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41-592: The name is sometimes anglicized Kinaidokolpites. The earliest attested Latinization is Cinaedocolpitae. The name is usually spelled Kinaidokolpitai (Κιναιδοκολπίται) with an initial kappa in Greek, but in one instance it is spelled Chinedakolpitai (Χινεδακολπιται) with an initial chi . This is relevant to any consideration of a Semitic rather than Greek origin, since it suggests that the Semitic etymon could begin with either kaph or qoph . If read literally in Greek,

82-507: A military expedition to Arabia , but after some beginning successes he was obliged by the unhealthy climate and epidemic to desist in the conquest of the area. New developments in trade during the 1st century AD led to traders avoiding the middlemen of Eudaemon and making the dangerous direct crossing of the Arabian Sea to the coast of India . Arabia Felix is the title of the 1962 book by Danish novelist Thorkild Hansen , detailing

123-669: A pejorative form. Carlo Conti Rossini interpreted it as "Kinda living on the shore of the gulf". Hermann von Wissmann saw it as combining the names of the Kināna and Kalb tribes. Mikhail Bukharin, taking the first element as Kinda, thinks the second part could be either the Kalb or more likely the Kilāb . Laurence Kirwan identifies them with the Kināna. In the Geography of Ptolemy from about 150,

164-486: A variety of formats for rendering Greek and Greek shorthand using Latin letters. Examples include "8elo" and "thelw" for θέλω , "3ava" for ξανά , and "yuxi" for ψυχή . Owing to the difficulties encountered in transliterating and transcribing both ancient and modern Greek into the Latin alphabet, a number of regulatory bodies have been established. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT), in cooperation with

205-615: A variety of romanizations for names and placenames in the 19th and 20th century. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT) issued its system in cooperation with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1983. This system was adopted (with minor modifications) by the United Nations ' Fifth Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names at Montreal in 1987, by

246-410: Is common to mark the long vowels with macrons over the Latin letters and to leave the short vowels unmarked; such macrons should not be confused or conflated with those used by some systems to mark eta and omega as distinct from epsilon , iota , and omicron . Greece's early Attic numerals were based on a small sample of letters (including heta ) arranged in multiples of 5 and 10, likely forming

287-515: Is now Yemen . The Latin term Arabia Felix was the Roman translation of the earlier Hellenistic Greek : Εὐδαίμων Ἀραβία , romanized :  Eudaimon Arabia , attributed to Eratosthenes of Cyrene . Felix has the meanings of both "fecund, fertile" and "happy, fortunate, blessed", this area being the best irrigated of the Arabian peninsula. Arabia Felix, referring to Yemen, was one of

328-682: Is shaped like the Latinate semicolon . Greek punctuation which has been given formal romanizations include: There are many archaic forms and local variants of the Greek alphabet . Beta , for example, might appear as round Β or pointed [REDACTED] throughout Greece but is also found in the forms [REDACTED] (at Gortyn ), [REDACTED] and [REDACTED] ( Thera ), [REDACTED] ( Argos ), [REDACTED] ( Melos ), [REDACTED] ( Corinth ), [REDACTED] ( Megara and Byzantium ), and even [REDACTED] ( Cyclades ). Well into

369-915: The English letter B ( /b/ ) was written as β in ancient Greek but is now written as the digraph μπ , while the modern β sounds like the English letter V ( /v/ ) instead. The Greek name Ἰωάννης became Johannes in Latin and then John in English, but in modern Greek has become Γιάννης ; this might be written as Yannis , Jani, Ioannis, Yiannis, or Giannis, but not Giannes or Giannēs as it would be for ancient Greek. The word Άγιος might variously appear as Hagiοs, Agios, Aghios, or Ayios, or simply be translated as " Holy " or " Saint " in English forms of Greek placenames . Traditional English renderings of Greek names originated from Roman systems established in antiquity. The Roman alphabet itself

410-543: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), released a system in 1983 which has since been formally adopted by the United Nations , the United Kingdom and United States. The following tables list several romanization schemes from the Greek alphabet to modern English. Note, however, that the ELOT, UN, and ISO formats for Modern Greek intend themselves as translingual and may be applied in any language using

451-727: The Kenites of the Bible ( Septuagint Kinaioi ), an identification he may have found strengthened by the spellings in Josephus ( Kenetidai and Keneaidai ). Nevertheless, the lands of the Kinaidokolpitai may at some point have extended northwest into former Nabataean lands. The earliest reference to the Kinaidokolpitai is an ostrakon found at Maximianon in Egypt and dated to 118 or perhaps closer 150. It records that two soldiers of

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492-482: The Latin alphabet . The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Ancient or Medieval Greek" system for all works and authors up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although Byzantine Greek was pronounced distinctly and some have considered "Modern" Greek to have begun as early as the 12th century. For treatment of polytonic Greek letters —for example, ᾤ —see also

533-605: The Roman Empire . The main Aksumite port of Adulis , where the throne inscription was found, was located on the incense route. The Kinaidokolpitai are listed in Stephanus of Byzantium 's Ethnika (5th century). All his information is derived from other written sources, such as Ptolemy and Marcian of Heracleia (who wrote at an unknown date). He gives the capital of the Kinaidokolpitai as Zadrame and quotes Marcian placing

574-625: The first letter of the pair indicates vowels which should be taken (and romanized) separately. Although the second vowel is not marked with a superfluous diaeresis in Greek, the first-edition ELOT 743 and the UN systems place a diaeresis on the Latin vowel for the sake of clarity. Apart from the diacritical marks native to Greek itself or used to romanize its characters, linguists also regularly mark vowel length with macrons (  ¯  ) marking long vowels and rounded breves (  ˘  ) marking short vowels . Where these are romanized, it

615-516: The section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below. ELOT approved in 1982 the ELOT 743 standard, revised in 2001, whose Type 2 (Greek: Τύπος 2 , romanized:  Typos 2 ) transcription scheme has been adopted by the Greek and Cypriot governments as standard for romanization of names on Greek and Cypriot passports . It also comprised a Type 1 (Greek: Τύπος 1 , romanized:  Typos 1 ) transliteration table, which

656-410: The transcriptions of Modern Greek into Latin letters used by ELOT, UN and ISO are essentially equivalent, while there remain minor differences in how they approach reversible transliteration . The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Modern Greek" system for all works and authors following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. In the table below,

697-695: The 1st century BC, the Arabian city of Eudaemon (usually identified with the port of Aden , and meaning "good spirit" in the sense of angelic beings), in Arabia Felix, was a transshipping port in the Red Sea trade. It was described in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (probably 1st century AD) as if it had fallen on hard times. Of the auspiciously named port we read in the periplus that In 26 BC, Aelius Gallus under Augustus ' order led

738-698: The Kassanitai of Ptolemy. Von Wissman thought the Kinaidokolpitai were the coast-dwellers and the Arabitai the Bedouin of the interior. Cosmas Indicopleustes , who copied the now lost inscription in 548 or 549, glosses Arabitai and Kinaidokolpitai as "the inhabitants of Arabia Felix ", which is uninformative. In the Collection of Chronologies , written in 235, presents the Kinaidokolpitai as colonists from Midian. The author has probably identified them with

779-527: The Kinaidokolpitai alongside the Zadramites. His testimony cannot be taken as evidence for the continued existence of the Kinaidokolpitai in his time. Romanization of Greek Romanization of Greek is the transliteration ( letter -mapping) or transcription ( sound -mapping) of text from the Greek alphabet into the Latin alphabet . The conventions for writing and romanizing Ancient Greek and Modern Greek differ markedly. The sound of

820-533: The Kinaidokolpitai are described as inhabiting the Arabian coast of the Red Sea . Their territory began after Iambia (probably Yanbu ) and the tribe of Arsai (probably the Irasha, a clan of the Bali ). It encompassed, from north to south: the villages of Kopar and Arga (Agar); the city of Zambram, their capital ( basileion ); the village of Kentos (Kentosi, Kantosi); and the city of Thebai. The southern limit of their land

861-638: The Red Sea, and I brought their kings under my rule. I commanded them to pay tax on their land and to travel in peace by land and sea. I made war from Leuke Kome to the lands of the Sabaeans. And I sent a fleet and land forces against the Arabitae and Cinaedocolpitae who dwelt on the other side of the Red Sea, and having reduced the sovereigns of both, I imposed on them a land tribute and charged them to make travelling safe both by sea and by land. I thus subdued

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902-676: The United Kingdom's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN) and by the United States' Board on Geographic Names (BGN) in 1996, and by the ISO itself in 1997. Romanization of names for official purposes (as with passports and identity cards) were required to use the ELOT system within Greece until 2011, when a legal decision permitted Greeks to use irregular forms (such as " Demetrios " for Δημήτριος ) provided that official identification and documents also list

943-502: The ancient world was its near monopoly of the trade in cinnamon and spices, both its native products and imports from India and the Horn of Africa . Strabo says that Arabia Felix was composed of five kingdoms, one each of warriors, farmers, "those who engage in the mechanical arts; another, the myrrh -bearing country, and another the frankincense -bearing country, although the same countries produce cassia , cinnamon, and nard ." In

984-436: The classical Greek alphabet such as heta ( Ͱ & ͱ ), meanwhile, usually take their nearest English equivalent (in this case, h ) but are too uncommon to be listed in formal transliteration schemes. Uncommon Greek letters which have been given formal romanizations include: The sounds of Modern Greek have diverged from both those of Ancient Greek and their descendant letters in English and other languages. This led to

1025-404: The first rather than the second vowel letter, or by having a diaeresis ( ¨ ) over the second letter. For treatment of accents and diaereses —for example, ϊ —also see the section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below. The traditional polytonic orthography of Greek uses several distinct diacritical marks to render what was originally the pitch accent of Ancient Greek and

1066-532: The garrison, probably cavalrymen, were sent out on the 20th of the month Tobi "with a diploma (official missive) concerning the Chinedakolpitai". The implication of the Adulis throne inscription is that in the middle of the 2nd century or early in the 3rd, the Kinaidokolpitai were raiding the incense route , both its sea-lanes and overland roads, that connected South Arabia and the Horn of Africa with

1107-594: The inspiration for the later Etruscan and Roman numerals . This early system was replaced by Greek numerals which employed the entire alphabet, including the nonstandard letters digamma , stigma , or sigma-tau (placed between epsilon and zeta), koppa (placed between pi and rho), and sampi (placed after omega). As revised in 2001, ELOT 743 provides for the uncommon characters to be given (in Greek) as $ for stigma, + for koppa, and / for sampi. These symbols are not given lower-case equivalents. When used as numbers,

1148-763: The letters are used in combination with the upper keraia numeral sign ⟨ ʹ ⟩ to denote numbers from 1 to 900 and in combination with the lower keraia ⟨ ͵ ⟩ to denote multiples of 1000. ( For a full table of the signs and their values, see Greek numerals .) These values are traditionally romanized as Roman numerals , so that Αλέξανδρος Γ' ο Μακεδών would be translated as Alexander III of Macedon and transliterated as Aléxandros III o Makedṓn rather than Aléxandros G' or Aléxandros 3 . Greek laws and other official documents of Greece which employ these numerals, however, are to be formally romanized using "decimal" Arabic numerals . Ancient Greek text did not mark word division with spaces or interpuncts , instead running

1189-535: The modern period, classical and medieval Greek was also set using a wide array of ligatures , symbols combining or abbreviating various sets of letters, such as those included in Claude Garamond 's 16th-century grecs du roi . For the most part, such variants—as ϖ and [REDACTED] for π , ϛ for σ τ , and ϗ for και —are just silently emended to their standard forms and transliterated accordingly. Letters with no equivalent in

1230-422: The name is composed of κίναιδος (homosexual, pervert) and κολπίτης (those living on a gulf). Glen Bowersock interprets this as an obscenity (if Greek), but Hélène Cuvigny and Christian Robin consider it to have a more positive connotation associated with erotic dancers (to which κίναιδος could also refer). The first part of the name may relate to the later Arab tribe of Kinda , deliberately rendered in Greek in

1271-526: The peoples subdued by the king of Aksum according to the Adulis throne inscription , which dates from some time between the mid-2nd and early 3rd century. It is possibly contemporary with or even a little earlier than Ptolemy. There are two slightly different ways of translating this inscription: I sent both a fleet and an army of infantry against the Arabitai and the Kinaidocolpitai who dwell across

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1312-418: The presence or absence of word-initial /h/ . In 1982, monotonic orthography was officially introduced for modern Greek. The only diacritics that remain are the acute accent (indicating stress) and the diaeresis (indicating that two consecutive vowels should not be combined). When a Greek diphthong is accented, the accent mark is placed over the second letter of the pair. This means that an accent over

1353-547: The sound: ⟨th⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, and ⟨ch⟩. Because English orthography has changed so much from the original Greek , modern scholarly transliteration now usually renders ⟨κ⟩ as ⟨k⟩ and the diphthongs ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩. " Greeklish " has also spread within Greece itself, owing to the rapid spread of digital telephony from cultures using the Latin alphabet . Since Greek typefaces and fonts are not always supported or robust, Greek email and chatting has adopted

1394-427: The special rules for vowel combinations ( αι, αυ, ει, ευ, ηυ, οι, ου, ωυ ) only apply when these letters function as digraphs . There are also words where the same letters stand side by side incidentally but represent separate vowels. In these cases each of the two letters is transcribed separately according to the normal rules for single letters. Such cases are marked in Greek orthography by either having an accent on

1435-618: The standard forms (as, for example, "Demetrios OR Dimitrios"). Other romanization systems still encountered are the BGN/PCGN's earlier 1962 system and the system employed by the American Library Association and the United States' Library of Congress . Arabia Felix Arabia Felix (literally: Fertile/Happy Arabia; also Ancient Greek : Εὐδαίμων Ἀραβία, Eudaemon Arabia ) was the Latin name previously used by geographers to describe South Arabia , or what

1476-546: The three regions into which the Romans divided the peninsula: Arabia Deserta , Arabia Felix, and Arabia Petraea . The southwestern corner of the peninsula experienced more rainfall in ancient times and was thus much greener than the rest of the peninsula, enjoying more productive fields. The high peaks and slopes are capable of supporting significant vegetation and river beds called wadis help make other soil fertile. Part of what led to Arabia Felix's wealth and importance to

1517-412: The whole coast from Leuce Come to the country of the Sabaeans. Regarding the location of the Kinaidokolpitai, the inscriptions says only that it lay between former Nabataean port of Leuke Kome and the land of Saba , as did that of Arabitai. These latter people are not otherwise attested and their name seems to be a doublet of Arabes ( Arabs ), although some scholars have identified them with

1558-469: The words together ( scripta continua ). In the Hellenistic period, a variety of symbols arose for punctuation or editorial marking ; such punctuation (or the lack thereof) are variously romanized, inserted, or ignored in different modern editions. Modern Greek punctuation generally follows French with the notable exception of Greek's use of a separate question mark , the erotimatiko , which

1599-611: Was a form of the Cumaean alphabet derived from the Euboean script that valued Χ as / k s / and Η as / h / and used variant forms of Λ and Σ that became L and S . When this script was used to write the classical Greek alphabet, ⟨κ⟩ was replaced with ⟨c⟩, ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ became ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ were simplified to ⟨i⟩ (more rarely—corresponding to an earlier pronunciation—⟨e⟩) and ⟨u⟩. Aspirated consonants like ⟨θ⟩, ⟨φ⟩, initial-⟨ρ⟩, and ⟨χ⟩ simply wrote out

1640-475: Was extensively modified in the second edition of the standard. International versions of ELOT 743, with an English language standard document, were approved by the UN (V/19, 1987) and the British and American governments. The ISO approved in 1997 its version, ISO 843 , with a different Type 1 transliteration system, which was adopted four years later by ELOT itself, while the U.N. did not update its version. So

1681-676: Was the river Baitios, probably the wādī Bayḑ or Baysh , beyond which lived the Kassanitai. These are probably the Ghassānids before they migrated north. This places their southern limit in the northern ʿAsīr roughly opposite the Farasan Islands . Ptolemy also places an unnamed mountain in the territory of the Kinaidokolpitai. It has been identified with the Jabal Shār in Midian (north of Yanbu). The Kinaidokolpitai next appear as one of

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