F) on 21 July 1965 and 10 August 1966, while the highest temperature is 32.9 °C (91.2 °F) on 31 January 1968. Gold mining Gold mining is the extraction of gold by mining . Historically, mining gold from alluvial deposits used manual separation processes, such as gold panning . The expansion of gold mining to ores that are not on
SECTION 60
#17327647476296200-406: The district in 1839. For a century (until the establishment of Cabramurra ), Kiandra was Australia's highest town. Kiandra lies approximately 90 kilometres (56 mi) north-west of Cooma on the Snowy Mountains Highway between Adaminaby and Talbingo . It sits at 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level and is situated on a high, treeless ridge on the banks of the Eucumbene River , which
6300-404: The district to this day. Only four buildings from the former township remain intact, together with a collection of ruins and the historic cemetery. The area retains various other relics of Australian pioneer history , including mining equipment, old gravesites and abandoned diggings. The remaining buildings at Kiandra are of high heritage value and historical walking trails provided information on
6400-405: The effects of trampling cattle causing depressions that filled with water. The first Kosciuszko Chalet was built at Charlotte Pass in 1930, giving relatively comfortable access to Australia's highest terrain. The growing number of ski enthusiasts heading to Charlotte Pass led to the establishment of a cafe at Smiggin Holes around 1939, where horse-drawn sleighs would deliver skiers to be begin
6500-432: The efficient capture of gold from the ore. The gold is concentrated by boiling away the mercury from the amalgam . This process is called retorting. This is effective in extracting very small gold particles, but the process is hazardous due to the toxicity of mercury vapour. Large-scale use of mercury stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still used in artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM). While most gold
6600-762: The extraction process. This pollution can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Soil degradation has also been found to be impacted by gold mining. Mining activities can disturb soil structure, leading to erosion, sedimentation of waterways, and loss of fertile land for agriculture or vegetation regrowth. More evidently, dust and emissions from mining machiner and processing facilities can contribute to air pollution, impacting air quality and potentially causings respiratory problems for nearby communities. Large-scale gold mining projects may require land acquisition and resettlement of local communities, leading to displacement, loss of livelihoods, and disruption of traditional ways of life. In addition to
6700-428: The former layout and points of interests of the old town. The most substantial remaining building is the former courthouse, which was originally constructed in 1890, and which was partially restored by National Parks in 2010, Stokes Rousseau and carpenters Sean Walker and Barry Ellwood from Furnbiz for use as an interpretive centre. The restored court room was officially opened on 5 May 2010 with some 150 people present for
6800-432: The founding of the Kiandra Snow Shoe Club —reportedly becoming the "world's longest continuously running ski club" as it evolved into the present-day Kiandra Pioneer Ski Club in Perisher Valley , NSW. Whether the club is the first of its kind has been subject to debate. At one time, the poet Banjo Paterson was a vice president. The Club held perhaps the first international ski race carnival in 1908. In 1927, William Hughes,
6900-694: The gold supply. Most gold is mined in developing nations. Large mining companies play a key role in globalisation of the economy by linking rich and poor companies. Newmont and Barrick Gold are the largest gold mining companies in the world, but there are many smaller corporations in the industry. Local communities are frequently vulnerable to environmental degradation caused by large mining companies and may lack government protection or industry regulation. For example, thousands of people around Lega Dembi mine are exposed to mercury, arsenic, and other toxins resulting in widespread health problems and birth defects. Vulnerable communities may also lose their land to
7000-441: The growth of cities like Melbourne and Sydney . The discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand led to the Second Boer War and ultimately the founding of South Africa. This transformed the region into one of the wealthiest gold-producing areas in the world. This rush played a crucial role in the development of South Africa's economy and lead to the establishment of Johannesburg, known as the 'city of gold'. Gold-bearing reefs in
7100-495: The growth of skiing in New South Wales. The Construction of Guthega Dam brought skiers to the isolated Guthega district and a rope tow was installed there in 1957. Mainly because of its "out of the way" location, Guthega remained a separate small resort, operated by Guthega Development Pty Ltd, with only a handful of lodges, few lifts, and limited patronage from day skiers, who had to contend with more difficult road conditions than those to Smiggin Holes or Perisher Valley. In 1982
7200-765: The heat is unbearable for humans, and air conditioning is required for the safety of the workers. The first such mine to receive air conditioning was Robinson Deep , at that time the deepest mine in the world for any mineral. Gold is also produced by mining in which it is not the principal product. Large copper mines, such as the Bingham Canyon mine in Utah, often recover considerable amounts of gold and other metals along with copper. Sand and gravel pits, like those in Denver (Colorado), may recover small amounts of gold in their wash operations. The largest producing gold mine in
7300-595: The invention of the grinding mill . Additionally, gold was associated with the sun god Ra and was believed to be eternal and indestructible, symbolising the pharoah's divine power and afterlife. Gold has also been found in the tombs of Tutankhamun and other pharoahs. During the Bronze Age, gold objects were also plentiful; especially in Ireland and Spain. Romans employed slave labour and used hydraulic mining methods, such as hushing and ground sluicing on
7400-461: The lowest ever recorded for tropical forests, with there being little to no tree regeneration at abandoned mining camps, even after several years. The Amazon rainforest is at risk for 'savannization', which is the gradual transformation of a tropical rainforest into a savannah. This would ultimately lead to a collapse of biodiversity, ecosystems, and climate. Gold mining produces more waste than mining of other minerals, because it can be mined at
7500-663: The mine. Some large companies have attempted to build local legitimacy through corporate responsibility initiatives and local development. Gold mining can significantly alter the natural environment. Gold mining activities in tropical forests are increasingly causing deforestation along rivers and in remote areas rich in biodiversity. Mining has increased rainforest loss up to 70km beyond lease boundaries, causing nearly 11,670 km of deforestation between 2005 to 2015. Up to 9% of gold mining occurs outside of these regulated lease boundaries. Other gold mining impacts, particularly in aquatic systems with residual cyanide or mercury (used in
7600-442: The mountains, built a sophisticated rope tow at North Perisher. Ken Murray, an old friend of Svere's built another rope tow and Perisher's first T-bar. Development continued and Mount Perisher Double Chair was opened in 1961. After the opening of the first chairlift, T-bar expansion and rope tows, the Perisher area thrived. Murray Publishers Pty Limited was taken over by Australian Consolidated Press in 1972 and Kosciuszko Alpine Resorts
7700-744: The neighbouring Free State province were found shortly thereafter, driving significant development in the region with the establishment of the Free State goldfields . Also known as the Yukon Gold Rush , brought prospectors from around the world to the Klondike region of the Yukon territory in Canada . The Klondike Gold Rush began in 1896, when gold was discovered in Bonanza Creek ,
7800-626: The next winter. In the 1970s, the National Parks and Wildlife Service carried out studies for the development of skiing at Mount Blue Cow, in response to the identified need for the expansion of suitable areas and facilities to enable the continued growth of alpine skiing within the Park. In November 1984 the bid by Mount Blue Cow Ski Bowl Pty Limited was selected. The last establishment of a major skifield in New South Wales came with
7900-413: The old bucket line . This has improved the chances of finding gold. Smaller dredges with 50-to-100-millimetre (2 to 4 in) suction tubes are used to sample areas behind boulders and along potential pay streaks, until "colour" (gold) appears. Other larger scale dredging operations take place on exposed river gravel bars at seasonal low water. These operations typically use a land based excavator to feed
8000-443: The opening up and development of Skiing in New South Wales , including the steeper and higher terrain around Mount Perisher , near Smiggins. Today, Smiggins operates within the greater Perisher Ski Resort and provides accommodation and ideal terrain for beginner skiers. Some time after 1840 James Spencer, a grazier, obtained the lease for all the high country on the main range, including Kosciuszko and Blue Cow peaks. His homestead
8100-688: The possible respiratory problems that could be acquired, individuals may be exposed to hazardous chemicals used in gold extraction such as mercury and cyanide. These chemicals pose risks to gold miners, communities, and wildlife; resulting in further medical problems involving neurological disorders and waterborne diseases . Gold mining in some regions has been associated with conflicts over land rights, labour rights violations, and exploitation of vulnerable populations, including Indigenous peoples and artisanal miners. Mining activities can damage or destroy cultural heritage sites, artifacts, and sacred areas; further impacting cultural identities and heritages. In
8200-407: The recovery of gold from ore), can be highly toxic to people and wildlife even at relatively low concentrations. Illegal gold mining exacerbates the ecological vulnerability of the remaining forest ultimately leading to permanent forest loss. Gold mining clears native forests for mineral extraction, but also indirectly facilitates access to more land and further clearing. Rainforest recovery rates are
8300-651: The resort, and so Skitube was extended from Perisher to Mount Blue Cow. Skitube is a Swiss designed rack-rail train that takes passengers from Bullocks Flat on the Alpine Way through a tunnel in the Ramshead Range to the Perisher Resort, stopping in the underground station at Perisher Valley. Skitube then proceeds to Blue Cow Mountain via another tunnel through the Perisher Range. The tunnel
8400-473: The scene. Initial returns were very good. A 9 kg nugget was discovered in river deposits under what became known as New Chum Hill. Kiandra post office opened on 1 June 1860 and it is estimated that the area at its peak accommodated around 15,000 people, served by 25 stores, 13 bakers, 16 butchers, 14 pubs, several banks and four blacksmiths. Nevertheless, by 1861, the Sydney Morning Herald
8500-549: The sluice box. A rocker box uses less water than a sluice box and is well suited for areas where water is limited. A rocking motion provides the water movement needed for the gravity separation of gold in placer material. Rocker boxes gained popularity during the California Gold Rush in the 19th century and remain in use today. Although simple and inexpensive, it is not efficient as the previously discussed mining techniques . The dominant method for refining gold
8600-456: The snowbound mining settlement after manufacturing over forty pairs of both short skis, known as "skates". and the longer "snow shoes" during the months before the first winter snow. To avoid confusion with a conventional skate, the skates were described as (two palings turned up at the front end and about four foot long). There were no fence palings or posts in Kiandra in 1861. Ski races were held annually on Township Hill at Kiandra, which led to
8700-630: The surface has led to more complex extraction processes such as pit mining and gold cyanidation . In the 20th and 21st centuries, most volume of mining was done by large corporations. However, the value of gold has led to millions of small, artisanal miners in many parts of the Global South . Like all mining, human rights and environmental issues are common in the gold mining industry, and can result in environmental conflict . In mines with less regulation, health and safety risks are much higher. The exact date that humans first began to mine gold
8800-467: The surrounding rock or sediments. Unlike hard-rock mining, which involves excavating solid rock formations, water or dredging is used to extract the gold. Using a sluice box to extract gold from placer deposits has long been a very common practice in prospecting and small-scale mining. Sluices work on the principle that heavier particles will sink to the bottom of a stream, while those that are lighter will be carried downstream and expelled. A sluice box
8900-490: The top of Mount Perisher. 4.4 square kilometres (1.7 sq mi) of this area is covered by 240 snow guns , which are used to artificially supplement the natural snowfall. Perisher was acquired by Vail Resorts , United States on 30 March 2015 for a sum of approximately AU$ 177 million. The resort is accessible by road and by the Skitube from Jindabyne , Australia's only underground rack railway . The main skiing period
9000-601: The world's gold. Sometimes open-pit mining is used, such as at the Fort Knox Mine in central Alaska. Barrick Gold Corporation has one of the largest open-pit gold mines in North America located on its Goldstrike mine property in north eastern Nevada. Other gold mines use underground mining, where the ore is extracted through tunnels or shafts. South Africa has the world's deepest hard rock gold mine up to 3,900 metres (12,800 ft) underground. At such depths,
9100-720: The world, the Grasberg mine in Papua, Indonesia, is primarily a copper mine. Gold panning , or simply panning , is a form of placer mining and traditional mining that extracts gold from a placer deposit using a pan. The process is one of the simplest ways to extract gold, and is popular with geology enthusiasts especially because of its low cost and relative simplicity. The first recorded instances of placer mining are from ancient Rome , where gold and other precious metals were extracted from streams and mountainsides using sluices and panning ( ruina montium ). Placer mining
9200-490: The year 1866 until 1974. Temperature averages were compiled from 1897 to 1974 – though extreme temperature readings were not digitised until 1957. The lowest temperature recorded at Kiandra is −20.6 °C (−5 °F) on 2 August 1929, also the lowest temperature recorded in Australia at that time. The highest temperature is 34.7 °C (94.5 °F), recorded during a severe heatwave in southeast Australia in January 1939. In
9300-663: Was China with 368.3 tonnes of gold mined in that year. The second-largest producer of gold was Russia where 331.1 tonnes was mined in the same year, followed by Australia with 327.8 tonnes. In 2023, the annual gold demand of 4,448 tonnes was 5% below that of 2022. The total gold demand in 2023 was the highest at 4,899 tonnes. Despite its decreasing content in ores, gold production is increasing. This increase can be achieved through ever larger-scale industrial installations as well as innovations, especially in hydrometallurgy . Hard rock mining extracts gold encased in rock, rather than fragments in loose sediment, and produces most of
9400-414: Was 48 676 kg. In 1890 the second courthouse to be built in the township was constructed. The building included police barracks and was used more for its police rather than court function. It remained Kiandra's police station until 1937, later to become the Kiandra Chalet. A 'battery stamper' and other mining relics recovered locally are situated on the road to Cabramurra below New Chums Hill, close to
9500-514: Was discovered in 1961. Official estimates indicate that total world gold production since the beginning of civilization has been around 6,352,216,000 troy ounces (197,576.0 t) and total gold production in Nevada is 1.1% of that, ranking Nevada as one of the Earth's primary gold-producing regions. World gold production was 3,612 tonnes in 2022. As of 2020 , the world's largest gold producer
9600-591: Was for a time used as a private residence, before becoming the Kiandra Chalet (until 1953) and later the Kiandra Chalet Hotel, The owner of the Chalet ran a ski rope tow. The Chalet closed in 1973 and the building became a Roads Depot building. Australia's first T-bar lift was installed on Township Hill in 1957, but in 1978, Kiandra's ski lift operations re-located permanently to nearby Selwyn Snowfields . The T-Bar remained in operation at Mt Selwyn until
9700-465: Was formed. Murray Publishers then traded under the name of Perisher Ski Resort which incorporated the resorts of Perisher and Smiggins. In 1995, Murray Publishers Pty Limited and the Alpine Australia Group Pty Limited merged to form Perisher Blue Pty Limited. By 2008, Perisher Valley had 30 interconnecting ski lifts, over 100 ski instructors, extensive snow making facilities, and a large ski-resort village providing winter accommodation. Perisher Valley
9800-626: Was mined extensively. The ancient Sumerians , around 2500 BCE, developed sophisticated techniques for extracting gold from alluvial deposits and underground mines. These techniques included the use of sluice boxes. Evidence suggests that Nubia had sporadic access to gold nuggets during the Neolithic and Prehistoric Period . Gold mining in Egypt involved both surface mining such as panning for gold in riverbeads and underground mining, where tunnels were dug to extract gold-bearing quartz veins. During
9900-500: Was reporting a "mass exodus" and the easy pickings were exhausted. Significant numbers of Chinese people worked the Kiandra goldfields. Chinese miners built Three Mile Dam in 1882 to assist with sluicing operations at "New Chum Hill". The scenic lake still exists and now supplies Selwyn Snowfields with its snow-making water requirements. Misplaced Pages's Chinese site lists Kiandra as 奇安德拉 (Qi An De La). The last mining operations finally ceased around 1905. Official total production recorded
10000-401: Was situated at West Point (now known as Waste Point) near the entrance to Kosciuszko National Park. Apparently Spencer crossed some imported black English Shorthorn cattle with white Shorthorns, obtaining offspring with blue roan coats. Blue Cow Mountain was named after one of these cross-bred cows, which would disappear after the thaw each year and would invariably be found on the mountain before
#628371