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79-614: Tomislav attended the 925 Council of Split , convened by Pope John X , to discuss the use of Slavic languages in liturgy, and ecclesiastical jurisdiction over both Croatia and the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia . Although the Pope sought to prohibit Slavic liturgy, the council did not agree. Jurisdiction over the region was given to the Archbishop of Split instead of Bishop Gregory of Nin . Since historical information on Tomislav

158-502: A ban . After its expansion, Tomislav's state presumably contained more than eleven counties. Byzantine emperor and chronicler Constantine VII writes in De Administrando Imperio that at its peak, Croatia could have raised a military force composed of 100,000 infantry , 60,000 horsemen , and a naval fleet of 80 large ships and 100 smaller vessels . However, these figures are viewed as a considerable exaggeration of

237-748: A sidearm or ancillary weapons . Infantry with ranged or polearms often carried a sword or dagger for possible hand-to-hand combat. The pilum was a javelin the Roman legionaries threw just before drawing their primary weapon, the gladius (short sword), and closing with the enemy line. Modern infantrymen now treat the bayonet as a backup weapon, but may also have handguns as sidearms . They may also deploy anti-personnel mines, booby traps, incendiary, or explosive devices defensively before combat. Infantry have employed many different methods of protection from enemy attacks, including various kinds of armour and other gear, and tactical procedures. The most basic

316-646: A vassal state of Croatia). Tomislav did not protest the council's decision. Bishop Gregory appealed to the pope, and a second council (also in Split) was convened in 928 to resolve the controversy and enforce the first council's conclusions. The supremacy of the metropolitan archbishopric of Split was confirmed, and the Diocese of Nin was abolished. During Tomislav's rule, the Bulgarian and Byzantine Empires were at war. The Bulgarians under Emperor Simeon I destroyed

395-628: A few exceptions like the Mongol Empire , infantry has been the largest component of most armies in history. In the Western world , from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages ( c. 8th century BC to 15th century AD), infantry are categorised as either heavy infantry or light infantry . Heavy infantry, such as Greek hoplites , Macedonian phalangites , and Roman legionaries , specialised in dense, solid formations driving into

474-512: A full suit of attack-proof armour would be too heavy to wear in combat. As firearms improved, armour for ranged defence had to be made thicker and heavier, which hindered mobility. With the introduction of the heavy arquebus designed to pierce standard steel armour, it was proven easier to make heavier firearms than heavier armour; armour transitioned to be only for close combat purposes. Pikemen armour tended to be just steel helmets and breastplates, and gunners had very little or no armour at all. By

553-417: A hundred meters wide and a dozen rows deep. Maintaining the advantages of heavy infantry meant maintaining formation; this became even more important when two forces with heavy infantry met in battle; the solidity of the formation became the deciding factor. Intense discipline and training became paramount. Empires formed around their military. The organization of military forces into regular military units

632-399: A problem. This can be avoided by having shield-armed soldiers stand close together, side-by-side, each protecting both themselves and their immediate comrades, presenting a solid shield wall to the enemy. The opponents for these first formations, the close-combat infantry of more tribal societies , or any military without regular infantry (so called " barbarians ") used arms that focused on

711-440: A return to body armour for infantry, though the extra weight is a notable burden. In modern times, infantrymen must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including military gas masks , counter-agents, and protective suits. All of these protective measures add to the weight an infantryman must carry, and may decrease combat efficiency. Early crew-served weapons were siege weapons , like

790-463: A third" of Croatia's perceived eastern land "entirely speculation". Fine wrote, "It is possible that Croatia really did have some of it, but Bulgaria may have had some of it; early Serb entities may have had some of it, not to speak of various župans and other local Slavic lords who in any serious way answered to no one. If the last supposition is true (to any degree), then parts of this territory would not have been held by any 'state. ' " Acknowledging

869-463: Is personal armour . This includes shields , helmets and many types of armour – padded linen , leather, lamellar , mail , plate , and kevlar . Initially, armour was used to defend both from ranged and close combat; even a fairly light shield could help defend against most slings and javelins, though high-strength bows and crossbows might penetrate common armour at very close range. Infantry armour had to compromise between protection and coverage, as

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948-521: Is assumed that he was a son of Muncimir. Tomislav succeeded Muncimir, son of Trpimir I , as duke in c.  910 (the most widely accepted view) or after others ruled following Muncimir's death. In any case, Tomislav came to the Croatian throne some time between 910 and 914. In Historia Salonitana ( History of Salona ), a 13th-century chronicle by Thomas the Archdeacon of Split , Tomislav

1027-498: Is celebrated as the first Croatian king and the founder of the first Croatian state. In Zagreb , the Croatian capital, a square named Tomislav was dedicated in November 1927; a monument by sculptor Robert Frangeš-Mihanović was erected that year. The Bosnian city of Duvno was renamed Tomislavgrad in 1925 by King Alexander I of Yugoslavia to commemorate the millennial of Tomislav's coronation, and celebrations were held throughout

1106-744: Is first noted in Egyptian records of the Battle of Kadesh ( c.  1274 BC ). Soldiers were grouped into units of 50, which were in turn grouped into larger units of 250, then 1,000, and finally into units of up to 5,000 – the largest independent command. Several of these Egyptian "divisions" made up an army, but operated independently, both on the march and tactically, demonstrating sufficient military command and control organisation for basic battlefield manoeuvres. Similar hierarchical organizations have been noted in other ancient armies, typically with approximately 10 to 100 to 1,000 ratios (even where base 10

1185-605: Is scarce, the exact years of his accession and death are unknown. The reigns of his successors were marked by a series of civil wars in Croatia and a gradual weakening of the country. Although Tomislav's ancestry is unknown, he might have been a member of the Trpimirović dynasty . There is a nearly twenty-year difference between the first documentation of Tomislav and the last mention of Muncimir , his predecessor as Duke of Croatia. Historical records of Tomislav are scarce, but it

1264-593: Is used for a dark beer brewed in Croatia. Councils of Split There have been several church councils held in the town of Split in the early Middle Ages , and whose conclusions have significance for the whole territory of the early Croatian Kingdom . Since 920's the Byzantine Empire was considerably weakened so Emperor Romanos I gave management over Dalmatia to the Croatian King Tomislav who needed it in order to connect

1343-483: The Croatian–Bulgarian battle of 926 , which probably took place in eastern part Bosnia . After Simeon's death in 927, Pope John X sent legates with Bishop Madalbert to mediate between Croatia and Bulgaria and restored peace. It is unknown how Tomislav died, but he disappeared from the political scene after 928 and was succeeded by Trpimir II . The geographic extent of Tomislav's kingdom is not fully known. John

1422-677: The Kingdom of Croatia and the eradication of the Slavic language and the Glagolitic alphabet in the liturgy. Just before the beginning of the Council session the Pope sent two of his legacies, John, Bishop of Ancona and Leon, Bishop of Palestine, to give one invitation letter to each of the Slavic rulers, Archbishop of Split and other Dalmatian bishops. During the Council session, which

1501-672: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia . In 1926, an obelisk in his honor was erected in Livno . On May 18, 1941, the House of Savoy 's Prince Aimone, Duke of Aosta was proclaimed King Tomislav II of the Independent State of Croatia to gain legitimacy for the Axis puppet state. Tomislav's statue in Zagreb was depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 1000 kn banknote issued in 1994, and his name

1580-702: The Kvarner Gulf , was against these reforms so they chose their own bishop that sided with them. Eventually, side that was for reforms won, so Peter Krešimir IV issued many grants. Infantry Infantry is a specialization of military personnel who engage in warfare combat . Infantry generally consists of light infantry , irregular infantry , heavy infantry , mountain infantry , motorized infantry , mechanized infantry , airborne infantry , air assault infantry , and naval infantry . Other types of infantry, such as line infantry and mounted infantry , were once commonplace but fell out of favor in

1659-566: The Principality of Serbia (a Byzantine ally) in 924, forcing Serbian Prince Zaharija and part of the Serbian population to flee to Croatia. Croatia (also a Byzantine ally) was now located between Bulgaria and the weakly-defended Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia . Tomislav may have received some control of the Theme of Dalmatia's coastal cities or a share of collected taxes for his assistance to

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1738-1142: The Royal Dragoon Guards , Royal Lancers , and King's Royal Hussars . Similarly, motorised infantry have trucks and other unarmed vehicles for non-combat movement, but are still infantry since they leave their vehicles for any combat. Most modern infantry have vehicle transport, to the point where infantry being motorised is generally assumed, and the few exceptions might be identified as modern light infantry . Mechanised infantry go beyond motorised, having transport vehicles with combat abilities, armoured personnel carriers (APCs), providing at least some options for combat without leaving their vehicles. In modern infantry, some APCs have evolved to be infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs), which are transport vehicles with more substantial combat abilities, approaching those of light tanks . Some well-equipped mechanised infantry can be designated as armoured infantry . Given that infantry forces typically also have some tanks, and given that most armoured forces have more mechanised infantry units than tank units in their organisation,

1817-442: The ballista , trebuchet , and battering ram . Modern versions include machine guns , anti-tank missiles , and infantry mortars . Beginning with the development the first regular military forces, close-combat regular infantry fought less as unorganised groups of individuals and more in coordinated units, maintaining a defined tactical formation during combat, for increased battlefield effectiveness; such infantry formations and

1896-458: The papal chancellery called "king". It is generally said that Tomislav was crowned in 924 or 925, but it is not known exactly when, where, or by whom. Letters in which Tomislav was called king were preserved in a version of Thomas the Archdeacon's 13th-century History of Salona . A note preceding the proceedings of the 925 Council of Split calls Tomislav king "in the province of the Croats and in

1975-469: The 1800s with the invention of more accurate and powerful weapons. In English, use of the term infantry began about the 1570s, describing soldiers who march and fight on foot. The word derives from Middle French infanterie , from older Italian (also Spanish) infanteria (foot soldiers too inexperienced for cavalry), from Latin īnfāns (without speech, newborn, foolish), from which English also gets infant . The individual-soldier term infantryman

2054-527: The American all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE). Infantrymen are defined by their primary arms – the personal weapons and body armour for their own individual use. The available technology, resources, history, and society can produce quite different weapons for each military and era, but common infantry weapons can be distinguished in a few basic categories. Infantrymen often carry secondary or back-up weapons, sometimes called

2133-503: The Archdeacon did not mention the council in his Historia Salonitana . He wrote that Split had had ecclesiastical rights over former Roman Dalmatia since the 7th century (contradicting the council proceedings which bestowed the rights to Split in 925), apparently to maintain his narrative's consistency. The council was attended by Tomislav (referred to as a king in related documents) and Michael of Zahumlje . According to some historians, Michael recognized Tomislav's rule (making Zachlumia

2212-563: The Byzantine Empire to himself. Tomislav's realm covered most of southern and central Croatia and the Dalmatian coast, excluding the Theme of Dalmatia, parts of present-day western Herzegovina and northern and western Bosnia. During the early 10th century, Croatia was divided into 11 counties: Livno, Cetina, Imotski, Pliva, Pset, Primorje, Bribir, Nona, Knin, Sidraga, and Nin. Three counties (Lika, Krbava, and Gacka) were ruled by

2291-414: The Byzantine Empire. Although Byzantium gave Tomislav the honorary title of proconsul , there is no evidence that it recognized the loss of its rights in the Theme of Dalmatia to Tomislav. Since Croatia was harboring Bulgarian enemies and was allied with the Byzantine Empire, Simeon attacked with an army led by Duke Alogobotur . Tomislav cut off Alogobotur's advance into Croatia and destroyed his army at

2370-506: The Dalmatian regions" ( in prouintia Croatorum et Dalmatiarum finibus Tamisclao rege ). In the council's 12th canon , the ruler of the Croats is called "king" ( rex et proceres Chroatorum ); in a letter from Pope John X , Tomislav is called "King of the Croats" ( Tamisclao, regi Crouatorum ). Although no inscriptions of Tomislav exist to confirm the title, later inscriptions and charters confirm that his 10th-century successors called themselves "kings". Older historiography assumed that Tomislav

2449-584: The Deacon , whose chronicle is a primary source of the history of the 9th-and 10th-century Slavic peoples in Dalmatia, wrote that in 912 a Venetian ambassador returning from Bulgaria passed through Croatian territory before reaching the land of Zahumlje under Duke Michael; this suggests that Tomislav's Croatia bordered Bulgaria, then under the rule of Simeon I. British writer Marcus Tanner suggested that it covered most of modern Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina , and

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2528-621: The Drava-Sava region, saying that the northern Croatian border probably passed through the Sisak area. Modern university history textbooks in Croatia, such as Tomislav Raukar's Hrvatsko srednjovjekovlje (1997), say that Tomislav's kingdom covered 60 to 80 percent of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina . Franjo Šanjek edited a 16-author work on the medieval Croatian state which is also used as a university textbook and includes this view. According to John Van Antwerp Fine Tomislav's northern border

2607-570: The Duchy of Pannonia dissolved. East of Croatia, the First Bulgarian Empire's power increased significantly. After a war between the Bulgarian knyaz Boris I and Croatian Duke Trpimir I , Croatian-Bulgarian relations were fairly good. Papal legates regularly crossed Croatian territory (where they received protection) to Bulgaria. The situation changed in the 10th century during the reign of Simeon I , who decided to subordinate

2686-575: The Priest of Duklja mentions that Tomislav, the length of whose rule was specified as 13 years, successfully fought the Battle of Drava River with the Hungarians. Since the Venetian chronicler Andrea Dandolo and a notary of King Béla III mention Hungarian victories against Croatia in the same period, however, both sides had gains. Croatia maintained its northern borders and expanded into part of

2765-507: The Swiss, English, Aragonese and German, to men-at-arms who went into battle as well-armoured as knights, the latter of which at times also fought on foot. The creation of standing armies —permanently assembled for war or defence—saw increase in training and experience. The increased use of firearms and the need for drill to handle them efficiently. The introduction of national and mass armies saw an establishment of minimum requirements and

2844-443: The arms they used developed together, starting with the spear and the shield. A spear has decent attack abilities with the additional advantage keeping opponents at distance; this advantage can be increased by using longer spears, but this could allow the opponent to side-step the point of the spear and close for hand-to-hand combat where the longer spear is near useless. This can be avoided when each spearman stays side by side with

2923-461: The author was mistaken about the king's name. Nonetheless, it did not take place. Other theories suggested that the pope (or a representative) had Tomislav crowned before the 925 Council of Split, or Tomislav crowned himself. In 925, Pope John X convened a church council in Split to decide which bishops in the former Roman province of Dalmatia would have ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The jurisdiction

3002-411: The carrying burden is spread across several infantrymen. In all, this can reach 25–45 kg (60–100 lb) for each soldier on the march. Such heavy infantry burdens have changed little over centuries of warfare; in the late Roman Republic, legionaries were nicknamed " Marius' mules " as their main activity seemed to be carrying the weight of their legion around on their backs, a practice that predates

3081-628: The case of serious crimes such as murder of master, priest or ruler are contained in articles 6, 7 and 13. Article 11 specifically emphasizes that the bishop of Nin is suffragan bishop of the Split Metropolitan. Article 10 prohibited the ordination and promotion of those priests who didn't know Latin, except if there wasn't enough priests in the area. This decision was directed against the Glagolitic clergy and those who served mass in Slavic language because Pope didn't understand it so he

3160-464: The church and city where the bones of Saint Domnius lie", i.e. Archbishop John of Split. Furthermore, articles 2, 3, 8 and 9 state that delegates agreed upon the issue of borders between individual dioceses, and on questions about regulation of the church estates (articles 4 and 5). Article 14 defines that the connection between Christian marriage and education of clerics is unbreakable, while article 15 regulates question of clerical marriage. Penalties in

3239-487: The church authorities in Croatia and Dalmatia so he could easily integrate Dalmatia into his Kingdom. This transfer of powers is confirmed by the fact that the Byzantine governor of Dalmatia wasn't listed as one of the participants on the official council documents. First Church Council of Split was convened by Pope John X in year 925. The main task of this Council was solving issues of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction in

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3318-611: The coastline of Montenegro . According to Roger Lampe, the state did not extend as far south as Dubrovnik and Istria was not included. Many Croatian scholars said that the kingdom covered the region south of the Drava river, to the Drina and Neretva rivers north of Dubrovnik. Croatian historian Nada Klaić disputed the eastward (Bosnian) extension of Tomislav's kingdom in her 1972 book. Josip Lučić and Franjo Šanjek's 1993 Hrvatski povijesni zemljovid ( Croatian Historical Map ) depicted

3397-468: The collapsed Pannonian Duchy, including its former capital Sisak . The plains north of Sisak were difficult to defend against Hungarian cavalry, but Sisak had been well-fortified since the reign of Duke Ljudevit . The sparsely-populated area between the Sava and Drava rivers was on the outskirts of Hungary and the Duchy of Croatia (centered on the coast), so neither country could strengthen its rule there after

3476-520: The council confirmed Split as the arch episcopal see . The territory from the river Raša in Istria to Kotor , including Nin, was subject to Split. The use of the Croatian language and Glagolitic script in ecclesiastical services was also discussed. The Pope sought to condemn it but the council allowed its use for local priests and monks, who were prevented from advancing to higher positions. Thomas

3555-463: The distinction between mechanised infantry and armour forces has blurred. The first military forces in history were infantry. In antiquity , infantry were armed with early melee weapons such as a spear , axe , or sword , or an early ranged weapon like a javelin , sling , or bow , with a few infantrymen being expected to use both a melee and a ranged weapon. With the development of gunpowder , infantry began converting to primarily firearms . By

3634-455: The enemy to prepare for the main forces' battlefield attack, protecting them from flanking manoeuvers , and then afterwards either pursuing the fleeing enemy or covering their army's retreat. After the fall of Rome, the quality of heavy infantry declined, and warfare was dominated by heavy cavalry , such as knights , forming small elite units for decisive shock combat , supported by peasant infantry militias and assorted light infantry from

3713-442: The eponymous Gaius Marius . When combat is expected, infantry typically switch to "packing light", meaning reducing their equipment to weapons, ammunition, and other basic essentials, and leaving other items deemed unnecessary with their transport or baggage train , at camp or rally point, in temporary hidden caches, or even (in emergencies) simply discarding the items. Additional specialised equipment may be required, depending on

3792-400: The existence of any organised military, likely started essentially as loose groups without any organisation or formation. But this changed sometime before recorded history ; the first ancient empires (2500–1500 BC) are shown to have some soldiers with standardised military equipment, and the training and discipline required for battlefield formations and manoeuvres: regular infantry . Though

3871-434: The expected duration of time operating away from their unit's base, plus any special mission-specific equipment. One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the entrenching tool —basically a folding spade —which can be employed not only to dig important defences, but also in a variety of other daily tasks, and even sometimes as a weapon. Infantry typically have shared equipment on top of this, like tents or heavy weapons, where

3950-559: The extent of Tomislav's kingdom. Lučić, an historical geographer at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb , authored a number of maps in Croatian history books. In his 1995 book, Hrvatski rani srednji vijek , Ivo Goldstein wrote that Tomislav did not expand deep into inner Bosnia and incorporated only parts of Pannonia (not the region between the Drava and Sava, which Goldstein said was terra nullius . Neven Budak agreed with Goldstein about

4029-889: The individual – weapons using personal strength and force, such as larger swinging swords, axes, and clubs. These take more room and individual freedom to swing and wield, necessitating a more loose organisation. While this may allow for a fierce running attack (an initial shock advantage) the tighter formation of the heavy spear and shield infantry gave them a local manpower advantage where several might be able to fight each opponent. Thus tight formations heightened advantages of heavy arms, and gave greater local numbers in melee. To also increase their staying power, multiple rows of heavy infantrymen were added. This also increased their shock combat effect; individual opponents saw themselves literally lined-up against several heavy infantryman each, with seemingly no chance of defeating all of them. Heavy infantry developed into huge solid block formations, up to

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4108-422: The introduction of special troops (first of them the engineers going back to medieval times, but also different kinds of infantry adopted to specific terrain, bicycle, motorcycle, motorised and mechanised troops) culminating with the introduction of highly trained special forces during the first and second World War. Naval infantry, commonly known as marines , are primarily a category of infantry that form part of

4187-725: The lower classes. Towards the end of Middle Ages, this began to change, where more professional and better trained light infantry could be effective against knights, such as the English longbowmen in the Hundred Years' War . By the start of the Renaissance , the infantry began to return to a larger role, with Swiss pikemen and German Landsknechts filling the role of heavy infantry again, using dense formations of pikes to drive off any cavalry. Dense formations are vulnerable to ranged weapons. Technological developments allowed

4266-417: The main enemy lines, using weight of numbers to achieve a decisive victory , and were usually equipped with heavier weapons and armour to fit their role. Light infantry, such as Greek peltasts , Balearic slingers , and Roman velites , using open formations and greater manoeuvrability, took on most other combat roles: scouting , screening the army on the march, skirmishing to delay, disrupt, or weaken

4345-447: The main force of the army, these forces were usually kept small due to their cost of training and upkeep, and might be supplemented by local short-term mass-conscript forces using the older irregular infantry weapons and tactics; this remained a common practice almost up to modern times. Before the adoption of the chariot to create the first mobile fighting forces c.  2000 BC , all armies were pure infantry. Even after, with

4424-487: The mid 17th century began replacement of the pike with the infantry square replacing the pike square. To maximise their firepower, musketeer infantry were trained to fight in wide lines facing the enemy, creating line infantry . These fulfilled the central battlefield role of earlier heavy infantry, using ranged weapons instead of melee weapons. To support these lines, smaller infantry formations using dispersed skirmish lines were created, called light infantry, fulfilling

4503-595: The mission or to the particular terrain or environment, including satchel charges , demolition tools, mines , or barbed wire , carried by the infantry or attached specialists. Historically, infantry have suffered high casualty rates from disease , exposure, exhaustion and privation — often in excess of the casualties suffered from enemy attacks. Better infantry equipment to support their health, energy, and protect from environmental factors greatly reduces these rates of loss, and increase their level of effective action. Health, energy, and morale are greatly influenced by how

4582-400: The others in close formation, each covering the ones next to him, presenting a solid wall of spears to the enemy that they cannot get around. Similarly, a shield has decent defence abilities, but is literally hit-or-miss; an attack from an unexpected angle can bypass it completely. Larger shields can cover more, but are also heavier and less manoeuvrable, making unexpected attacks even more of

4661-544: The possibility that Croatia held all the depicted territory and more, Fine said that whoever controlled the eastern land depicted in Tomislav's kingdom is unknown and should be marked as terra incognita on maps. He criticised Lučić and Šanjek's delineation of Tomislav's eastern border as "nationalist map-making" and "distorting the perceptions of children on their nation's history in a way that promotes interpreting later events as territorial loss and fragmentation." Tomislav

4740-458: The raising of large numbers of light infantry units armed with ranged weapons, without the years of training expected for traditional high-skilled archers and slingers. This started slowly, first with crossbowmen , then hand cannoneers and arquebusiers , each with increasing effectiveness, marking the beginning of early modern warfare , when firearms rendered the use of heavy infantry obsolete. The introduction of musketeers using bayonets in

4819-1041: The same multiple roles as earlier light infantry. Their arms were no lighter than line infantry; they were distinguished by their skirmish formation and flexible tactics. The modern rifleman infantry became the primary force for taking and holding ground on battlefields as an element of combined arms . As firepower continued to increase, use of infantry lines diminished, until all infantry became light infantry in practice. Modern classifications of infantry have since expanded to reflect modern equipment and tactics, such as motorised infantry , mechanised or armoured infantry , mountain infantry , marine infantry , and airborne infantry . Beyond main arms and armour, an infantryman's "military kit" generally includes combat boots , battledress or combat uniform , camping gear , heavy weather gear, survival gear , secondary weapons and ammunition , weapon service and repair kits, health and hygiene items, mess kit , rations , filled water canteen , and all other consumables each infantryman needs for

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4898-484: The seat of Metropolitan were: John, Archbishop of Split , as the successor of Salona Church founded by alleged student of Saint Peter Saint Domnius , Formin, Bishop of Zadar , as representative of Zadar , capital of Dalmatia, and Gregory , Bishop of Nin , whose diocese was territoriality the largest. Article 1 of the Councils decisions states that "seat of the newly founded ecclesiastical province will be granted to

4977-400: The size of the Croatian army. According to palaeographic analysis of the manuscript of De Administrando Imperio , the population of medieval Croatia was estimated at 440,000 to 880,000; its military force probably consisted of 20,000–100,000 infantrymen and 3,000–24,000 horsemen organized into 60 allagia . Tomislav had become King of Croatia by 925, and was the first Croatian ruler whom

5056-723: The soldier is fed, so militaries issue standardised field rations that provide palatable meals and enough calories to keep a soldier well-fed and combat-ready. Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances, and communication with artillery and other support units. Modern infantry can have GPS , encrypted individual communications equipment, surveillance and night vision equipment, advanced intelligence and other high-tech mission-unique aids. Armies have sought to improve and standardise infantry gear to reduce fatigue for extended carrying, increase freedom of movement, accessibility, and compatibility with other carried gear, such as

5135-464: The time of Napoleonic warfare , infantry, cavalry and artillery formed a basic triad of ground forces, though infantry usually remained the most numerous. With armoured warfare , armoured fighting vehicles have replaced the horses of cavalry, and airpower has added a new dimension to ground combat, but infantry remains pivotal to all modern combined arms operations. The first warriors, adopting hunting weapons or improvised melee weapons, before

5214-445: The time of the musket, the dominance of firepower shifted militaries away from any close combat, and use of armour decreased, until infantry typically went without wearing any armour. Helmets were added back during World War I as artillery began to dominate the battlefield, to protect against their fragmentation and other blast effects beyond a direct hit. Modern developments in bullet-proof composite materials like kevlar have started

5293-531: The tribal host assembled from farmers and hunters with only passing acquaintance with warfare and masses of lightly armed and ill-trained militia put up as a last ditch effort. Kushite king Taharqa enjoyed military success in the Near East as a result of his efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running. In medieval times the foot soldiers varied from peasant levies to semi-permanent companies of mercenaries, foremost among them

5372-613: The weapon speciality; examples of infantry units that retained such names are the Royal Irish Fusiliers and the Grenadier Guards . Dragoons were created as mounted infantry , with horses for travel between battles; they were still considered infantry since they dismounted before combat. However, if light cavalry was lacking in an army, any available dragoons might be assigned their duties; this practice increased over time, and dragoons eventually received all

5451-452: The weapons and training as both infantry and cavalry, and could be classified as both. Conversely, starting about the mid-19th century, regular cavalry have been forced to spend more of their time dismounted in combat due to the ever-increasing effectiveness of enemy infantry firearms. Thus most cavalry transitioned to mounted infantry. As with grenadiers, the dragoon and cavalry designations can be retained long after their horses, such as in

5530-545: Was afraid that those priests might spread heresy. Second Church Council of Split was convened because Bishop of Nin Gregory appealed to the Pope because he thought there were some irregularities on the first council. Namely. Gregory thought that Archbishop of Split was appointed Metropolitan because of his reputation and wealth, and connections he had in Rome, rather than because he was better than other candidates. Second council

5609-426: Was attended by the Croatian King Tomislav , Prince Michael of Zahumlje , and other unnamed Croatian and Serbian or Dalmatian nobles ( Croatorum atque Serborum/Urborum proceribus ), various ecclesiastical organization and discipline issues were discussed, while 15 conclusions were adopted. Most important question was one about the seat of the newly founded ecclesiastical province of Croatia and Dalmatia. Contenders for

5688-461: Was contested by Gregory (the Croatian bishop of Nin) and John, the archbishop of Split. Before the council, Bishop Gregory was responsible for a significantly larger territory than Archbishop John; however, his reputation and finances could not compete with that of the Archbishopric of Split . Split also claimed continuity with the ancient Archbishopric of Salona and, due to this tradition,

5767-526: Was convened in 928, and was chaired by the papal legate bishop Madalberta. This Council confirmed the conclusions from the first Council. The most important decision that was made on this council was the one about abolition of the Diocese of Nin "because it didn't have tradition from the ancient times". Council offered Bishop Gregory to choose one of three free dioceses in exchange. He later took Diocese of Skradin , as ordered by Pope Leo VI . Archbishop of Split

5846-472: Was crowned in a field at Duvno (near Tomislavgrad ), although there are no contemporary records of this event. This conclusion was drawn from the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja , which describes a coronation of a King Svatopluk (Budimir in a later version of the chronicle ) and a council held in a field at Dalma . Some 19th-century historians theorized that Tomislav and Svatopluk were the same person, or

5925-407: Was given right to govern all parishes on the Croatian territory. All bishops were rebuked for trying to take territory from each other, and were also urged to obey to the Archbishop of Split. The Third Church Council was convened in Split in year 1060. Councilors concluded that all priests have to know Latin, although neither Glagolitic nor Slavic were banned. A part of clergy, mostly from islands in

6004-568: Was mentioned as duke of Croatia in 914. After the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, the Hungarians immediately began raiding and expanding their territory. They threatened Lower Pannonia (still nominally under Frankish suzerainty) and killed Braslav , the last Pannonian duke. The Hungarians also fought Croatia, although it was not a primary target of their raids. The Chronicle of

6083-570: Was not coined until 1837. In modern usage, foot soldiers of any era are now considered infantry and infantrymen. From the mid-18th century until 1881, the British Army named its infantry as numbered regiments "of Foot" to distinguish them from cavalry and dragoon regiments (see List of Regiments of Foot ). Infantry equipped with special weapons were often named after that weapon, such as grenadiers for their grenades , or fusiliers for their fusils . These names can persist long after

6162-399: Was not common), similar to modern sections (squads) , companies , and regiments . The training of the infantry has differed drastically over time and from place to place. The cost of maintaining an army in fighting order and the seasonal nature of warfare precluded large permanent armies. The antiquity saw everything from the well-trained and motivated citizen armies of Greece and Rome,

6241-553: Was the Drava River. South of it, the king held "modern Croatia, Slavonia, northern and western Bosnia, and the territory along the Dalmatian coast from what is now Rijeka to at least the mouth of the Cetina River (excluding the scattered Byzantine towns)". Fine criticized the relationship between Tomislav's territory and modern Croatian nationalist sentiment in his 2006 book, calling 10th-century sources unreliable and "roughly

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