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63-645: Unlike other Hindu legendary creatures, for example the makara sea-monster, the kirtimukha is essentially an ornamental motif in art , which has its origin in a legend from the Skanda Purana and the Shiva Purana . The word mukha in Sanskrit refers to the face while kīrti means "fame, glory". The story of Kirtimukha begins when the asura king Jalandhara , who "by virtue of extraordinary austerities ... accumulated to himself irresistible powers." In

126-429: A "rainwater spout or gargoyle ". It is also seen as water spouts at the source of a spring. The artistic carving in stone is in the form of identical pair of makaras flanked by two Nāgas (snake gods) along with a crown of Garuda , which is called the kirtimukha face. Such depictions are also seen at the entrance of wooden doorways as the top arch and also as a torana behind Buddha 's images. Stone sculptures of

189-421: A Lhasa Tibetan syllable is relatively simple; no consonant cluster is allowed and codas are only allowed with a single consonant. Vowels can be either short or long, and long vowels may further be nasalized . Vowel harmony is observed in two syllable words as well as verbs with a finite ending. Also, tones are contrastive in this language, where at least two tonemes are distinguished. Although

252-717: A Tibetan grammar in Hindi . Some of his other works on Tibetan were: In much of Tibet, primary education is conducted either primarily or entirely in the Tibetan language, and bilingual education is rarely introduced before students reach middle school . However, Chinese is the language of instruction of most Tibetan secondary schools . In April 2020, classroom instruction was switched from Tibetan to Mandarin Chinese in Ngaba , Sichuan. Students who continue on to tertiary education have

315-719: A basic level with Lhasa Tibetan, while Amdo speakers cannot. Both Lhasa Tibetan and Khams Tibetan evolved to become tonal and do not preserve the word-initial consonant clusters , which makes them very far from Classical Tibetan , especially when compared to the more conservative Amdo Tibetan. Like many languages, Lhasa Tibetan has a variety of language registers : Tibetan is an ergative language , with what can loosely be termed subject–object–verb (SOV) word order . Grammatical constituents broadly have head-final word order: Tibetan nouns do not possess grammatical gender , although this may be marked lexically, nor do they inflect for number . However, definite human nouns may take

378-437: A burst of pride, he sent forth his messenger, the monster Rahu , whose main task is eclipsing the moon, to challenge Shiva. "The challenge ... was that Shiva should give up his shining jewel of a bride Parvati ." Shiva's immediate answer was to explode a tremendous burst of power from his third eye, which created a horrendous, emaciated, ravenous lion. A terrified Rahu sought Shiva's mercy, which Shiva agreed to. In order to feed

441-588: A collective or integral are often used after the tens, sometimes after a smaller number. In scientific and astrological works, the numerals, as in Vedic Sanskrit , are expressed by symbolical words. The written numerals are a variant of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system , forming a base-10 positional counting system that is attested early on in Classical Tibetan texts. Tibetan makes use of

504-603: A deity, especially in South Indian architecture. As Zimmer writes, "Kirtimukha serves primarily as an apotropaic demon-mask, a gruesome, awe-inspiring guardian of the threshold." This face is sometimes confused with another sculptural element, the lion face ( Simhamukha ) . However, in order to be a Kirtimukha it has to be engaged in swallowing, for the Kirtimukha is the figure of the "all consuming" This monstrous face with bulging eyes sits also as an embellishment over

567-594: A deliberate policy of extinguishing all that is Tibetan, including their own language in their own country" and he asserted a right for Tibetans to express themselves "in their mother tongue". However, Tibetologist Elliot Sperling has noted that "within certain limits the PRC does make efforts to accommodate Tibetan cultural expression" and "the cultural activity taking place all over the Tibetan plateau cannot be ignored." Some scholars also question such claims because most Tibetans continue to reside in rural areas where Chinese

630-415: A flat or rising-falling contour, the latter being a tone that rises to a medium level before falling again. It is normally safe to distinguish only between the two tones because there are very few minimal pairs that differ only because of contour. The difference occurs only in certain words ending in the sounds [m] or [ŋ]; for instance, the word kham ( Tibetan : ཁམ་ , "piece") is pronounced [kʰám] with

693-419: A form of umlaut in the Ü/Dbus branch of Central Tibetan . In some unusual cases, the vowels /a/ , /u/ , and /o/ may also be nasalised. The Lhasa dialect is usually described as having two tones: high and low. However, in monosyllabic words, each tone can occur with two distinct contours. The high tone can be pronounced with either a flat or a falling contour, and the low tone can be pronounced with either

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756-470: A high flat tone, whereas the word Khams ( Tibetan : ཁམས་ , "the Kham region") is pronounced [kʰâm] with a high falling tone. In polysyllabic words, tone is not important except in the first syllable. This means that from the point of view of phonological typology , Tibetan could more accurately be described as a pitch-accent language than a true tone language , in the latter of which all syllables in

819-697: A hybrid creature. It is generally depicted as half terrestrial animal in the frontal part (stag, deer, or elephant) and half aquatic animal in the hind part (usually of a fish, a dolphin, or a snake, though sometimes a peacock or even a floral tail is depicted). Though Makara may take many different forms throughout Hindu culture, in the modern world, its form is always related to the marsh crocodile or water monitor . According to an art historian, John Boardman , depictions of Makara and Chinese Dragon might have been influenced by Kētos in Greek Mythology , possibly after contact with silk-road images of

882-516: A lengthening of the vowel is also frequently substituted for the sounds [r] and [l] when they occur at the end of a syllable. The vowels /i/ , /y/ , /e/ , /ø/ , and /ɛ/ each have nasalized forms: /ĩ/ , /ỹ/ , /ẽ/ , /ø̃/ , and /ɛ̃/ , respectively. These historically result from /in/ , /un/ , /en/ , /on/ , /an/ , and are reflected in the written language. The vowel quality of /un/ , /on/ and /an/ has shifted, since historical /n/ , along with all other coronal final consonants, caused

945-416: A makara". Makara is a Sanskrit word which means "sea-animal, crocodile". Josef Friedrich Kohl of Würzburg University and several German scientists argued that makara is based on the dugong instead, based on his reading of Jain text of Sūryaprajñapti. The South Asian river dolphin may also have contributed to the image of the makara. In Tibetan it is called the "chu-srin", and also denotes

1008-400: A mythical animal with the body of a fish, trunk of an elephant, feet of a lion, eyes of a monkey, ears of a pig, and the tail of a peacock. A more succinct explanation is provided: "An ancient mythological symbol, the hybrid creature is formed from a number of animals such that collectively possess the nature of a crocodile. It has the lower jaw of a crocodile, the snout or trunk of an elephant,

1071-507: A necessary state of chaos before the emergence of a new state of order. Makara is also the emblem of Kamadeva , the god of love and desire. Kamadeva is also known as 'Makara-Ketu' which means "having the makara for an emblem". It is the tenth sign of the Zodiac , called rāśi in Sanskrit, which is equivalent to the zodiacal sign of Capricorn ( goat symbol). From the 2nd century BCE,

1134-776: A plural marker ཚོ <tsho> . Tibetan has been described as having six cases: absolutive , agentive , genitive , ablative , associative and oblique . These are generally marked by particles, which are attached to entire noun phrases, rather than individual nouns. These suffixes may vary in form based on the final sound of the root. Personal pronouns are inflected for number , showing singular, dual and plural forms. They can have between one and three registers . The Standard Tibetan language distinguishes three levels of demonstrative : proximal འདི <'di> "this", medial དེ <de> "that", and distal ཕ་གི <pha-gi> "that over there (yonder)". These can also take case suffixes. Verbs in Tibetan always come at

1197-555: A special connector particle for the units above each multiple of ten. Between 100 and 199, the connective དང dang , literally "and", is used after the hundred portion. Above ས་ཡ saya million, the numbers are treated as nouns and thus have their multiples following the word. The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 10 change spelling when combined with other numerals, reflecting a change in pronunciation in combination. Tibetan numerals Tibetan numerals Tibetan numerals (1 Million) (1 Billion) Ordinal numbers are formed by adding

1260-488: A suffix to the cardinal number, པ ( -pa ), with the exception of the ordinal number "first", which has its own lexeme, དང་པོ ( dang po ). Tibetan is written with an Indic script , with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Old Tibetan phonology and helps unify the Tibetan-language area. It is also helpful in reconstructing Proto Sino-Tibetan and Old Chinese . Wylie transliteration

1323-497: A word can carry their own tone. The Lhasa Tibetan verbal system distinguishes four tenses and three evidential moods. The three moods may all occur with all three grammatical persons, though early descriptions associated the personal modal category with European first-person agreement. In the 18th and 19th centuries several Western linguists arrived in Tibet: Indian indologist and linguist Rahul Sankrityayan wrote

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1386-460: Is depicted in the Vajrayana as a weapon of strength and tenacity. The Vajrayan weapons which have makara symbolism are: axe, iron hook, curved knife, vajra, and ritual dagger, in all of which the theme is "emergence of the blade from the open mouth of the makara". Its symbolic representation in the form of a makara head at the corner of temple roofs is as water element which also functions as

1449-480: Is depicted with the forequarters of an elephant and the hindquarters as a fish tail. Crocodile was also a form which was used in the earlier days which was shown with human body. In many temples, the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with head of an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws resembling a crocodile, an elephant trunk with scales of fish and a peacock tail. Other accounts identify it with Gangetic dolphin having striking resemblances with

1512-623: Is one of watery creatures and even from the pre-era of the field of Buddhist art , Makara has been depicted both in work of literature and stone carvings . Makara gained a distinctive position in the Sinhala Buddhist culture - a special place not given in Buddhist artwork in other countries. The Makaragala (dragon balustrade) is another kind of stone carvings which portray the Makara (dragon). These artworks used to decorate

1575-590: Is rarely spoken, as opposed to Lhasa and other Tibetan cities where Chinese can often be heard. In the Texas Journal of International Law , Barry Sautman stated that "none of the many recent studies of endangered languages deems Tibetan to be imperiled, and language maintenance among Tibetans contrasts with language loss even in the remote areas of Western states renowned for liberal policies... claims that primary schools in Tibet teach Mandarin are in error. Tibetan

1638-782: Is the Tibetan dialect spoken by educated people of Lhasa , the capital of the Tibetan Autonomous Region . It is an official language of the Tibet Autonomous Region. In the traditional "three-branched" classification of the Tibetic languages , the Lhasa dialect belongs to the Central Tibetan branch (the other two being Khams Tibetan and Amdo Tibetan ). In terms of mutual intelligibility , speakers of Khams Tibetan are able to communicate at

1701-431: Is the giant head, often took place on the top of the entrance with makaras projected on either sides of kala's head flanking the portal or projecting on top corner as antefixes. Kala-makara theme also can be found on stairs railings on either sides. On upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level of stairs with its bodies forming

1764-565: Is the most common system of romanization used by Western scholars in rendering written Tibetan using the Latin alphabet (such as employed on much of this page), while linguists tend to use other special transliteration systems of their own. As for transcriptions meant to approximate the pronunciation, Tibetan pinyin is the official romanization system employed by the government of the People's Republic of China , while English language materials use

1827-507: Is the most commonly recurring creature in Hindu and Buddhist temple iconography , and also frequently appears as a gargoyle or as a spout attached to a natural spring. Makara-shaped earrings called Makarakundalas are sometimes worn by Hindu deities, for example Shiva , Vishnu , Surya , and Chandi . Makara is also the insignia of the love god Kamadeva , who has no dedicated temples and is also known as Makaradhvaja , "one whose flag depicts

1890-620: The Mahabharata too, the Makara is associated with Krishna's son and Kamadeva , the God of Love, suggesting they are identical. In Hindu iconography , Makara is represented as the vahana ('vehicle') of Ganga , the river goddess. A row of makara may run along the wall of a Hindu temple, act as the hand rail of a staircase, or form an arch above a doorway. The leading Hindu temple architect and builder Ganapati Sthapati describes Makara as

1953-467: The Kirtimukha (the 'Face of Glory'), and descends into the gaping jaws of another Makara. Varuna is also depicted as a white man sitting on the monster makara. As a marine monster, it is also shown with the head and legs of an antelope , and the body and tail of a fish. A makara made in iron shows the monster in the form of half stag and half fish. These elements are variously joined to form one of

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2016-526: The Kētos . In Sinhalese ancient artwork Makara is made up of body parts of six or seven animals such as the trunk of the elephant , jaws of the crocodile , ears of the mouse or ape , extruding teeth of wild swine , the tail plume of the peacock and feet of the lion . During Vedic times when Indra was the god of heaven, Varuna (the Vedic water god) became the God of the seas and rode on makara, which

2079-522: The Makara appears to have been the symbol of Pradyumna , son of Vāsudeva Krishna . One of the epithets of Pradyumna in literature, such as in Harivamsa 99, is "Makaradhvaja", meaning "he whose banner or standard is the crocodile". A pillar capital with the effigy of a Makara crocodile found at Besnagar near the Heliodorus pillar dedicated to Vasudeva , is also attributed to Pradyumna. In

2142-540: The Tibetan Buddhist format it evolved from the Indian form of makara. However, it is different in some ways such as, "display of lions fore paws, a horse's mane, the gills and tendrils of a fish, and the horns of a deer or dragon. From its once simple fishtail, sometimes feathered, now emerges as a complex spiraling floral pattern known as makara-tail design (Sanskrit makaraketu )". In Tibetan iconography, it

2205-539: The [ɛ̈] phone (resulting from /e/ in a closed syllable) and the [ɛ] phone (resulting from /a/ through the i-mutation ) are distinct or basically identical. Phonemic vowel length exists in Lhasa Tibetan but in a restricted set of circumstances. Assimilation of Classical Tibetan's suffixes, normally ' i (འི་), at the end of a word produces a long vowel in Lhasa Tibetan; the feature is sometimes omitted in phonetic transcriptions. In normal spoken pronunciation,

2268-440: The absolutive , remaining unmarked. Nonetheless, distinction in transitivity is orthogonal to volition; both the volitional and non-volitional classes contain transitive as well as intransitive verbs. The aspect of the verb affects which verbal suffixes and which final auxiliary copulae are attached. Morphologically, verbs in the unaccomplished aspect are marked by the suffix གི <gi> or its other forms, identical to

2331-421: The genitive case for nouns, whereas accomplished aspect verbs do not use this suffix. Each can be broken down into two subcategories: under the unaccomplished aspect, future and progressive /general; under the accomplished aspect, perfect and aorist or simple perfective . Evidentiality is a well-known feature of Tibetan verb morphology, gaining much scholarly attention, and contributing substantially to

2394-514: The lintel of the gate to the inner sanctum in many Hindu temples signifying the reabsorption that marks the entry into the temple. In Dravidian architecture and elsewhere it tops gavaksha ( kudu, nasi ) motifs. Mostly it is only a face, indeed very often only the upper jaw and top of the face is visible, although in some places its arms are portrayed as well. The motif can also sometimes be found in Shiva's matted hair. Some authors have compared

2457-479: The medieval era of South India , Makara was shown as a fifth stage of development, symbolized in the form of an elephant head and body with an elaborately foliated fish tail. Most myths maintain this symbolism of this stage in the evolution of life. (Note makara in fifth row of animistic carvings in temple wall at right.) The temples of ancient Java is notable with the application of kala -makara as both decorative and symbolic elements of temple architecture. Kala

2520-679: The Kirtimukha with the Greek myth of Ouroboros . Makara (Hindu mythology) Makara ( Sanskrit : मकर , romanized :  Makara ) is a legendary sea-creature in Hindu mythology . In Hindu astrology , Makara is equivalent to the Zodiac sign Capricorn . Makara appears as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga , Narmada , and of the god of the ocean, Varuna . Makara are considered guardians of gateways and thresholds, protecting throne rooms as well as entryways to temples; it

2583-512: The THL transcription system. Certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as Chomolungma for Mount Everest . Tibetan orthographic syllable structure is (C 1 C 2 )C 3 (C 4 )V(C 5 C 6 ) Not all combinations are licit. The following summarizes the sound system of the dialect of Tibetan spoken in Lhasa , the most influential variety of the spoken language. The structure of

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2646-408: The buildings' corners. The Newa art of Nepal uses this depiction extensively. In Newar architecture, its depiction is; "as guardian of gateways, the makara image appears on the curved prongs of the vast crossed-vajra that encompasses the four gateways of the two-dimensional mandala . Of the three dimensional-mandala this crossed-vajra supports the whole structure of the mandala palace symbolizing

2709-432: The depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with head of an elephant. It is also shown in an abstract, chimeric form with head and jaws of a crocodile , an elephant trunk with scales of fish and a peacock tail. Lakshmi sitting on a lotus is also a depiction in which she pulls the tongue of the elephant shaped makara is meant to project Lakshmi's image as the goddess of prosperity, wealth and well being. It represents

2772-503: The end of the clause . Verbs do not show agreement in person , number or gender in Tibetan. There is also no voice distinction between active and passive ; Tibetan verbs are neutral with regard to voice. Tibetan verbs can be divided into classes based on volition and valency . The volition of the verb has a major effect on its morphology and syntax . Volitional verbs have imperative forms, whilst non-volitional verbs do not: compare ལྟོས་ཤིག <ltos shig> "Look!" with

2835-495: The entrance of Buddhist stupas , temples and Bo trees . There are two balustrades at main entrance of Lankatilaka Viharaya in Kandy and they are sometimes called Gajasinha balustrades because of the shape of the Makara there. The Muragala (guardstone) has given a highest place to Makara . Over the head of the gatekeeper carved in there, the figures of Makara can be seen. Sinhala Buddhist artists considered Makara

2898-483: The four tone analysis is favored by linguists in China, DeLancey (2003) suggests that the falling tone and the final [k] or [ʔ] are in contrastive distribution , describing Lhasa Tibetan syllables as either high or low. The vowels of Lhasa Tibetan have been characterized and described in several different ways, and it continues to be a topic of ongoing research. Tournadre and Sangda Dorje describe eight vowels in

2961-667: The handle of a temple key of Gadaladeniya Temple built in 1344 in Diggala in Kandy District . The Makara has also been used as a clan symbol by the Karavas and Karaiyars of Sri Lanka , who both share similar origin and were collectively known as Kurukulam . Since at least 14 century AD, they have used Makara flags in their ceremonies. Clan titles such as Aditya and Varunakulasuriyan were used by them, to indicate their connection to ancient Hindu god Varuna . In

3024-706: The immovable stability of the vajra-ground on which it stands." Most spouts of old Nepalese drinking fountains (called dhunge dhara ) have the shape of a makara. Makara is the Sinhala term for dragon , an important figure in Sinhala Buddhist culture in Sri Lanka . It is depicted on toranas in temple architecture and objects of prestige such as in kastanes . The Makara is widely used in Sri Lankan Buddhist architecture, often depicted on toranas . Since ancient time, easterners believe that Makara

3087-503: The latter, now found mainly in Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary . Others portray it as a fish body with an elephant's head. The tradition identifies the makara with water, the source of all existence and fertility. In a Hindu temple, the Makara often serves as the structural bookends of a thoranam or archway around a deity. The arch emerges up from the jaws of one Makara, rises to its peak,

3150-463: The most common recurring themes in Indian temple iconography. In Indian art, the makara finds expression in the form of many motifs, and has been portrayed in different styles. Makara figures are placed on the entry points ( Toranas ) of several Buddhist monuments, including the stupa of Sanchi , a world heritage site. It is found guarding the entrances to royal thrones (see Distribution below). In

3213-547: The mythological Makara and its ancient place in the iconography of Hinduism and Buddhism are widely spread throughout South Asia and Southeast Asia . Examples from ten countries are shown below: Standard Tibetan Lhasa Tibetan ( Tibetan : ལྷ་སའི་སྐད་ , Wylie : Lha-sa'i skad , THL : Lhaséké , ZYPY : Lasägä ) or Standard Tibetan ( Tibetan : བོད་སྐད་ , Wylie : Bod skad , THL : Böké , ZYPY : Pögä , IPA: [pʰø̀k˭ɛʔ] , or Tibetan : བོད་ཡིག་ , Wylie : Bod yig , THL : Böyik , ZYPY : Pöyig )

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3276-400: The non-existent * མཐོང་ཤིག <mthong shig> "*See!". Additionally, only volitional verbs can take the egophoric copula ཡིན <yin> . Verbs in Tibetan can be split into monovalent and divalent verbs; some may also act as both, such as ཆག <chag> "break". This interacts with the volition of the verb to condition which nouns take the ergative case and which must take

3339-621: The option of studying humanistic disciplines in Tibetan at a number of minority colleges in China. This contrasts with Tibetan schools in Dharamsala , India, where the Ministry of Human Resource Development curriculum requires academic subjects to be taught in English from middle school. In February 2008, Norman Baker , a UK MP, released a statement to mark International Mother Language Day claiming, "The Chinese government are following

3402-407: The ravenous lion, Shiva suggested that the creature should feed on the selfishness, greed, and attachment of humans. Shiva, who was pleased with the result, gave it the name "glorious face", and declared that it should always be at the door of his temples. Thus, the Kirtimukha is a symbol of Shiva himself. The Kirtimukha is often used as a motif surmounting the pinnacle of a temple or the image of

3465-518: The same sound as the one following it. The result is that the first is pronounced as an open syllable but retains the vowel typical of a closed syllable. For instance, ཞབས zhabs (foot) is pronounced [ɕʌp] and པད pad (borrowing from Sanskrit padma , lotus ) is pronounced [pɛʔ] , but the compound word, ཞབས་པད zhabs pad (lotus-foot, government minister) is pronounced [ɕʌpɛʔ] . This process can result in minimal pairs involving sounds that are otherwise allophones. Sources vary on whether

3528-516: The stair's railings. These types of stairs decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan temples. Makara's trunks are often describes as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as lions or parrots. Makaras are also a characteristic motif of the religious Khmer architecture of the Angkor region of Cambodia which

3591-455: The standard language: Three additional vowels are sometimes described as significantly distinct: [ʌ] or [ə] , which is normally an allophone of /a/ ; [ɔ] , which is normally an allophone of /o/ ; and [ɛ̈] (an unrounded, centralised, mid front vowel), which is normally an allophone of /e/ . These sounds normally occur in closed syllables; because Tibetan does not allow geminated consonants , there are cases in which one syllable ends with

3654-618: The symbol of prosperity and self-sufficiency so they were not hesitant in portraying the sign of Makara in the entrance arch gateway to the religious places, such as temple , stupa or bodi. Precious examples for the above are Temple of the Tooth and Lankatilaka Temple in Kandy . Examples for the arched gateway with Makara over the image of Buddha can be seen in Ridi iharaya and Dambulla cave temple . A figure of Makara has been carved to

3717-473: The tusks and ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock." Traditionally, a makara is considered to be an aquatic mythical creature. Makara has been depicted typically as half mammal and half fish. Some traditional accounts identify it with a crocodile , specifically the Mugger because of its etymological roots. It

3780-554: The understanding of evidentiality across languages. The evidentials in Standard Tibetan interact with aspect in a system marked by final copulae, with the following resultant modalities being a feature of Standard Tibetan, as classified by Nicolas Tournadre : Unlike many other languages of East Asia such as Burmese , Chinese , Japanese , Korean and Vietnamese , there are no numeral auxiliaries or measure words used in counting in Tibetan. However, words expressive of

3843-578: Was called "the water monster vehicle". Vishnu's earrings are shown in the form of Makara; but makarakundala can also decorate Shiva's ears. Its contemporary usage is as ornaments in the form of bracelets in hollow silver ware inlaid with jewels for eyes and ears, which is given as a wedding gift to the bride. Some traditional account also links the Makara to the water monitor as both has body parts (example: jaws, meat etc.) which are stated to possess aphrodisiac properties. Makara has been depicted typically as half mammal and half fish. In many temples,

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3906-581: Was the capital of the Khmer Empire . Makaras are usually part of the decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Makaras are usually depicted with another symbolic animal, such as a lion, naga or serpent, emerging from its gaping open mouth. Makara are a central design motif in the beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko , Bakong , and Lolei . At Banteay Srei , carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters were installed on many of

3969-443: Was the main language of instruction in 98% of TAR primary schools in 1996; today, Mandarin is introduced in early grades only in urban schools.... Because less than four out of ten TAR Tibetans reach secondary school, primary school matters most for their cultural formation." An incomplete list of machine translation software or applications that can translate Tibetan language from/to a variety of other languages. From Article 1 of

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