Asia-Pacific
110-559: Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups The 1944 Romanian coup d'état , better known in Romanian historiography as the Act of 23 August ( Romanian : Actul de la 23 august ), was a coup d'état led by King Michael I of Romania during World War II on 23 August 1944. With the support of several political parties, the king removed the government of Ion Antonescu , which had aligned Romania with Nazi Germany , after
220-602: A delegation consisting of Prince Barbu A. Știrbey , General Dumitru Dămăceanu , Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , and Ghiță Popp to negotiate and sign the Armistice Convention in Moscow with the United Nations . The Russians delayed receiving the delegation until their army had fully occupied the Romanian territory. The deed was signed on September 12. On September 15, a working meeting took place between members of
330-906: A diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime but the British quickly learned of the German arrangements through intercepted Italian diplomatic transmissions. On 6 May, in accordance with the Paris Protocols , Germany concluded a deal with the Vichy French government to release war materials, including aircraft, from sealed stockpiles in the French Mandate of Syria and transport them to Iraq. The French also agreed to allow passage of other weapons and material and loaned several airbases in northern Syria to Germany, for
440-446: A further several hundred thousand captured during the process of the various campaigns. British losses amount to over 300,000 men killed, wounded, or captured, and total American losses in the region amounted to 130,000. During the late 1920s, Benito Mussolini claimed that Italy needed an outlet for its " surplus population " and that it would be in other countries' best interests to aid in this expansion. The regime wanted "hegemony in
550-566: A non-confrontational retreat to Killinger, but the Germans considered the coup "reversible" and tried to turn the situation around by military attacks. On 23 August 1944, the King met with Prime Minister Ion Antonescu , Foreign Affairs Minister Mihai Antonescu (no relation) and General Constantin Sănătescu . During discussions that lasted an hour, Ion Antonescu informed the King of the situation at
660-535: A plot to arrest him and fled Baghdad for RAF Habbaniya , from whence he was flown to Basra and given refuge on the Insect-class gunboat HMS Cockchafer . On 1 April, Rashid Ali, along with four senior Army and Air Force officers known as the " Golden Square ", seized power via a coup d'état and Rashid Ali proclaimed himself Chief of the "National Defence Government." The Golden Square deposed al-Hashimi and restored Rashid Ali. Ali did not overthrow
770-701: A strong escort for convoys to and from the Malta. Malta was 60 miles (97 km) from Sicily and one of the first targets of the Italian army and the Regia Aeronautica ; the air defence of Malta comprised six obsolescent Gloster Gladiator biplanes. After the first Italian air attacks it became clear that Malta could be defended and in early July, the Gladiators were reinforced by twelve Hawker Hurricane fighters. The Kriegsmarine began operations in
880-507: A total of 169,822 casualties (in all causes) fighting on the Allied side. Ion Antonescu was placed under arrest; the new prime minister, Lt. Gen. Constantin Sănătescu , gave custody of Antonescu to Romanian communists who would turn the former dictator over to the Soviets on 1 September. He was later returned to Romania, where he was tried and executed in 1946. For his actions, King Michael
990-691: A weak force garrisoning the gains made from Operation Compass. In March, the Battle of Kufra ended with the Italians losing the desert oasis of Kufra—a vital link between Italian east and north Africa—which was located in south-eastern Libya. In North Africa, the Italians responded to the defeat of their Tenth Army by dispatching armour and motorised divisions. Germany dispatched the Afrika Korps in Operation Sonnenblume , to bolster
1100-636: The Order of the Star of Romania with swords in the rank of Grand Officer with the ribbon of Military Virtue "for the dexterity with which he led the troops of the Army Corps in the battle of Odessa. Acting with all his might, he definitively defeated the enemy resistance in the South Tătarca region, entering Odessa." He was promoted to the rank of Army Corps General on January 24, 1942. In March 1943, he
1210-590: The Armistice Agreement with Rumania stipulated that "An Allied Control Commission will be established which will undertake until the conclusion of peace the regulation of and control over the execution of the present terms under the general direction and orders of the Allied (Soviet) High Command, acting on behalf of the Allied Powers." The Annex to Article 18, specified that "The Romanian Government and their organs shall fulfill all instructions of
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#17327762847751320-885: The Axis powers and joined the Allies . Sănătescu was born on January 14, 1885, in Craiova . He was the son of the infantry lieutenant Gheorghe Sănătescu (1858–1942), a future general. He graduated from the School of Sons of Soldiers in Iași (1905), then attended the Military School of Infantry and Cavalry in Bucharest (September 1, 1905 – July 1, 1907). He attended military school in the same class with future Generals Gheorghe Mihail and Nicolae Macici , being promoted after graduation to
1430-669: The Battle of Taranto on the night of 12/13 November. After assembling enough forces the British launched a counter-attack upon the Italians in Egypt. Operation Compass drove the Italians out of Egypt and resulted in the destruction of the Italian 10th Army in February 1941. Following this success, British forces adopted a defensive position in North Africa and redeployed most troops to Greece in Operation Lustre , leaving
1540-747: The Battle of the Kasserine Pass and a temporary defensive success at the Battle of the Mareth Line . After shattering the Axis defence on the Mareth Line, the Allies squeezed Axis forces into a pocket around Tunis. Axis resistance in Africa ended on 13 May 1943, with the unconditional surrender of nearly 240,000 men, who became prisoners of war . Following the Allied victory in North Africa. The Allies now turn their attention in knocking out Italy from
1650-795: The First Battle of El Alamein , which had stalled the Axis advance into Egypt, British forces went onto the offensive in October. The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a watershed in the Western Desert Campaign and turned the tide in the North African Campaign . It ended the Axis threat to Egypt, the Suez Canal and of gaining access to the Middle Eastern and Persian oil fields via North Africa. As
1760-606: The German invasion of the United Kingdom . While his generals did not believe they were prepared, they were ordered to push forward without any solid objectives. On 9 September, Italian aircraft start preparation bombardments for the invasion of Egypt. Four days later, Italian infantry attacked and advanced as far as Sidi Barrani before digging in, 80 mi (130 km) west of the main British position at Mersa Matruh . In East Africa, after some initial offensive actions,
1870-724: The Greek Civil War . The British referred to this theatre as the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre (so called due to the location of the fighting and the name of Middle East Command ), the Americans called it the Mediterranean Theater of War and the German informal official history of the fighting is the Mediterranean, South-East Europe, and North Africa 1939–1941. Despite the large size of
1980-656: The Higher War School (April 1, 1919 – November 1, 1920), being assigned to the General Staff after graduation. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel on April 1, 1921. On November 2, 1926, he was transferred to the General Secretariat of the Ministry of War and on July 1, 1927, he was promoted to colonel. Colonel Sănătescu was appointed on May 5, 1928, as a military attaché in
2090-718: The Italian conquest of British Somaliland began in August and annexed the colony. After crossing the Albanian border, Italian forces began the Greco-Italian War by invading Greece on 28 October. The Greek army repulsed the Italian attack and commenced a counter-offensive on 14 November, which pushed Italian forces back into Albania. The Royal Navy inflicted a major setback upon the Italian Royal Navy during
2200-819: The Italian invasion of France , just before the end of the Battle of France . During June, the East African Campaign began with Italian attacks in East Africa, although ground combat did not start until July. On 22 June, France signed an armistice at Compiegne with Germany and on 24 June, the Franco-Italian Armistice was signed. Italy gained a 50 kilometres (31 mi) demilitarised zone inside France (as well as similar zones where Italian and French colonies met). Italian occupation forces took over an 832 km (321 sq mi) area of France, which included 28,500 people and
2310-741: The National Liberal Party , and the National Peasants' Party who had coalesced into the National Democratic Bloc in June 1944. According to Silviu Brucan , the two main conspirators from the Communist Party's side were Emil Bodnăraș and Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , who contacted King Michael to prepare a coup d'état against Ion Antonescu. The first meeting between King Michael's representatives with
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#17327762847752420-461: The Petru Groza cabinet, Stalin approved the return of all of Northern Transylvania to Romanian administration. Subsequent Hungarian efforts to recover part of Northern Transylvania were in vain. In October 1944, Winston Churchill , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , proposed an agreement with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin on how to divide Eastern Europe into spheres of influence after
2530-645: The Romanian Revolution of 1989 and was only allowed to return to the country in 1992. Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II Allied victory Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups The Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre was a major theatre of operations during the Second World War . The vast size of the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre saw interconnected naval, land, and air campaigns fought for control of
2640-569: The Shah was widely viewed as pro-German by the allies. Following the Shah's refusal to open Iran up as a supply route for war materiel to the USSR; the allies invaded and occupied Iran in August 1941. The Shah, who urged his military not to resist the invasion, was deposed and his young son placed on the throne as titular head of an allied controlled puppet government . Iranian oil fields were secured and
2750-627: The Soviet Union . Devastating losses in the Magreb , Egypt , and Tunisia halted Axis interference in North Africa by May 1943. The Allies then invaded Italy , resulting in an armistice authorized by the royal government, causing a civil war . A prolonged battle for Italy commenced between the Allied-aligned Kingdom of Italy in the south and Axis-aligned Italian Social Republic in the north, lasting until 2 May 1945 with
2860-574: The Spanish Civil War " began. On 7 April 1939, Mussolini began the Italian invasion of Albania and within two days had occupied the country. In May 1939, Italy formally allied to Nazi Germany in the Pact of Steel . Italian foreign policy went through two stages during the Fascist regime. Until 1934–35, Mussolini followed a "modest ... and responsible" course and following that date there
2970-622: The Surrender at Caserta . The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre had the longest duration of the World War II, resulted in the destruction of the Italian Empire , and severely undermined the strategic position of Germany, resulting in German divisions being deployed to Africa and Italy and total German losses (including those captured upon final surrender) being over two million. Italian losses amounted to around 177,000 men with
3080-463: The de facto change of orientation of Romania in the war came on 12 September 1944. Until this date, Soviet troops started moving into Romania, taking approximately 140,000 Romanian prisoners of war. About 130,000 Romanian POWs were transported to the Soviet Union, where many perished in prison camps. The armistice was signed on the same date, 12 September 1944, on Allied terms. Article 18 of
3190-500: The monarchy and named a new Regent to King Faisal II , Sherif Sharaf . The leaders of the "National Defence Government" proceeded to arrest many pro-British citizens and politicians but many escaped through Amman in Transjordan. The new regime planned to refuse further concessions to the United Kingdom, to retain diplomatic links with Fascist Italy and to expel the most prominent pro-British politicians. The plotters considered
3300-578: The 7th Roșiori Regiment. He fought against Bulgaria during the Second Balkan War (1913). Captain Sănătescu took part in the battles of the First World War and was promoted to the rank of major on September 1, 1917. From February 15, 1918, he served in the staff of the 16th Infantry Division, then was transferred to the General Staff, and later became an instructor at the Military School of Active Cavalry Officers. He then attended
3410-634: The Allied Control Commission arising out of the Armistice Agreement." It also made clear that the Allied Control Commission would have its seat in Bucharest . In line with Article 14 of the Armistice Agreement, two Romanian People's Tribunals were set up to try suspected war criminals. Article 19 stipulated the return to Romania of "Transylvania or the greater part of it". This phrasing conveyed
1944 Romanian coup d'état - Misplaced Pages Continue
3520-519: The Axis forces in Libya. During 1941, the British launched several offensives to push back the Axis forces in North Africa. Operation Brevity failed as did Operation Battleaxe but Operation Crusader , the third and larger offensive was launched at the end of the year. Over December 1941 into early 1942, Allied forces pushed the Italian-German forces back through Libya to roughly the limit of
3630-408: The Axis front in northeastern Romania collapsed in the face of a successful Soviet offensive . The Romanian Army declared a unilateral ceasefire with the Soviet Red Army on the Moldavian front, an event viewed as decisive in the Allied advances against the Axis powers in the European theatre of World War II . The coup was supported by the Romanian Communist Party , the Social Democratic Party ,
3740-484: The Axis war effort in the North African theatre . Enno von Rintelen, who was the military attaché in Rome, emphasises, from the German point of view, the strategic mistake of not taking Malta . When Italy entered the war the Iraqi government did not break off diplomatic relations, as they had done with Germany. The Italian Legation in Baghdad became the centre for Axis propaganda and for fomenting anti-British feeling. In this they were aided by Mohammad Amin al-Husayni ,
3850-439: The Axis. Within one month, Bulgaria and Finland also changed sides, the Slovak National Uprising began, and a failed coup was attempted in Croatia on 18 September. Economically, Albert Speer regarded Romania's defection as decisive, because it not only deprived the Axis of Romanian oil but also definitively cut off access to vital supplies of Turkish chrome. The loss of Romania's oil resulted in Hitler's first admission that
3960-416: The British appointee as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem , who had fled from the British Mandate of Palestine shortly before the outbreak of war and later received asylum in Baghdad. In January 1941, there was a political crisis within Iraq as Rashid Ali resigned as Prime Minister of Iraq and was replaced by Taha al-Hashimi ; civil war loomed. On 31 March, the Regent of Iraq, Prince 'Abd al-Ilah , learnt of
4070-493: The British decided "that Italy could not now be regarded as a reliable friend" and preparations began to bring "the defences of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea ports up-to-date". In 1938, a weak armoured division was established in Egypt and further army and air force reinforcements were dispatched from Britain. With rising tension in Europe, in June 1939, the United Kingdom established Middle East Command (MEC) in Cairo to provide centralised command for British army units in
4180-492: The British forces and forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat. The Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 mi (160 km) east to Sollum on the Libyan–Egyptian border. </ref> The main Axis force began the Siege of Tobruk , and a small German force pressed eastwards, retaking all territory lost to Operation Compass, and advanced into Egypt. By
4290-414: The Caucasus and the Indian Ocean. The purpose of the command was to be "the western bastion of defence of India", keep British supply lines open to India and the Far East , and keep the Middle Eastern oilfields out of Axis hands. Upon the establishment of MEC, it was ordered to co-ordinate with the French military in the Middle East and Africa as well as liaise with the Turkish General Staff and possibly
4400-518: The Communists was during the night of 13–14 June 1944 in a secret house of the communists, at 103 Calea Moșilor . Apart from the two communist conspirators, participants in the meeting were Gen. Gheorghe Mihail , Gen. Constantin Sănătescu and Col. Dumitru Dămăceanu , while King Michael was represented by Baron Ioan Mocsony-Stârcea [ ro ] (marshal of the palace), Mircea Ionnițiu (private secretary) and Grigore Niculescu-Buzești (diplomatic adviser). The King's representatives presented
4510-410: The Eighth Army pushed west across the desert, capturing Libya, German and Italian forces occupied southern France and landed in Tunisia. On 8 November, Allied forces launched Operation Torch landing in various places across French North Africa. In December 1942, after a 101-day British blockade, French Somaliland fell to the Allies. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941,
1944 Romanian coup d'état - Misplaced Pages Continue
4620-410: The General Staff, Sănătescu passed to the command of the 3rd Cavalry Division and was promoted on October 25 to the rank of major general. He then held the positions of commander of the 8th Army Corps, commander of the Cavalry Corps, commander of the Military Command of the Capital during the Legionnaires' rebellion and commander of the 4th Army Corps (1941–1943). As commander of the 8th Army Corps, it
4730-424: The German attack. The Greek army found itself outnumbered in its effort to defend against both Italian and German troops. As a result, the Metaxas defensive line did not receive adequate troop reinforcements and was quickly overrun by the Germans, who then outflanked the Greek forces at the Albanian border, forcing their surrender. British, Australian and New Zealand forces were overwhelmed and forced to retreat, with
4840-455: The Gigurtu plan, through which the King would meet Baron Manfred Freiherr von Killinger , the German ambassador in Bucharest, to discuss the replacement of Antonescu with a cabinet led by Ion Gigurtu . The Communist Party thought that this plan was "naïve and dangerous", as it would have alerted the Gestapo and that it would have meant even more German espionage. The Communist Party presented an alternative plan, through which King Michael, who
4950-406: The Greek General Staff. On 19 October 1939, the Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed between the United Kingdom, France and Turkey and British military forces were authorised to begin discussions with the Turkish general staff; a further conference was held during March 1940. Within a week of the Italian occupation of Albania, France and the United Kingdom "announced they had promised to give all
5060-453: The Indian Ocean through the Sudan and Abyssinia, or to the Atlantic by way of French North Africa". On 2 October 1935, the Second Italo–Ethiopian War began when Italian forces invaded Abyssinia. Mussolini lauded the conquest as a new source of raw materials and location for emigration and speculated that a native army could be raised there to "help conquer the Sudan . "Almost as soon as the Abyssinian campaign ended, Italian intervention in
5170-485: The Iraqi army and British reinforcements were dispatched to Iraq from Transjordan and India. The larger but poorly trained Iraqi force was defeated and Baghdad and Mosul were captured. Ali and his supporters fled the country and an armistice was signed, restoring the monarchy of Faisal II, the Kingdom of Iraq and a pro-British government. The defeat of the rebellion saw the defeat of the German-Italian attempt to entrench an Axis state in Iraq and worsened relations between
5280-416: The Italian colonies, the Allies sought to bring the entire French empire effectively into the war against the Axis powers. They reopened the Mediterranean route to the Middle East. They went on from Africa to liberate Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. They caused Mussolini to topple from power, and they brought his successors to surrender. They drew more and more German military resources into a stubborn defence of
5390-411: The Italian leader, who was subsequently arrested. The new government announced that it would continue the war but secretly commenced negotiations with the Allies. Constantin S%C4%83n%C4%83tescu Constantin Sănătescu (14 January 1885 – 8 November 1947 ) was a Romanian general and statesman who served as the 44th Prime Minister of Romania after the 23 August 1944 coup after which Romania left
5500-419: The Italian peninsula, and helped the Yugoslavs to pin down within their spirited country thousands of Axis troops. Eventually, the Allies delivered a solid blow from southern France against the German forces which were opposing the Allied drive from the beaches of Normandy! They made Marseilles available for Allied use and they occupied northern Italy and Greece." Howe further notes that "Hitler had always accepted
5610-401: The Italians with a mission to block further Allied attempts to drive the Italians out of the region. It's commander was General Erwin Rommel and Rommel himself was subordinated to the Italian command. But Rommel seized on the weakness of his opponents and without waiting for his forces to fully assemble, rapidly went on the offensive. In March–April 1941, the German and Italian forces defeated
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#17327762847755720-415: The Mediterranean . The siege of Malta soon began, with the first Italian air attack on 11 June. In the Western Desert , Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft attacked Italian positions inside Libya. On 11 June, the Western Desert Campaign began, as the British launched minor raids and conducted patrols along the Libyan–Egyptian border and on 17 June, Fort Capuzzo was captured. On 20 June, Mussolini began
5830-429: The Mediterranean and Middle East theatre. All three branches of the British military were made equally responsible for the defence of the area. The authority of MEC included Aden , British Somaliland , Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea , Ethiopia, Kenya , Greece, Libya , Palestine , Iraq , Sudan, Tanganyika , Transjordan , Uganda and the shores of the Persian Gulf . If necessary, command would be exerted as far away as
5940-494: The Mediterranean with establishment of the 23rd U-boat Flotilla at a base on Salamis Island in Greece in September 1941. The flotilla was to operate against British supply convoys to Allied forces on Malta and in Tobruk. On 7 December, control of the 23rd Flotilla was transferred from Kernével to Field Marshal Albert Kesselring , Commander in Chief South ( OB Süd ) in Italy. Additional bases were established in Pola and La Spezia in northern Italy, as more U-boats were sent to
6050-404: The Mediterranean, North Africa , the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and Southern Europe . The fighting started from 10 June 1940, when Italy declared war on United Kingdom and France , until 2 May 1945 when all Axis forces in Italy surrendered. However, fighting would continue in Greece – where British troops had been dispatched to aid the Greek government – during the early stages of
6160-413: The Mediterranean. Bombing and the naval blockade led to food and commodity shortages and rationing was imposed on the inhabitants. Luftwaffe reinforcements in the Mediterranean joined in the bombing but during a lull in early 1942, 61 Supermarine Spitfires were delivered, which very much improved the defensive situation, although food, ammunition, and fuel were still short. Supply runs during lulls in
6270-496: The Mediterranean–Danubian–Balkan region" and the gaining of world power by the conquest "of an empire stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Strait of Hormuz ". The Fascists had designs on Albania , Dalmatia , large parts of Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Macedonia and Greece and harked back to the Roman empire. The regime also sought to establish protectorates with Austria , Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria . Covert motives were for Italy to become
6380-484: The Prime Minister. Later that night, at 10 pm, the King announced over the radio that Antonescu had been deposed and an armistice with the Allied Powers and the Soviet Union would be accepted. The Romanian forces — namely the First Army , the Second Army (under formation), the remnants of the Third Army and the Fourth Army (one corps) — were under orders from the king to defend Romania against any German attacks. The king then offered to put Romania's battered armies on
6490-436: The RAF in their war with the Italians in Albania. As it became likely Germany would attack Greece, four British divisions were switched from North Africa to reinforce Greek Army. The advanced guards of these troops began arriving in March 1941, triggering the entry of German forces into Bulgaria, which made clear the German intent to invade Greece. In April 1941, Germans, Italians, Hungarians and Bulgarians made quick work of
6600-407: The Romanian Legation in London , where he remained for two years until June 30, 1930. After returning to Romania, he was entrusted with the command of the Mounted Guards Regiment. He was appointed the Chief of Staff of the General Inspectorate of the Cavalry on October 1, 1933. After a year, he returned to the General Staff, and on June 15, 1935, he became the commander of the 3rd Cavalry Brigade. He
6710-556: The Royal Yugoslav army . They captured Yugoslavia in 11 days and partitioned it among themselves and newly formed client states: The Independent State of Croatia and Nedić's Serbia . In spring 1941, Italy created a Montenegrin client state and annexed most of the Dalmatian coast as the Governorship of Dalmatia ( Governatorato di Dalmazia ). A complex guerrilla uprising of communist -led Partisans , commanded by Josip Broz Tito , soon broke out. A more ambivalent, predominantly Serb paramilitary movement of royalist Chetniks both fought
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#17327762847756820-412: The Sănătescu government and participants in the signing of the armistice during which Iuliu Maniu observed that Romania's negotiators had to "accept points that represent a real capitulation, not a free Armistice contract." Also, on September 12, 1944, at the energetic intervention of Sănătescu, Anton Buga, who had been sentenced to death, was released. On November 4, 1944, the Second Sănătescu cabinet
6930-553: The UK and Vichy France, culminating in the Syria-Lebanon Campaign . In Operation Exporter, Australian, Free French , British and Indian units invaded Syria and Lebanon from Palestine in the south on 8 June 1941. Vigorous resistance was met from the Vichy French but superior Allied infantry equipment and numbers overwhelmed the defenders. More attacks were launched at the end of June and early July from Iraq into northern and central Syria, by Iraqforce . By 8 July, north-east Syria had been captured and elements of Iraqforce had advanced up
7040-442: The United Kingdom "disclaimed any desire to modify or see modified the national sovereignty of any country in the Mediterranean area, and agreed to discourage any activities liable to impair mutual relations." Italian diplomatic and military moves did not reflect this agreement. In the aftermath of the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, British and Italian forces in North Africa were reinforced. Due to various Italian moves, in July 1937,
7150-499: The United Kingdom to be weak and believed that its government would negotiate with their new government regardless of its legality. On 17 April, Rashid Ali, on behalf of the "National Defence Government" asked Germany for military assistance in the event of war with the British. Ali attempted to restrict British rights guaranteed under Article 5 of the 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, when he insisted that newly arrived British troops quickly be transported through Iraq and to Palestine. Before
7260-405: The United States joined the war. On 8 November 1942, American forces entered combat in North Africa with Operation Torch, which "transformed the Mediterranean from a British to an Allied theater of war", "succeeding operations in the Mediterranean area proved far more extensive than intended. One undertaking was to lead to the next". After liberating French North Africa and clearing the enemy from
7370-459: The assumption that Britain would soon be at war with Italy, planning began for attacks to capture Bardia and Jaghbub (Giarabub) in Libya and arrangements began in Egypt, to accommodate a much larger force. Preparations to reinforce the Iraqi army were made and Palestinian security forces were to be reduced to the minimum. British forces in East Africa were to study operations to destroy the Italian forces and support local risings, all in support of
7480-400: The bombing kept Malta in being but many ships like SS Ohio were damaged too severely to leave. The defence of the island ensured that the Allies had an advantage in the fight to control the Mediterranean and as the garrison recovered from periods of intense bombing, aircraft, submarines and light surface ships resumed attacks on Axis supply ships, leading to fuel and supply shortages for
7590-511: The campaign, allowing the Empire of Ethiopia to be re-established under Haile Selassie . A number of Italian garrisons continued to hold out, but the last of these, at Gondar , surrendered in November. Small groups of Italian troops carried out the Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia until October 1943. In the Balkans , the Greeks had been reluctant to allow British troops into the country, because Britain could not spare enough forces to guarantee victory. They had, however, accepted aid from
7700-534: The commandos. Three of the participants were arrested by the Transjordan Frontier Force a few days after their landing. The German commander was captured in 1946 and the fifth, Hasan Salama , succeeded in escaping. In 1943 a small team of German agents parachuted into Iraqi Kurdistan with the goal of covertly sabotaging Kirkuk oil fields and create a Kurdish uprising against the British with assistance from local Kurds who were seeking to create an independent Kurdistan . Further reinforcements of Nazis with weapons
7810-399: The coup, Rashid Ali's supporters had been informed that Germany would recognise the independence of Iraq from the British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British. On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop persuaded Adolf Hitler to secretly return Dr. Fritz Grobba to Iraq to lead
7920-577: The descendants of Machiavelli were mere bunglers .)". Due to Romania's successful defection, most of the country's economy had survived virtually intact. The ensuing reconstruction of the oil industry showed that Romania had less power of dissension under Stalin than under Hitler. Indeed, "occupation" much more accurately described the Soviet rather than the German presence in Romania. Unlike Italy's earlier capitulation, Romania's initiative began to unravel
8030-684: The dominant power in the Mediterranean, capable of challenging France or Britain and gaining access to the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . On 30 November 1938, Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council on the goal of capturing Albania, Tunisia , Corsica , the Ticino canton of Switzerland and "French territory east of the River Var (to include Nice , but not Savoy )". Mussolini alleged that Italy required uncontested access to
8140-560: The end of April, Sollum had fallen and the important Halfaya Pass captured. In East Africa , the British launched a counter-attack against the Italians from Kenya Colony in February 1941. Landings were subsequently conducted in British Somaliland and Italian Ethiopia , while an expedition from the Sudan moved on Addis Ababa . The Italian Viceroy, Duke Amedeo d'Aosta , was forced to surrender by 18 May which effectively ended
8250-404: The frontlines. King Michael asked Antonescu to get out of the war and sign an armistice with the Allies and the Soviets. Antonescu retorted that the armistice would be nullified by Germany and refused to commit to an armistice, especially with the Soviet Union. The King said "If things are so, then there's nothing we can do." This triggered the coup. A colonel and four soldiers came in and arrested
8360-605: The help in their power if Greek and Romanian independence were threatened and if the Greek Government or Romanian Government considered it vital to resist." British forces in the Middle East were ordered to avoid provocation. Following the defeat of Poland , the threat of an Axis attack from the Balkans against British positions in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean region increased. In late 1939, with
8470-614: The initial Italian attack and a counter-attack in March 1941. When the German invasion, known as Operation Marita , began on 6 April, the bulk of the Greek Army was on the Greek border with Albania , then a vassal of Italy, from which the Italian troops had attacked. German troops invaded from Bulgaria , creating a second front. Greece received a small reinforcement from British , Australian and New Zealand forces in anticipation of
8580-956: The line of supply to Russia established and maintained for the remainder of the war. Operation Atlas was carried out by a special commando unit of the Waffen SS and took place in October 1944. It involved five soldiers: three who were previously members of the Templer religious sect in Mandatory Palestine , and two Palestinian Arabs who were close collaborators of the mufti of Jerusalem , Amin al-Husseini . Atlas aimed at establishing an intelligence-gathering base in Mandatory Palestine, radioing information back to Germany, and recruiting and arming anti-British Palestinians by buying their support with gold. The plan failed utterly, and no meaningful action could be undertaken by
8690-482: The main Allied offensive, which was planned to be launched from French Somaliland . Troops in Sudan were also asked to consider launching operations against Kufra in southern Libya. On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom and next day the British Commonwealth declared war on Italy. The fleets of Italy, France and the United Kingdom began the hostilities of the Battle of
8800-530: The occupying forces and collaborated with them against the communists. The Partisans eventually gained recognition from the Allies as the sole resistance movement. With help from both the Soviets and the Western Allies, they turned into a formidable fighting force and successfully liberated the country. Following the Italian invasion on 28 October 1940, which is usually known as the Greco-Italian War , Greece, with British air and material support, repelled
8910-483: The oceans and shipping lanes to ensure its national sovereignty. Italy was a "prisoner in the Mediterranean" and had to break the chains of British and French control. Corsica, Cyprus , Gibraltar , Malta , Suez and Tunisia would need to be taken and Egypt , France, Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom had to be challenged. Through armed conquest, the north and east African colonies would be linked and this 'prison' destroyed. Italy would be able to march "either to
9020-452: The possibility of a revision of the Treaty of Trianon border, and it was meant to tempt Hungary to also cease fighting alongside Germany. On 15 October 1944, Miklós Horthy indeed tried to follow Romania's example, but his attempt was thwarted . Northern Transylvania was under Soviet military administration from November 1944 to March 1945. On 9 March 1945, three days after the formation of
9130-419: The previous Operation Compass advance. Taking advantage of the Allied position, German and Italian forces counter-attacked and pushed back the Allies to Gazala, west of Tobruk. As both sides prepared offensives, the Axis forces struck first and inflicted a big defeat upon the Allied forces during the Battle of Gazala . The routed Allied forces retreated to Egypt where they made a stand at El Alamein. Following
9240-494: The principle that the Mediterranean was an area of paramount Italian interest just as, farther north, German interests were exclusive. Allied forces were placed under the command of a Supreme Allied Commander AFHQ Mediterranean, General Dwight D. Eisenhower . Axis forces were caught between the Allied armies during the Tunisia Campaign but managed to delay the Allied advance by defensive operations, most notably with
9350-399: The rank of second lieutenant (July 1, 1907) and assigned to the 5th Roșiori Regiment. Sănătescu was promoted to lieutenant on July 1, 1910, and transferred on October 16 as an instructing officer to the Military School of Active Cavalry Officers. He obtained the rank of captain on April 1, 1915, and was appointed first as the commander of the squadron of the 10th Călărași Regiment and then in
9460-467: The rest of the island by 1 June. With their victory in the Battle of Crete the Germans had secured their southern flank and turned their attention towards the Soviet Union. Hitler later blamed the failure of his invasion of the Soviet Union on Mussolini 's failed conquest of Greece. Andreas Hillgruber has accused Hitler of trying to deflect blame for his country's defeat from himself to his ally, Italy. It nevertheless had serious consequences for
9570-815: The river Euphrates towards Aleppo , the rear of the Vichy forces defending Beirut from the advance from the south. Negotiations for an armistice were started on 11 July and surrender terms signed on 14 July. Supplies to the Soviet Union had been sent via the North Cape to Murmansk and Archangel soon after the German invasion but the number of ships available was limited and convoys were vulnerable to German air and submarine attack. Supplies were also sent from American pacific ports to Vladivostok in Soviet-flagged ships but Allied planners wished to open another supply route through Iran . Though officially neutral,
9680-565: The side of the Allies . Hungarian-American historian John Lukacs praised the coup, writing: "In August 1944, the Rumanians executed the most successful coup d'etat during World War II. With an entire German Army in their midst, they turned around within twenty-four hours and proclaimed their alliance with the Soviet Union, Britain and the United States. (Again the comparison with Italy is instructive: compared to this acrobatic feat,
9790-428: The theatre, the various campaigns were not seen as neatly separated areas of operations but part of a vast, contiguous theatre of war. Fascist Italy aimed to carve out a new Roman Empire, while the Allies aimed to retain the status quo. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940, and immediately invaded France and bombed Malta , which would remain under siege for over 2 years. Italian forces then attacked Greece , but it
9900-780: The town of Menton . The Royal Navy attacked the French fleet in the North African port of Mers-el-Kébir on 3 July 1940, after it refused to sail to Britain or the French West Indies and demobilise, as part of a larger plan to stop the French fleet from falling into German or Italian hands. When Italy entered the war, there were no plans for an invasion of Egypt while France was still able to resist. When France surrendered, Mussolini gave instructions for his generals to prepare an offensive. On 10 August, he instructed his forces to be prepared to attack in conjunction with
10010-515: The transport of German aircraft to Iraq. Between 9 May and the end of the month, about 100 German and about 20 Italian aircraft landed on Syrian airfields. On 30 April, the Iraqi Army surrounded and besieged RAF Habbaniya; the base had no operational aircraft but the RAF converted trainers to carry weapons and a battalion of infantry reinforcements was flown in. German and Italian aircraft supported
10120-555: The ultimate goal of evacuation. After moving through south-eastern Yugoslavia, the Germans had been able to turn the Allied flank, cutting off Greek units in the east of the country. Greek forces in central Macedonia were isolated from the Commonwealth forces moving up in an attempt stabilise the front, with the Germans then falling on the rear of the main Greek army facing the Italians in Macedonia. The German advance into Greece
10230-477: The war and force Germany to disperse its forces, the Allies invaded Sicily in Operation Husky on 10 July 1943, with amphibious and airborne landings. The German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island but evacuated most of their troops and equipment to the mainland before the Allies entered Messina on 17 August. On 25 July, the Italian government deposed Mussolini,
10340-492: The war was lost. All of these were accomplished with minimal damage to Romanian infrastructure, as the country's core never became a battlefield. The coup also marked the last instance when Romania's actions significantly influenced the wider course of the war. The coup sped the Red Army's advance into Romania. Romanian historians claimed that the coup shortened the war by as much as "six months." Formal Allied recognition of
10450-612: The war. It was reportedly agreed that Soviet Union would have a "90% share of influence" in Romania. The Romanian Army , from the armistice until the end of the war, were fighting alongside the Soviets against Germany and its remaining allies. They fought in Transylvania , Hungary and Czechoslovakia . In May 1945 the Romanian First and Fourth Armies took part in the Prague Offensive . The Romanians suffered
10560-519: Was "ceaseless activity and aggression". "Prior to the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini had made military agreements with the French and formed a coalition with the British and French to prevent German aggression in Europe." The Ethiopian War "exposed vulnerabilities and created opportunities that Mussolini seized to realise his imperial vision" At the Nyon Conference of 1937, Italy and
10670-577: Was General Sănătescu who stopped the Pogrom from Dorohoi against the Jews that was launched in 1940. When Romania joined the Second World War on June 22, 1941, Sănătescu was the commanding officer of the 4th Army Corps . He participated for two years in the battles on the Eastern Front , standing out in the Battle of Odessa and the Battle of Stalingrad . He was decorated on November 7, 1941, with
10780-407: Was accepted by both the military representatives and the King's advisers, who then convinced King Michael that it was the best solution. On 23 August 1944, the king joined with pro-Allied opposition politicians and led a successful coup with support from the army. The king, who was initially considered to be not much more than a "figurehead", was able to successfully depose Antonescu. The king offered
10890-617: Was awarded the Soviet Order of Victory by Joseph Stalin in 1945. He was also awarded the highest degree (Chief Commander) of the Legion of Merit by President Harry S. Truman a year later. Nevertheless, he functioned as little more than a figurehead under the new régime. He was finally forced to abdicate and leave the country in 1947. This allowed the Communists to set up a communist régime . Michael remained in exile until after
11000-757: Was called from the front and appointed head of the Royal Military House (March 20, 1943 – January 24, 1944) and then Marshal of the Palace (April 1, 1944 – August 23, 1944). He participated in several meetings with civilians and soldiers close to the Royal House who planned the overthrow of the Antonescu regime, Romania's exit from the anti-Soviet war and turning around the weapons against Nazi Germany . On August 23, 1944, King Michael I dismissed and arrested Marshal Ion Antonescu . Sănătescu
11110-441: Was entrusted with the important mission of consolidating the coup by repelling the attack of the German contingents in the country. In the battles between August 24 and August 31, a large part of Romania was liberated, but the Soviet Union de facto occupied the country . The appointment of Sănătescu to head the government was made official by a royal decree, which was issued only on September 1, 1944. The Sănătescu government sent
11220-580: Was formed, led by General Sănătescu. The cabinet faced the challenges of the Romanian Communist Party , supported by the Soviet Union, which requested that it be granted two strategic ministries, the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of War. Losing the trust of the leaders of the liberal and peasant parties , which perceived him as too moderate towards the communists, Sănătescu submitted his resignation on December 2, 1944. Sănătescu
11330-574: Was made easier because the bulk of the Greek Army was engaged fighting the Italians on the Albanian front in the north of the country. The Greeks were forced to capitulate, ending resistance on the mainland by the end of the month. Abandoning most of its equipment, the Commonwealth force retreated to the island of Crete. From 20 May, the Germans attacked the island by using paratroops to secure an air bridgehead despite suffering heavy casualties. They then flew in more troops and were able to capture
11440-420: Was not until the introduction of German forces that it and neighbouring Yugoslavia were overrun . Allied and Axis forces fought back and forth across North Africa , while Axis interference in the Middle East caused fighting to spread as far as Palestine and Iraq . With confidence high from early gains, German forces planned to capture the Middle East with a view to possibly attacking the southern border of
11550-489: Was one of the organizers of the 1944 coup d'état and was a close friend of the king. That evening, Sănătescu was appointed President of the Council of Ministers and formed a military cabinet in which the leaders of the four parties that had supported King Michael had one representative without a portfolio. The Communist Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu also held the position of interim minister of justice. The Sănătescu government
11660-530: Was promoted to the rank of brigadier general on October 16, 1935. After two years in command, he was appointed on November 1, 1937, as Deputy Chief of the General Staff and fulfilled the position during the term of Major General Ștefan Ionescu. From May to December 1939, he served as director of the National Military Circle . On February 27, 1939, shortly after the replacement on February 1 of General Ionescu with General Țenescu as Chief of
11770-625: Was promoted to the rank of general on December 6, 1944. He then served as Chief of the Romanian General Staff (December 11, 1944 – June 20, 1945), developing the battle plans of the Romanian Army and leading the military operations until the final defeat of Germany. After the end of the war, General Sănătescu served for a period as inspector general of the army. Sănătescu died of cancer in 1947 in Bucharest, and
11880-575: Was published in Germany in 1959. Gibraltar commanded the entrance to the Mediterranean and had been a British fortress since the early 18th century. The territory provided a strongly defended harbour, from which ships could operate in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Force H ( Vice-Admiral James Somerville ) was based in Gibraltar and had the task of maintaining naval superiority and providing
11990-580: Was supposed to be sent but the mission failed within days as the Nazi commandos landed 300 km away from their target destination and lost their weapons. They were soon arrested by the British and faced execution as spies, however they were released several years after World War II ended. Gottfried Müller, one of the Nazi parachuters, would later write and publish a book describing his experiences in Kurdistan named “Im brennenden Orient” ('The Burning Orient'), which
12100-740: Was the commander-in-chief, would order the weapons to be turned against Nazi Germany and Antonescu would be summoned to the palace, ordered to sign an armistice with the Allies and, if he refused, be arrested on the spot. After this, a coalition government of the National Democratic Bloc (the National Peasants' Party, the National Liberal Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Romanian Communist Party) would take power. This proposal
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