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57-530: A number of scholars point to non- Sinitic southern origins for the legendary creature and ancient texts chronicle that the Yue people once tattooed their bodies to ward against these monsters. In English translations, jiao has been variously rendered as " jiao -dragon", "crocodile", "flood dragon", "scaly dragon", or even " kraken ". The jiao 蛟 character combines the "insect radical " 虫 , to provide general sense of insects, reptiles or dragons, etc., and

114-401: A dialect continuum in which differences generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though there are also some sharp boundaries. The Sinitic languages can be divided into Macro-Bai languages and Chinese languages, and the following is one of many potential ways of subdividing these languages. Some varieties, such as Shaozhou Tuhua , are hard to classify and thus are not included in

171-720: A null initial (apart from open zhǐ rime series ( 止攝開口 ) finals), unlike the /ʐ/ of Northern and Beijing Mandarin. Based on, for example, the pronunciation of the palatalized jiàn initial ( 見母 ), Jiaoliao Mandarin can be divided into Qingzhou, Denglian and Gaihuan areas. Central Plains Mandarin is spoken in the Central Plains of Henan , southwestern Shanxi , southern Shandong and northern Jiangsu , as well as most of Shaanxi , southern Ningxia and Gansu and southern Xinjiang , in famous cities such as Kaifeng , Zhengzhou , Luoyang , Xuzhou , Xi'an , Xining and Lanzhou . Central Plains Mandarin lects merge

228-423: A * kǒg 交 'twisting' manner, or has * kǒg 交 'continuous' eyebrows. The only corroborated hypothesis takes * kǒg 交 'breed with' to mean * kǒg 蛟 indicates a dragon 'crossbreed; mixture'. (1990:126-7) The word has " mermaid " as one possible gloss, and Schuessler suggests possible etymological connections with Burmese kru or kyu "scaly, furry beast" and Tibetan klu " nāga ; water spirits", albeit

285-408: A body like a fish and a tail like a snake, which made noise like mandarin ducks . Although this might be considered a subtype of the jiao dragon, a later commentator thought this referred to a type of fish (see #Sharks and rays section). The foregoing account occurs in the early Chinese bestiary Shanhaijing "Classic of Mountains and Seas" (completed c. 206–9 BCE), in its first book "Classic of

342-491: A departing tone. Subdivision of Central Plains Mandarin is not fully agreed upon, though one possible subdivision sees 13 divisions, namely Xuhuai, Zhengkai, Luosong, Nanlu, Yanhe, Shangfu, Xinbeng, Luoxiang, Fenhe, Guanzhong, Qinlong, Longzhong and Nanjiang. Lanyin Mandarin, on the other hand, is divided as Jincheng, Yinwu, Hexi, and Beijiang. The Dungan language is a collection of Central Plains Mandarin varieties spoken in

399-500: A flood" because they believed flooding resulted when jiao hatched. The poem Qijian ("Seven Remonstrances") in the Chu Ci uses the term shuijiao 水蛟 or water jiao . The Shuowen Jiezi does not commit to whether the jiāo 蛟 has or lacks a horn. However the definition was emended to "hornless dragon" by Duan Yucai in his 19th-century edited version.( A somewhat later commentary by Zhu Junsheng  [ zh ] stated

456-479: A form built to fly, according to Ren Fang  [ zh ] 's Shuyi ji  [ zh ] ("Records of Strange Things"), which said that "a water snake ( hui 虺 ) after 500 years transforms into a jiao ( 蛟 ); a jiao after a millennium into a dragon ( long ), a long after 500 years a horned dragon ( 角 龍 ), a horned dragon after a millennium into a yinglong (a winged dragon)". The hujiao 虎蛟 or "tiger jiao " are described as creatures with

513-464: A lucky omen', and ordered the Ta kwan to make a condiment of it. Its flesh was purple, its bones were blue, and its taste was very savoury and pleasant. Three classical texts ( Liji 6, Huainanzi 5, and Lüshi Chunqiu 6) repeat a sentence about capturing water creatures at the end of summer; 伐蛟取鼉登龜取黿 "attack the jiao 蛟 , take the to 鼉 "alligator", present the gui 龜 "tortoise", and take

570-464: A national prestige during the Ming and Qing periods, though not all linguists support this viewpoint. The Language Atlas divides Huai into Tongtai, Huangxiao, and Hongchao areas, with the latter further split into Ninglu and Huaiyang. Tongtai, being geographically located furthest west, has the most significant Wu influence, such as in its distribution of historical voiced plosive series. Yue Chinese

627-448: A white goiter" and that it is oviparous, and "large ones were more than ten arm spans in width and could swallow a person whole". A description similar to this is found in the Piya dictionary, but instead of a white "goiter ( ying )" being found on its neck, a homophone noun of a different meaning is described, rendered "white necklace" around its neck by Visser. Other sources concurs with

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684-461: Is long ( 龍 ), translating jiao as "dragon" is problematic as it would make it impossible to distinguish which of the two is being referred to. The term jiao has thus been translated as "flood dragon" or "scaly dragon", with some qualifier to indicate it as a subtype. But on this matter, Schafer has suggested using a name for various dragon-like beings such as " kraken " to stand for jiao : The word "dragon" has already been appropriated to render

741-482: Is a kind of dragon. As its eyebrows cross each other, it is called jiaolong . (jiao ≅ come across). The jiaolong has scales. The variety with wings is called yinglong . The variety with horns is called qiulong . The variety without horns is called chilong  ...   Several texts allude to the jiao being the lord of aquatic beings. The jiaolong is called the "god of the water animals". The Shuowen jieji dictionary (beginning of 2nd c.) states that if

798-464: Is actually kumbhīra ( कुम्भीर ). As a common noun kumbhīra means "crocodile". Schuessler reconstructs Later Han Chinese kau and Old Chinese * krâu for modern jiao 蛟 . Pulleyblank provides Early Middle Chinese kaɨw/kɛːw and Late Middle Chinese kjaːw. The form kău is used as the Tang period pronunciation by American sinologist Edward H. Schafer . The transliteration kiao lung

855-543: Is fully capable of devouring humans, according to Guo Pu's commentary. It is also written that a green jiao which was a man-eater dwelt in the stream beneath the bridge in Yixing County  [ zh ] (present-day city of Yixing , Jiangsu ) according to a story in Zu Taizhi  [ zh ] ( 祖臺之 ; fl. c. 376–410)'s anthology, Zhiguai . The war-general Zhou Chu ( 周處 ; 236–297) in his youth, who

912-516: Is generally true of most scaled creatures. Jiao eggs are about the size of a jar of 1 or 2 hu  [ zh ] capacity in Chinese volume measurement , according to Guo Pu 's commentary; a variant text states that the hatchlings are of this size. It was considered that while the adult jiao lies in pools of water, their eggs hatched on dry land, more specifically on mounds of earth ( Huainanzi ). The jiao did eventually metamorphose into

969-410: Is sometimes separated as a remnant of Old Shu. Huai is spoken in central Anhui , northern Jiangxi , far western and eastern Hubei and most of Jiangsu . Due to its preservation of a checked tone, some linguists believe that Huai ought to be treated as a top-level group, like Jin. Representative lects tend to be Nanjingnese , Hefeinese and Yangzhounese . The Huai of Nanjing has likely served as

1026-571: Is spoken by around 84 million people, in western Guangdong , eastern Guangxi , Hong Kong , Macau and parts of Hainan , as well as overseas communities such as Kuala Lumpur and Vancouver . Famous lects such as Cantonese and Taishanese belong to this family. Yue Chinese lects generally possess long-short distinctions in their vowels, which is reflected in their almost universally split dark-checked and often split light-checked tones. They generally also tend to preserve all three checked plosive finals and three nasal finals. The status of Pinghua

1083-522: Is spoken in the Jiaodong and Liaodong Peninsulae , which includes the cities of Dalian and Qingdao , as well as several prefectures along the China-Korea border. Like Jilu Mandarin, its light checked tone is merged into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial, though its dark checked is merged into the rising. Its rì initial ( 日母 ) terms are pronounced with

1140-929: The Republic of China , People's Republic of China , Singapore and United Nations . Re-population efforts, such as that of the Qing dynasty in the Southwest, tended to involve Mandarin speakers. Classification of Mandarin lects has undergone several significant changes, though nowadays it is commonly divided as such, based on the distribution of the historical checked tone: as well as other lects, which do not neatly fall into these categories, such as Mandarin Junhua varieties. Varieties of Mandarin can be defined by their universally lost -m final, low number of tones, and smaller inventory of classifiers , among other features. Mandarin lects also often have rhotic erhua rimes, though

1197-485: The Tibeto-Burman are phonologically distant from OC . The explanation that its name comes from eyebrows that "cross over" ( 交 jiao ) is given in the ancient text Shuyi ji  [ zh ] "Records of Strange Things" (6th century). It has been suggested that jiaolong might have referred to a pair of dragons mating , with their long bodies coiled around each other ( Wen Yiduo 2001a:95–96) Thus in

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1254-588: The jiao was a dragoness, that is, a dragon of exclusively female gender. Jiao as female dragon occurs in the glossing of jiao 蛟 as "dragon mother" (perhaps "dragoness" or "she-dragon") in the (c. 649 CE) Buddhist dictionary Yiqiejing yinyi , and the gloss is purported to be a direct quote from Ge Hong (d. 343)'s Baopuzi 抱朴子 . However, extant editions of the Baopuzi does not include this statement. The (11th century CE) Piya dictionary repeats this "female dragon" definition. As aforementioned, jiao

1311-541: The yuan 黿 "soft-shell turtle"." There is a legend surrounding the Dragon Boat Festival which purports to be the origin behind the offering of zongzi (leaf-wrapped rice cakes) to the drowned nobleman Qu Yuan during its observation. It is said that at the beginning of the Eastern Han dynasty (25 A. D.), a man from Changsha named Ou Hui had a vision in a dream of Qu Yuan instructing him that

1368-473: The Sinitic languages and the rest of the family (the Tibeto-Burman languages ). This view is rejected by some researchers but has found phylogenetic support among others. The Macro-Bai languages , whose classification is difficult, may be an offshoot of Old Chinese and thus Sinitic; otherwise, Sinitic is defined only by the many varieties of Chinese unified by a shared historical background, and usage of

1425-612: The Southern Mountains". The bestiary's fifth book, "Classic of the Central Mountains" records the presence of jiao in the Kuang River ( 貺 水 , "River Grant") and Lun River ( 淪 水 , "River Ripple"). Guo Pu (d. 324)'s commentary to Part XI glosses jiao as "a type of [ long 龍 ] dragon that resembles a four-legged snake". Guo adds that the jiao possesses a "small head and a narrow neck with

1482-522: The amount of its use may vary between lects. Loss of checked tone is an often cited criterion for Mandarin languages, though lects such as Yangzhounese and Taiyuannese show otherwise. Northeastern Mandarin is spoken in Heilongjiang , Jilin , most of Liaoning and northeastern Inner Mongolia , whereas Beijing Mandarin is spoken in northern Hebei , most of Beijing , parts of Tianjin and Inner Mongolia . The two families' most notable features are

1539-451: The broader term lung . "Kraken" is good since it suggests a powerful oceanic monster. ... We might name the kău a " basilisk " or a " wyvern " or a " cockatrice ." Or perhaps we should call it by the name of its close kin, the double-headed crocodile-jawed Indian makara , which, in ninth-century Java at least, took on some of the attributes of the rain-bringing lung of China. (1967:218) Some translators have in fact adopted "kraken" as

1596-467: The contrary; in his Shuowen tongxun dingsheng ( 説文通訓定聲 ) Zhu Junsheng explained that only male dragons ( long ) were horned, and "among dragon offspring, the one-horned are called jiāo 蛟 , the bicorned are called qiú 虯 , and the hornless are called chì 螭 . Note the pronunciation similarity between jiāo 蛟 and jiǎo 角 "horn", thus jiǎolóng 角龍 is "horned dragon". Lexicographers have noticed that according to some sources,

1653-405: The dark checked into the dark level tone, the light checked into light level or departing based on the manner of articulation of the initial , and vowel breaking in tong rime series' ( 通攝 ) checked-tone words, among other features. Jilu Mandarin can be classified into Baotang, Shiji, Canghui and Zhangli. Zhangli is of note due to its preservation of a separate checked tone. Jiaoliao Mandarin

1710-644: The extinct Taz language of Russia is also a Northeastern Mandarin language. Beijing is sometimes included in Northeastern Mandarin due to its distribution of the historical dark checked tone, though is listed as its own group by others, often due to its more regular light checked tones. Jilu Mandarin is spoken in southern Hebei and western Shandong , and is often represented with Jinannese . Notable cities that use Jilu Mandarin lects include Cangzhou , Shijiazhuang , Jinan and Baoding . Characteristically Jilu Mandarin features include merging

1767-401: The family is classified into at least seven main families. These families are classified based on five main evolutionary criteria: The varieties within one family may not be mutually intelligible with each other. For instance, Wenzhounese and Ningbonese are not highly mutually intelligible. The Language Atlas of China identifies ten groups: with Jin, Hui, Pinghua, and Tuhua not part of

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1824-404: The fish count reaches 360, the jiao will lead them away, but this could be prevented by keeping bie 鱉 (variant character 鼈 , "soft-shelled turtle"). Jiao and jiaolong were names for a legendary river dragon. Jiao 蛟 is sometimes translated as "flood dragon". The (c. 1105 CE) Yuhu qinghua 玉壺清話 Carr says people in the southern state of Wu called it fahong 發洪 "swell into

1881-616: The following briefs. This is a language family first proposed by linguist Zhengzhang Shangfang , and was expanded to include Longjia and Luren. It likely split off from the rest of Sinitic during the Old Chinese period. The languages included are all considered minority languages in China and are spoken in the Southwest . The languages are: All other Sinitic languages henceforth would be considered Chinese. The Chinese branch of

1938-482: The former Soviet Union . Jin is spoken in most of Shanxi , western Hebei , northern Shaanxi , northern Henan and central Inner Mongolia , often represented by Taiyuannese . It was first proposed as a lect separate from the rest of Mandarin by Li Rong , where it was proposed as lects in and around Shanxi with a checked tone, though this stance is not without disagreement. Jin varieties also often has disyllabic words derived from syllable splitting (分音詞), through

1995-540: The heavy use of rhotic erhua and seemingly random distribution of the dark checked tone, and generally having four tones with the contours of high flat, rising, dipping, and falling. Northeastern Mandarin, especially in Heilongjiang, contains many loanwords from Russian. Northeastern Mandarin lects can be divided into three main groups, namely Hafu (including Harbinnese and Changchunnese ), Jishen (including Jilinnese and Shenyangnese ), and Heisong. Notably,

2052-409: The historical checked tones with a lesser muddy ( 次濁 ) and clear ( 清 ) initial together with the rising tone, and those with a fully muddy ( 全濁 ) initial are merged with the light level tone. Lanyin Mandarin, spoken in northern Ningxia, parts of Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, is sometimes grouped with Central Plains Mandarin due to its merged lesser light and dark checked tones, though it is realised as

2109-516: The hunt or capture of the jiao . Emperor Wu of Han in Yuanfeng 5 or 106 BCE reportedly shot a jiao in the river. The Shiyiji 拾遺記 (4th century CE) has a jiao story about Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87-74 BCE). While fishing in the Wei River , he ...caught a white kiao , three chang [ten meters] long, which resembled a big snake, but had no scaly armour The Emperor said: 'This is not

2166-468: The indigenes of the monsoon coast". Sinitic The Sinitic languages ( simplified Chinese : 汉语族 ; traditional Chinese : 漢語族 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ zú ), often synonymous with the Chinese languages , are a group of East Asian analytic languages that constitute a major branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family . It is frequently proposed that there is a primary split between

2223-753: The infixation of /(u)əʔ l/ . 笨 pəŋ꜄   → 薄 pəʔ꜇ 愣 ləŋ꜄ 笨 {} 薄 愣 pəŋ꜄ → pəʔ꜇ ləŋ꜄ 'stupid' 滾 ꜂kʊŋ   → 骨 kuəʔ꜆ 攏 ꜂lʊŋ 滾 {} 骨 攏 ꜂kʊŋ → kuəʔ꜆ ꜂lʊŋ 'to roll' As per the Language Atlas by Li, Jin is divided into Dabao, Zhanghu, Wutai, Lüliang, Bingzhou, Shangdang, Hanxin, and Zhiyan branches. Spoken in Yunnan , Guizhou , northern Guangxi , most of Sichuan , southern Gansu and Shaanxi , Chongqing , most of Hubei and bordering parts of Hunan , as well as Kokang of Myanmar and parts of northern Thailand , Southwestern Mandarin speakers take up

2280-474: The latter word meaning white "necklace" (or variously translated as white "tassels"), namely, the Bencao Gangmu quoting at length from Guangzhou Ji ( 廣州記 ) by Pei Yuan ( 裴淵 , 317–420): 蛟長丈餘，似蛇而四足，形廣如楯, 小頭細頸，頸有白嬰。胸前赭色, 背上靑斑, 脇邊若錦, 尾有肉環, The jiao measures 10 chi or more in length. Snake-like in appearance, but it has four feet. The shape broad and shield-like, it is small-headed and thin-necked. On

2337-607: The legend around the jiaolong 蛟龍 hovering above the mother giving birth to a future emperor i.e., Liu Bang, the founding emperor of Han , r. 202-195 BCE ( Sima Qian , Records of the Grand Historian ), the alternative conjectural interpretation is that it was a pair of mating dragons. The same legend occurs in nearly verbatim copy in the Book of Han , except that the dragons are given as 交龍 "crossed dragons". Wen noted that in early use jiaolong 交龍 "crossed dragons"

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2394-596: The most area and population of all Mandarinic language groups, and would be the eighth most spoken language in the world if separated from the rest of Mandarin. Southwestern Mandarinic tends to not have retroflex consonants , and merges all checked tone categories together. Except for Minchi , which has a standalone checked category, the checked tone is merged with another category. Representative lects include Wuhannese and Sichuanese , and sometimes Kunmingnese . Southwestern Mandarin tends to be split into Chuanqian, Xishu, Chuanxi, Yunnan, Huguang and Guiliu branches. Minchi

2451-499: The naked rice cakes being offered for him in the river are all being eaten by the dragons ( jiaolong ), and the cakes need to be wrapped in chinaberry ( Melia ; Chinese : 楝 ; pinyin : liàn ) leaves and tied with color strings, which are two things the dragons abhor. It has been suggested that the jiao is not a creature of Sinitic origin, but something introduced from the Far South or Yue culture, which encompasses

2508-469: The neck there are white tassels. Its chest is sienna brown and its back flecked with blue-green spots. Its flanks resemble brocade -work. On its tail there are fleshy rings. The largest attain several arms' spans around.   A later text described jiao "looks like a snake with a tiger head, is several fathoms long, lives in brooks and rivers, and bellows like a bull; when it sees a human being it traps him with its stinking saliva, then pulls him into

2565-549: The number of fish in a pond reaches 3600, a jiao will come as their leader, and enable them to follow him and fly away". However, "if you place a fish trap in the water, the jiao will leave". A similar statement occurs in the farming almanac Qimin Yaoshu (6th c.) that quotes the Yangyu-jing "Classic on Raising Fish", a manual on pisciculture ascribed to Lord Tao Zhu ( Fan Li ). According to this Yangyu-jing version, when

2622-645: The people of the ancient Yue 越 state), as well as the Hundred Yue people. Eberhard concludes (1968:378-9) that the jiao , which "occur in the whole of Central and South China", "is a special form of the snake as river god. The snake as river god or god of the ocean is typical for the coastal culture, particularly the sub-group of the Tan peoples (the Tanka people )". Schafer also suggests, "The Chinese lore about these southern krakens seems to have been borrowed from

2679-467: The poem Li Sao (in Chu Ci ), in which the poet is instructed by supernatural beings to beckon the jialong and bid them build a bridge. Visser translated this as one type of dragon, the jiaolong or kiao-lung . However, it was the verdict of Wang Yi , an early commentator of this poem that these were two kinds, the smaller jiao and the larger long . Since the Chinese word for the generic dragon

2736-401: The right radical jiao 交 "cross; mix", etc. which supplies the phonetic element " jiao ". The original 交 pictograph represented a person with crossed legs. The Japanese equivalent term is kōryō or kōryū ( 蛟竜 ) . The Vietnamese equivalent is giao long , considered synonymous to Vietnamese Thuồng luồng . The Piya dictionary (11th century) claims that its common name

2793-652: The seven traditional groups. Varieties of Mandarin are used in the Western Regions , the Southwest , Huguang , Inner Mongolia , Central Plains and the Northeast , by around three-quarters of the Sinitic-speaking population. Historically, the prestige variety has always been Mandarin, which is still reflected today in Standard Chinese . Standard Chinese is now an official language of

2850-601: The term "Sinitic" may reflect the linguistic view that Chinese constitutes a family of distinct languages, rather than variants of a single language. Over 91% of the Chinese population speaks a Sinitic language. Approximately 1.52 billion people are speakers of the Chinese macrolanguage, of whom about three-quarters speak a Mandarin variety. Estimates of the number of global speakers of Sinitic branches as of 2018–2019, both native and non-native, are listed below: Dialectologist Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible Sinitic languages. They form

2907-411: The translated term, as Schafer has suggested. In some contexts, jiao has also been translated as "crocodile" (See §Identification as real fauna ). The Shuowen Jiezi dictionary (121 CE) glosses the jiao as "a type of dragon ( long ), as does the Piya dictionary (11th c.), which adds that the jiao are oviparous (hatch from eggs). The Bencao Gangmu states this also, but also notes this

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2964-474: The water and sucks his blood from his armpits". This description, in the Moke huixi 墨客揮犀 (11th century CE), was considered the "best definition" of a jiao by Wolfram Eberhard . The description as "scaly" or "scaled dragon" is found in some medieval texts, and quoted in several near-modern references and dictionaries. The Guangya (3rd century CE) defines jiaolong as "scaly dragon; scaled dragon", using

3021-746: The word lin 鱗 "scales". The paragraph, which goes on to list other types of dragons, was quoted in the Kangxi Dictionary compiled during the Manchurian Qing dynasty. A similar paragraph occurs in the Shuyi ji  [ zh ] (6th century) and quoted in the Bencao Gangmu aka Compendium of Materia Medica : 蛟龍.. 【釋名】時珍曰︰按任昉《述異記》云, 蛟乃龍屬, 其眉交生, 故謂之蛟, 有鱗曰蛟龍, 有翼曰應龍, 有角曰虯龍, 無角曰螭龍也。 Jiaolong.. [Explanation of Names] [Li] Shizhen says: The book Shuyi Ji by Ren Fang:: The jiao

3078-455: Was maban ( 馬絆 ). The jiao is also claimed to be equivalent to Sanskrit 宮毗羅 (modern Chinese pronunciation gongpiluo ) in the 7th-century Buddhist dictionary Yiqiejing yinyi . The same Sanskrit equivalent is repeated in the widely used Bencao Gangmu or Compendium of Materia Medica . In Buddhist texts this word occurs as names of divine beings, and the Sanskrit term in question

3135-616: Was emblematic of the mythological creators Fuxi and Nüwa , who are represented as having a human's upper body and a dragon's tail. In textual usage, it may be ambiguous whether jiaolong 蛟龍 should be parsed as two kinds of dragons or one, as Prof. Zhang Jing (known in Japan as Chō Kyō  [ ja ] ) comments: "It is difficult to determine whether jiaolong is the name of a type of dragon, or [two dragons] " jiao " and " long " juxtaposed 蛟龍はそもそも龍の一種の名称なのか、それとも「蛟」と「龍」からなる複合なのかは判断しにくい。. Zhang cites as one example of jiaolong used in

3192-489: Was given by Dutch orientalist Marinus Willem de Visser  [ de ] 's book on dragons. Jiao's ( 蛟 ) etymology is obscure. Michael Carr, using Bernhard Karlgren 's reconstruction of Old Chinese *kǒg 蛟 , explains. Most etymologies for jiao < * kǒg 蛟 are unsupported speculations upon meanings of its phonetic * kǒg 交 'cross; mix with; contact', e.g., the * kǒg 蛟 dragon can * kǒg 交 'join' its head and tail in order to capture prey, or moves in

3249-647: Was native to this area, anecdotally slew this dragon: when Zhou spotted the man-eating beast he leaped down from the bridge and stabbed it several times; the stream was filled with blood and the beast finally washed up somewhere in Lake Tai where it finally died. This anecdote is also recounted in the Shishuo Xinyu (c. 430; " A New Account of Tales of the World ") and selected in the Tang period primer Mengqiu  [ zh ] . Other early texts also mention

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