Kismayo ( Somali : Kismaayo , Arabic : كيسمايو , Kīsmāyū ; Italian : Chisimaio ) is a port city in the southern Lower Juba (Jubbada Hoose) province of Somalia . It is the commercial capital of the autonomous Jubaland region.
168-815: The city is situated 528 kilometres (328 miles) southwest of the capital Mogadishu , near the mouth of the Jubba River , where it empties into the Indian Ocean . According to the United Nations Development Programme , the city of Kismayo had a population of around 89,333 in 2005. During the Middle Ages, Kismayo and its surrounding area was part of the Ajuran Empire that governed much of southern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia , with its domain extending from Hafun in
336-458: A Muslim medieval geographer in the year 1220 describes Mogadishu as the most prominent town on the coast. Yaqut also mentioned Mogadishu as being a town inhabited by Berbers, described as "dark-skinned" and considered ancestors of modern Somalis. By the thirteenth century, Ibn Sa'id described Mogadishu, Merca and Barawa located in the Benadir coast had become Islamic and commercial centers in
504-584: A bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army. Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Ali Korshel . Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became
672-543: A central Somalia-focused conference, they clashed with UNOSOM, which aimed to include other regions and replace Aidid's chairmanship with ex-President Abdullah Osman , a staunch critic of Aidid. As the conference began, Aidid sought assistance from UNOSOM ambassador Lansana Kouyate , who proposed air transport for delegates and a 14-day accommodation. However, he was called back to New York and replaced by April Glaspie , following which UNOSOM retracted its offer. Aidid resorted to private aircraft to transport delegates. Following
840-457: A deeply entrenched belief in the efficacy of technology and firepower as a means of minimizing one’s own casualties. It is an approach that was inappropriate to the particular circumstances of Somalia." The UNOSOM offensive had significant negative political consequences for the intervention as it alienated the Somali people, strengthened political support for Aidid, and led to growing criticism of
1008-817: A highly contentious relationship with Somaliland , eventually resulting in the United Nations being expelled from the region. Most notably during a visit to Hargeisa , Leonard Kamungo, the head of the Political Affairs division for UNOSOM II, engaged in discussions with the President of Somaliland, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal . Kamungo warned Egal that he held the authority to deploy UNOSOM military forces in Somaliland without requiring local consent, if he deemed it necessary. This remark incensed Egal who retorted by threatening that Hargeisa "would become
1176-525: A historic ally of Somalia. In October 2017, over 500 people were killed by a truck bombing . In March 2022, al-Shabaab killed over 60 people in a series of attacks . In October 2022, an al-Shabaab double car bombing killed over 120 people. On 14 March, militants attacked and sieged the SYL Hotel in Mogadishu . In July 2024, At least eight people are killed and twenty-one others injured in
1344-407: A kilogram of red rice rose from 14,170 (approximately $ 0.61) to 46,000 (approximately $ 1.31). A liter of diesel cost 43,000 shillings (approximately $ 1.23) and a camel costs over 15 million shillings (approximately $ 435). Total cereal production as of 2008 was estimated to be 780MT. Kismayo's air transportation needs are served by Kismayo Airport , which is situated about 10 km from the city. It
1512-499: A king over it, and is a place of great trade in merchandise. Ships come there from the kingdom of Cambay (India) and from Aden with stuffs of all kinds, and with spices. And they carry away from there much gold, ivory, beeswax, and other things upon which they make a profit. In this town there is plenty of meat, wheat, barley, and horses, and much fruit: it is a very rich place. In 1542, the Portuguese commander João de Sepúvelda led
1680-541: A long history, which ranges from the ancient period up until the present, serving as the capital of the Sultanate of Mogadishu in the 9th-13th century, which for many centuries controlled the Indian Ocean gold trade and eventually came under the Ajuran Sultanate in the 13th century which was an important player in the medieval Silk Road maritime trade. Mogadishu enjoyed the height of its prosperity during
1848-480: A more ambitious and aggressive stance. Nevertheless, several UNOSOM contingents expressed opposition to the aggressive military posture. They viewed an offensive as politically misguided and militarily untenable. As the conflict dragged on, these contingents began advocating for a diplomatic resolution. International observers notably criticized the UN's decision to initiate a military offensive as 'incomprehensible', given
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#17328022893532016-463: A new technocratic government was elected to office, which enacted numerous reforms, especially in the security sector. By August 2011, the new administration and its AMISOM allies had managed to capture all of Mogadishu from the Al-Shabaab militants. Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction spearheaded by the Somali diaspora, the municipal authorities, and Turkey,
2184-672: A new Executive Council, to which he appoints three deputies. Additionally, the agreement includes the integration of Jubaland's military forces under the central command of the Somali National Army (SNA), and stipulates that the Juba Interim Administration will command the regional police. Kismayo is divided into 4 districts, or degmo (see map ): Institutions of higher learning in the city include Kismayo University (KU). Established in August 2005, it
2352-530: A peacekeeping operation as defined in the UN lexicon ." British academic Alex de Waal observed that UNOSOM's war against the insurgency set an important legal precedent, as UN forces effectively declared immunity from the laws of war . Following a US helicopter attack on Digfer Hospital , de Waal confronted UN commanders in Mogadishu asking if the operation considered itself bound by the Geneva Conventions . A UN official had responded in regard to
2520-583: A period of decline and disarray near the end of the Hiraab Imamate . Following a struggle between the two leading figures of each respective quarter ( Shingani and Hamarweyn ) Sultan Yusuf marched into the city with an 8,000 strong army and ruled in favour of the Shingani leader, with the loser fleeing the city. Yusuf would nominate a relative of the deposed chief to lead the Hamarweyn quarter ending
2688-523: A root after establishment. The 16th century explorer Leo Africanus knew the city as Magadazo (alt. Magadoxo ). The ancient city of Sarapion is believed to have been the predecessor state of Mogadishu. It is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , a Greek travel document dating from the first century AD, as one of a series of commercial ports on the Somali littoral. According to
2856-409: A secure environment throughout Somalia. UNOSOM II would therefore seek to complete the task begun by UNITAF. The new mandate would also empower UNOSOM II to assist in rebuilding their economic, political and social life, so as to recreate a Somali State. Most notably it would also mandate the disarmament of Somali militias. While Somalia was not reincorporated into a UN trusteeship as it had been in
3024-519: A serious mistake and had the effect of firmly uniting a large portion of Mogadishu behind Aidid . Notable groups and organizations such as the Vatican , the Organisation of African Unity , World Vision , Doctors Without Borders , Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International called for UNOSOM to review it policies and course. The raid exposed deep rifts and created dissension amongst
3192-642: A shootout between security forces and inmates in a Mogadishu prison during an escape attempt. The prisoners who attempted to escape were members of Al-Shabaab. On 14 July, 10 people were injured in a cafe due to a car bombing done by Al-Shabaab. In August 2024, 37 people were killed by an Al-Shabaab suicide bomber at Lido Beach. UNOSOM II Approx. 2,000 - 13,000 casualties (Somali insurgents and civilians ) 2,000 casualties (Per. Peterson ) 6,000 to 10,000 casualties (Several estimates) The United Nations Operation in Somalia II ( UNOSOM II )
3360-468: A small fleet on an expedition to the Somali coast . During this expedition, he briefly attacked Mogadishu, capturing an Ottoman ship and firing upon the city, which compelled the sultan of Mogadishu to sign a peace treaty with the Portuguese. According to the 16th-century explorer, Leo Africanus indicates that the native inhabitants of the Mogadishu polity were of the same origins as the denizens of
3528-706: A small team of African Union troops, the coalition government also began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to retake control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its control of southern Somalia, the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union, other members of the Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia , and Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a , a moderate Sufi militia. In November 2010,
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#17328022893533696-609: A total area of 87,000 km (33,000 sq mi), with a population of 120,000 inhabitants. Britain retained control of the southern half of the partitioned Jubaland territory, which was later called the Northern Frontier District (NFD). Following the breakdown of central authority that accompanied the civil war in 1991, various local militias fought for control of the city, including supporters of Mohammed Said Hersi ("General Morgan"), and Col. Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale Somali National Front (SNF), later on known as
3864-549: A treaty of peace, friendship, and protection with Filonardi of the Commercial Company of Benadir. The onset of Italian colonial rule occurred in stages, with treaties signed in the 1880s followed by economic engagement between Somali clans and the Commercial Company of Benadir, and then direct governance by the Italian Empire after 1906, British Military Administration of Somalia after World War II and
4032-471: A vast trading network, dominated the regional gold trade, minted its own currency , and left an extensive architectural legacy in present-day southern Somalia. A local city-state which much influence over the hinterland neighbouring coastal towns. For many years Mogadishu functioned as the pre-eminent city in the بلد البربر ( Bilad al Barbar – "Land of the Berbers "), as medieval Arabic-speakers named
4200-555: Is hot year-round, with seasonal monsoon winds and irregular rainfall with recurring droughts. The gu rains, also known as the Southwest Monsoons, begin in April and last until July producing significant fresh water and allowing lush vegetation to grow. The gu season is followed by the xagaa (hagaa) dry season. A new municipal district administration was established on 6 September 2008. Its members reportedly represented
4368-566: Is most likely derived from a morphology of the Somali words Muuq and Disho which mean "Sight Killer" or "Blinder", possibly referring to the city's blinding beauty. Magh'ad-e shāh ( Persian : مقعد شاه ) is another phrase from which the name of Mogadishu is believed to be derived, meaning "seat of the Shah/merchant Shah" which reflects the city's early Persian influence. The Arabic ' mads ', meaning "hallowed (place)" may also be
4536-556: Is situated about 1 km north, along the Kismayo–Mogadishu main road. In 2022 Adar Ismail Jurati led a consultative meeting with government officials and people who perform female gential mutilation (FGM) with a view to stopping the practice in the area. In October 2008, the daily labor rate was estimated at 157,500 Somali shillings (approximately $ 4.50), up from 52,000 shillings (approximately $ 2.21) in January 2008, while
4704-478: Is the capital and most populous city of Somalia . The city has served as an important port connecting traders across the Indian Ocean for millennia and has an estimated urban population of 2,610,483. Mogadishu is located in the coastal Banaadir region on the Indian Ocean, which, unlike other Somali regions, is considered a municipality rather than a maamul goboleed (federal state). Mogadishu has
4872-644: Is traditionally inhabited by four clans. These are the Moorshe, Iskashato, DhabarWeyne, and the Bandawow. Moorshe is regarded the oldest group in Mogadishu and is considered to be a sub-clan of Ajuran who established one of the most powerful medieval kingdoms in Africa, the Ajuran Sultanate . The Gibil Madow (Dark Skins) faction of the Benadiri are said to hail from the Somali clan groups from inland which make up
5040-643: The beden to transport their cargo. The Kismayo area was originally a small fishing settlement. During the Middle Ages , the region came under the rule of the influential Ajuran Sultanate , which utilized the Jubba River for its plantations. After the collapse of this polity, the House of Gobroon was established and the Sultanate of the Geledi held sway over the area. The dynasty reached its apex under
5208-621: The Battle of Ras Kamboni , raged, TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed , a former colonel in the Somali Army, entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to Villa Somalia in Mogadishu from its interim location in Baidoa , marking the first time since the fall of the Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of
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5376-587: The Department of War Studies at King's College , the conduct of US armed forces during the conflict demonstrated that the US military was not attuned to the requirements of low-level military operations that Somalia required at the time. He would argue that, "[There is] a distinctive mindset and approach to low-intensity operations which had been shaped by the American experience during and after Vietnam , and by
5544-571: The Indian Ocean . He said the local people in the Benadir coast and the interior were predominantly inhabited by Somalis with a minority of Arab, Persian and Indian merchants living in the coastal towns. Ibn al-Mujawir mentions the Banu Majid who fled the Mundhiriya region in Yemen in the year 1159 and settled in Mogadishu and also traders from the port towns of Abyan and Haram. Mogadishu
5712-574: The Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and imposed sharia law. The new Transitional Federal Government (TFG), established two years earlier, sought to establish its authority. With the assistance of Ethiopian troops , AMISOM peacekeepers and air support by the United States, it drove out the rival ICU and solidified its rule. On 8 January 2007, as
5880-598: The Kismayo and Galkayo incidents that station began to air anti-UNOSOM propaganda, incensing high ranking UN personnel. It was feared that the broadcasts would shift the attitudes of the Somali public towards the United Nations operation, leading UNOSOM officials to resolve to close the station. In mid-May, the Pakistani contingent was asked to draw up a plan to shut down the station. The Pakistanis did not possess
6048-520: The Ottoman Empire , and with the import of firearms such as muskets and cannons . Most were Muslims, although a few adhered to pre-Islamic beliefs ; there were also some Orthodox Tewahedo Christians further inland. Mogadishu itself was a wealthy, and well-built city-state, which maintained commercial trade with kingdoms across the world. The metropolis city was surrounded by walled stone fortifications. The Ajuran Sultanate collapsed in
6216-514: The Periplus , maritime trade already connected peoples in the Mogadishu area with other communities along the Indian Ocean. During ancient times Mogadishu was part of the Somali city-states that engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting Somali merchants with Phoenicia , Ptolemic Egypt , Greece, Parthian Persia , Sabaeans , Nabataea and the Roman Empire . Somali sailors used
6384-499: The Somali National Alliance , the immediate concern of protecting US forces led to the decision to deploy elite forces. In August elite unit, named Task Force Ranger , consisting of 441 elite US troops was flown into Mogadishu and began a manhunt for Aidid in what became known as Operation Gothic Serpent . On 15 September 1993, US Major Gen. David C. Meade conveyed in a confidential memo to his superiors that
6552-633: The Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) agreed to convene a peace conference for central Somalia. In light of recent conflict between the two, the initiative was seen a major step towards halting the Somali Civil War . Gen. Aidid , having initiated the talks with Col. Yusuf, considered himself the conference chair, setting the agenda. Beginning 9 May, elder delegations from their respective clans, Habr Gidr and Majerteen , met. While Aidid and Yusuf aimed for
6720-552: The State Department . Gosende had written a cable recommending the deployment of thousands of additional troops and urged the abandonment of all diplomatic engagements with the SNA. Contrarily, General Joseph P. Hoar , who was at the helm of CENTCOM , expressed sharp disagreement with Gosende's approach. In a confidential memo, General Hoar articulated his belief that if more American troops were needed, then control of Mogadishu
6888-586: The State of Somaliland , and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) followed suit five days later. On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, with Mogadishu serving as the nation's capital. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of
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7056-505: The Trust Territory of Somaliland administered by Italy in the 1950s. This was followed by independence in 1960, the Somali Democratic Republic era during Siad Barre 's presidency (1969–1991). The three-decade long Somali Civil War afterwards devastated the city. As of the late 2010s and 2020s, a period of major reconstruction commenced. The origins of the name Mogadishu (Muqdisho) have many theories but it
7224-605: The United Arab Emirates , the United Kingdom , the United States and Zimbabwe . The United States military provided 1,167 troops and numerous helicopter gunships for a Quick Reaction Force , which would remain completely under US operational control. Despite UNOSOM II being composed of a coalition of twenty-seven countries, most of the decision makers and many of the staff were Americans, giving
7392-487: The United Nations Operation in Somalia II several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between Somali factions, volunteers and peacekeepers . Among these was the Battle of Mogadishu of 1993 , a US apprehension of two high-ranking lieutenants of the Somali National Alliance . The UN soldiers withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995, having incurred more significant casualties. In 2006,
7560-765: The United Nations Security Council instructed Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali to suspend arrest actions and declared the release of all Somali National Alliance prisoners of war . The following day Mohamed Farah Aidid announced that the decision had proved that the SNA had achieved a victory over the UN. After the cessation of hostilities between the SNA and UNOSOM, Acting Special Representative Lansana Kouyate (replacing Adm. Johnathan Howe ) successfully launched an initiative to normalize relations in March 1994. Numerous points of contention between
7728-468: The 14th and 15th centuries and was during the early modern period considered the wealthiest city on the East African coast, as well as the center of a thriving textile industry. In the 17th century, Mogadishu and parts of southern Somalia fell under the Hiraab Imamate . In the 19th century, it came under the Sultanate of the Geledi 's sphere of influence. In 1894, the Somali chief had signed
7896-496: The 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return received gold , wax and ivory . Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants. Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as toob benadir (specialized for
8064-768: The 17th century due to heavy taxation against their subjects, which started a rebellion. The ex-subjects became a new wave of Somali migrants, the Abgaal , moved both into the Shebelle River basin and Mogadishu. A new political elite led by Abgaal Yaquub imams , with ties to the new leaders in the interior, moved into the Shangani District of the city. Remnants of the Ajuran lived in the other key-quarters of Hamar Weyne District . Ajuran merchants began to look for new linkages and regional trade opportunities since
8232-469: The 1950s, UNOSOM II was entrusted with the power to make decisions on behalf of the Somali people. This significant shift in mandate incited numerous allegations of UN colonialism . The United Nations, by invoking Chapter VII , essentially transformed the scope of its operations in Somalia, a move that would become a major point of contention in the near future. According to UNOSOM II advisor John Drysdale
8400-648: The 2 June 1993 the conference between Gen. Aidid and Col. Abdullahi Yusuf successfully concluded. Admiral Howe would be invited to witness the peace agreement, but again declined. The Galkacyo peace accord successfully ended large scale conflict in the Galgadud and Mudug regions of Somalia. The contention between the Somali National Alliance and UNOSOM from this point forward would begin to manifest in anti-UNOSOM propaganda broadcast from SNA controlled Radio Mogadishu . UNOSOM II would have
8568-427: The Abgaal had commandeered the existing trading networks. By the 17th century, the Hiraab Imamate was a powerful kingdom that ruled large parts of southern and central Somalia. It successfully revolted against the Ajuran Sultanate and established an independent rule for at least two centuries from the seventeen hundreds and onwards. By the late 19th century, the Imamate began to decline due to internal problems,
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#17328022893538736-431: The American Quick Reaction Force . The following day on 7 October, Clinton publicly announced a major change in course in the mission. Substantial U.S. forces would be sent to Somalia as short term reinforcements, but all American forces would be withdrawn from the country by the end of March 1994. He would firmly defend American policy in Somalia but admitted that it had been a mistake for American forces to be drawn into
8904-412: The Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops. In September 2012, Somali Army , Ras Kamboni militiamen and Kenyan Defense Forces (KDF), all under command of the African Union Mission in Somalia AMISOM , re-captured the city from the Al-Shabaab insurgents during the Battle of Kismayo (2012) . This
9072-412: The Hiraab Imam to acquiesce to the decision. Omani and later Zanzibari officials were mere representatives of the Sultan to collect customs and needed the fort for their own security rather than control of the city. The Fort of Garessa was eventually constructed in 1870. The Sultan of Zanzibar later leased and then sold the infrastructure that he had built to the Italians, but not the land itself, which
9240-428: The ICU and Al‑Shabaab (three members each) in addition to a local clan (one member) which had played a part in the military assault. Representatives of the Islamic Courts Union questioned the legitimacy of the authority. On 1 October 2009, Al Shabaab took full control of the city, after Sheikh Ahmed Madobe , a senior commander of Ras Kamboni Brigade (then a part of Hizbul Islam ), challenged Al‑Shabaab's control. With
9408-554: The Imamate also faced challenges from Imperialist kingdoms, the Zanzibari Sultan from the coast and Geledi Sultanate , and Hobyo Sultanate from the interior from both directions. The Sultanate of Geledi and the Omani Empire vied over who would be the superior power on the Benadir Coast, with Sultan Yusuf Mahamud ultimately being the dominant force with the Omanis having a nominal presence and Said bin Sultan even paying tribute to him in order to keep Omani representatives in Mogadishu. Mogadishu under Abgaal control had been in
9576-448: The Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including Al-Shabaab , regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al‑Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. By January 2009, Al‑Shabaab and other militias had managed to force
9744-460: The JVA with the newly forming Transitional Federal Government . In 2006 the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist organization, fought with Jubaland's inhabitants of the state the Darod Marehan (JVA). And invaded other parts of southern Somalia and promptly imposed Shari'a law . The Transitional Federal Government sought to re‑establish its authority, and, with the assistance of Ethiopian troops , African Union peacekeepers and air support by
9912-402: The Juba Valley Alliance (JVA). As well of Col. Omar Jess' Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM). Aid worker Sean Devereux was assassinated in the city in January 1993. In March 1993, a United States Marine amphibious group arrived in the city in an attempt to keep the peace as part of the United Nations intervention in Somalia . By December 1993, General Morgan's troops controlled Kismayo, despite
10080-587: The Kitab Al-Zunuj, which has been discredited by modern scholars as unreliable and unhistorical. More importantly, it contradicts oral, ancient written sources and archaeological evidence on the pre-existing civilizations and communities that flourished on the Somali coast, and to which were the forefathers of Mogadishu and other coastal cities. Thus, the Persian and Arab founding "myths" are regarded as an outdated false colonialist reflection on Africans ability to create their own sophisticated states. It has now been widely accepted that there were already communities on
10248-409: The Mogadishu-based new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League in 1974. After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign of the late 1970s, the Barre administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the 1978 coup d'état attempt . Most of
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#173280228935310416-477: The Pakistani force in Somalia had been tasked with the inspection of site AWSS 5 , which happened to be located at Aidid controlled Radio Mogadishu . The station was popular across the city, even among those who did not like Aidid or the Habr Gidr clan and concern that UNOSOM was coming to shut it down infuriated many citizens of Mogadishu. The fighting would result in 24 Pakistanis and dozens of Somalis killed. UNOSOM believed forces associated with Aidid were behind
10584-416: The Presidency Farah Abdulkadir on behalf of President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud , the pact was brokered by the Foreign Ministry of Ethiopia and came after protracted bilateral talks. Under the terms of the agreement, Jubaland is administered for a two-year period by a Juba Interim Administration and led by the region's incumbent president, Ahmed Mohamed Islam. The regional president serves as the chairperson of
10752-400: The Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the UN. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected a new president. With the help of
10920-441: The SNA forces. The fall of Kismayo to Gen. Morgan infuriated the Somali National Alliance. To the SNA the incident was viewed as blatant U.N. partiality, as UNITAF had failed to prevent Morgan from seizing the city and UNOSOM had then fought SNA forces who had tried to retake it. Following the loss of Kismayo, Aidid began to deeply mistrust the United States and the UN mission. In early May, Gen. Aidid and Col. Abdullahi Yusuf of
11088-449: The SNA. This led to the majority of patrols in Mogadishu to cease and numerous checkpoints in SNA controlled territory to be abandoned. For the remainder of the operation UNOSOM troops withdrew into entrenched positions and practically disappeared from Mogadishu streets. The Somali National Alliance and other factions would retake full position of territory in the city that they had previously conceded. The next month on 16 November 1993,
11256-418: The Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic , and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum , the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he
11424-503: The Somali Sea coast. Formerly one of the Bajuni Islands , the peninsula was connected by a narrow causeway when the modern Port of Kismayo was built in 1964 with U.S. assistance. The port served as a base for the Somali Navy as well as the Soviet Navy after the 1969 military coup . In 1984, Somalia and the United States jointly refurbished the port after significant wear to the 2,070-foot-long (630 m) four-berth, marginal wharf made major renovations necessary. The Port of Kismayo
11592-412: The Somali coast with ethnic Somali leadership, to whom the Arab and Persian families had to ask for permission to settle in their cities. It also seems the local Somalis retained their political and numerical superiority on the coast while the Muslim immigrants would go through an assimilation process by adopting the local language and culture. Mogadishu along with Zeila and other Somali coastal cities
11760-421: The Somali coast. Following his visit to the city, the 12th-century Syrian historian Yaqut al-Hamawi (a former slave of Greek origin) wrote a global history of many places he visited Mogadishu and called it the richest and most powerful city in the region and was an Islamic center across the Indian Ocean . During his travels, ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi (1213–1286) noted that Mogadishu city had already become
11928-527: The Somali people. UNOSOM forces began to be increasingly perceived as foreign interlopers and imperialists , particularly after incidents such as the 13 June mass shooting , when UN troops fired upon a demonstration with a machine gun killing 20 Somalis, many women and children, and a US helicopter attack on Digfer Hospital on 17 June. The Times reported that in the month following the offensive at least 200 civilians had been directly killed by foreign troops. Many Mogadishu residents were deeply disturbed by
12096-556: The U.N. ranks with the Italians and others over what had occurred on July 12, 1993, led to a significant lull in UNOSOM operations in Mogadishu until the August 8, 1993 killings of American soldiers. The raid would lead to a significant increase in attacks on UNOSOM II troops and American forces in Mogadishu being deliberately targeted by Somali factions for the first times. That month night patrols in Mogadishu were halted entirely due to
12264-458: The UN and US forces as foreign oppressors. The escalating UNOSOM offensive resulted in the operation forfeiting potential support from other Somali factions. Former Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ramesh Thakur, stated that, "The scale, intensity, and frequency of the use of force by UNOSOM after June 1993 bore little resemblance to the rhetoric and expectations of when it was established, nor any recognizable relationship by then to
12432-491: The UN responded with Resolution 837 , reaffirming that the secretary-general had the authorization to "take all necessary measures against those responsible for the armed attacks and to establish the effective authority of UNOSOM II throughout Somalia." This was essentially a declaration of war on Aidid and the Somali National Alliance , leading to numerous armed confrontations between the two parties. Although UNOSOM II had fewer war-fighting resources than UNITAF , it adopted
12600-607: The UNITAF mission to be a transitional action under U.S. control, structured into four phases. Initially, troops were deployed to secure key harbor and airport sites in Mogadishu and Baledogle , forming the operation's base. The security zone was then extended to encompass the surrounding regions of southern Somalia, a step completed ahead of schedule due to favorable conditions and support from Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs). The third phase involved further southern expansion of
12768-554: The UNITAF mission, a secure environment was not yet established. There was still no effective functioning government or local security/police force. The Secretary-General concluded that, should the Security Council determine that the time had come for the transition from UNITAF to UNOSOM II, the latter should be endowed with enforcement powers under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter to establish
12936-642: The UNOSOM II coalition, which consequently began fraying the cohesion and unity of the operation. The head of the UNOSOM II Justice Division would criticize the raid in a memo to head of UNOSOM, US Admiral Johnathan Howe . Further criticism of the raid came from numerous contributing states such as Ireland , Kuwait , Saudi Arabia , United Arab Emirates , Zimbabwe , but most notably the Italian contingent, who threatened to pull out of
13104-415: The United Nations' Dien Bien Phu ." In response, Egal gave Kamungo a 24-hour ultimatum to depart from Somaliland. UNOSOM would later be entirely expelled from the territory on Egals orders. Radio Mogadishu was a highly popular broadcast station with the residents of the city, and was a vital piece of SNA infrastructure that had been captured following a vicious battle with Ali Mahdi's forces. Following
13272-416: The United Nations' already fragile command authority. Additionally, many humanitarian efforts came to a halt, and numerous non-governmental organizations expressed their disapproval of both the United Nations and the United States. Intense diplomatic efforts were consequently made in order to avert a major split in UNOSOM II. The strike also caused an outcry among UN civilian staffers and disenchantment over
13440-462: The United States significant control over much of the operation. It was observed that very few nations involved had any representation in the UN military command structure. Due to this, many states providing troops to the operation insisted on maintaining command structures with their own respective governments, which would result in numerous future inter-UNOSOM II disputes between contingents. UNOSOM II Force Commander Cevik Bir openly admitted that
13608-472: The United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule. On January 8, 2007, as the Battle of Ras Kamboni raged just south of Kismayo, the TFG relocated from its interim location in Baidoa to the nation's capital, Mogadishu . This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country. Following this defeat,
13776-489: The aircraft incident, Aidid would publicly rebuke the United Nations on Radio Mogadishu for interference in Somali internal affairs. Aidid invited Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Somalia, Adm. Johnathan Howe to open the conference, which was refused. The differences between Aidid and the UN proved to be to great, and the conference proceeded without the United Nations participation. On
13944-488: The ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo. The founding ethnicity of Mogadishu and its subsequent sultanate has been a topic of intrigue in Somali Studies . Ioan Lewis and Enrico Cerulli believed that the city was founded and ruled by a council of Arab and Persian families. However, the reference I.M Lewis and Cerulli received traces back to one 19th century text called
14112-509: The appearance of being the orchestrator for propaganda purposes. As American casualties started to mount in Somalia, domestic backlash in the United States grew. Bipartisan support from the US senate began to build for a withdrawal. By August 1993, it was evident to the Clinton administration that a strategy shift was necessary to retain domestic support for US involvement in Somalia. This shift
14280-410: The attack that, "The normal rules of engagement do not apply in this nation." During this time, UNOSOM forces tried to disarm residents in parts of Mogadishu. Dutch journalist Linda Polman reported that US troops shelled the homes of Somalis who resisted surrendering their weapons, resulting in significant civilian casualties. On 12 July 1993, a house where a meeting of clan elders was taking place
14448-434: The attack. The 1994 UN Inquiry would conclude that in absence of a "...more convincing explanation," it believed the Somali National Alliance was most likely behind the attack. Despite this, the commission noted that no evidence existed to back previous UNOSOM assertions that the attack had been pre-planned or pre-meditated by the SNA, and further noted that the incident had likely been a spontaneous reaction. The next day,
14616-470: The cameras recording the raid had jammed. The Red Cross claimed that 54 Somalis had been killed, including several notable religious elders. According to Dr. Sebastian Kaempf, the Abdi House raid represented the single most important event during UNOSOM II, as the consequences of the attack proved disastrous for UNOSOM interests in Somalia. Black Hawk Down author Mark Bowden noted 12 July had been
14784-509: The campaign against the insurgency was faltering, both tactically and potentially operationally. He cautioned that persisting in the conflict risked catastrophe. On October 3, 1993, Task Force Ranger raided a hotel in Mogadishu to capture high ranking SNA personnel. What ensued was the longest, bloodiest and deadliest battle for US and UNOSOM II troops in Somalia. In what later became known as the Battle of Mogadishu , eighteen US soldiers were killed. Images of their dead bodies being dragged through
14952-468: The city becoming to dangerous for foreign troops. Somali militias and volunteers increasingly began targeting UNOSOM II and US forces, causing further casualties. Following the 12 July 1993 raid , firefights between the SNA and UNOSOM began occurring almost daily. By September 1993, the Pan-Arab newspaper Al-Hayat reported that several Somali Islamic factions, which had previously remained neutral in
15120-484: The city from the Al-Shabaab insurgents. The Juba Interim Administration was established and recognized in 2013. During antiquity, Kismayo was part of the Somali city-states that in engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting Somali merchants with Phoenicia , Ptolemic Egypt , Greece , Parthian Persia , Saba , Nabataea and the Roman Empire . Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as
15288-569: The city was nominally controlled by the SNA and UNITAF forces, Gen. Hersi Morgan of the SNF ousted the Somali National Alliance forces led by Col. Omar Jess. On 7 May 1993, three days after UNOSOM II took control of Kismayo from UNITAF , the SNA made an attempt to retake the city. During the assault the Belgian peacekeepers stationed in the town intervened, considering the assault to take Kismayo an attack on their positions and consequently repelled
15456-513: The city's population of 50,000 residents. Mogadishu remained the capital of Italian Somaliland throughout the latter polity's existence. In World War II it was captured by British forces in February 1941. After World War II Mogadishu was made the capital of the Trust Territory of Somaliland , an Italian administered fiduciary political entity under the UNO mandate, for ten years (1950–1960). British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as
15624-489: The city. The US Quick Reaction Force , which had been split up into several different hot spots in Somalia, was entirely recalled to Mogadishu. BBC East Africa correspondent Mark Doyle described the war between the Somali National Alliance and UNOSOM forces as seen by journalists in Mogadishu: Typical daylight hours in south Mogadishu thunder to the sound of American helicopter gunships criss-crossing
15792-499: The clash between the Americans and Italians was destroying the cohesion of UNOSOM II, and that a review of strategy was desperately needed. American envoy to Somalia, Robert B. Oakley , stated that after the raid countries such as Italy , France , and Zimbabwe , as well as other UNOSOM contingents, ceased their participation in operations against Aidid upon receiving orders from their respective governments. This decision weakened
15960-429: The conflict intensified. Months into the conflict, US and UN officials would concede that they had, "...greatly underestimated their enemy," Following the passing of UNSCR 837 , the hunt for Aidid characterized much of the UNOSOM II intervention. The increasing tempo of military operations being carried out in Mogadishu caused civilian casualties and began to seriously affect the relationship between UN troops and
16128-520: The country. Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into factions. Some of the more radical elements, including a youth milita within the courts military wing known as al-Shabaab , regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military 's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At
16296-406: The country. Mogadishu saw its first major outbreak of violence during the 14 July 1989 riots , during the crackdown Barres forces killed approximately 400 civilians. The July 1989 riots resulted in a large exodus of foreigners from the city and intensification of opposition towards the regime. This incident and other events over the following months led to the outbreak of the civil war in 1991,
16464-530: The country. The 600 km Highway 3 runs the length of the Juba Valley . Starting in Beled Hawo , it goes through Garbaharey , Bardera and Buale before finally reaching Kismayo. A paved 528 km freeway links the capital Mogadishu with Kismayo, passing through Jilib before turning towards the capital. A third highway extends northwest from Kismayo to Afmadow , then turns toward Dhobley in
16632-568: The critical posts in his headquarters were filled by Americans by May 1993. In addition to this the representative of the UN Secretary-General in Somalia, retired US Admiral Jonathan Howe , staffed the UNOSOM II headquarters with twenty-eight US officers in key positions. Months into the operation, following the 5 June 1993 killings of the Pakistanis and the passing of UNSCR 837 , the US would effectively take complete lead of
16800-455: The decision "to personalize the conflict" to Aidid. He would go on to reappoint the former U.S. Special Envoy for Somalia Robert B. Oakley to signal the administrations return to focusing on political reconciliation. The Somali National Alliance perceived the cessation of the military operation as a decisive victory. The stand down order given to U.S. forces in Somalia led other UNOSOM II contingents to effectively avoid any confrontation with
16968-544: The delegates of the national reconciliation conference that the UN was going to invoke its Chapter VI powers across the entirety of Somalia unless they came to an agreement by 25 March 1993. The conference finalized an agreement 24 hours past the deadline. On 26 March 1993 UNOSOM II, was established by the Security Council in Resolution 814 , though did not formally take over operations in Somalia until UNITAF
17136-458: The direction of UNOSOM II for employees of the humanitarian section. At least nine UN civilian employees in Mogadishu working for the humanitarian sector either resigned or walked away from their posts in protest, including the top UNOSOM Justice Division official in Somalia, Ann Wright . Many of those who stayed would comment to reporters that the United Nations had relinquished its moral authority in its war against Aidid. The dissension in
17304-451: The dispute. Sultan Yusuf is even referred to as the governor of Mogadishu in some sources, highlighting the power he exerted over the city. Despite the Somali political decline, trade with Geledi Sultanate flourished during Geledi Sultan Ahmed Yusuf 's reign. British explorer John Kirk visited the region in 1873 and noted a variety of things. Roughly 20 large dhows were docked in both Mogadishu and Merka filled with grain produced from
17472-490: The dynamics of Somali society. Professor Ioan M. Lewis asserted that the UN made an unwise choice to resort to military force, which led to substantial Somali casualties, rather than attempting to politically isolate Aidid and launch an independent legal inquiry. The UN offensive that followed UNSCR 837 had significant negative repercussions for UNOSOM II as it incited hostility from across a wide spectrum of Somali society, extending to those Somali who had been most favorable of
17640-598: The eastern part of the Gedo region. In January 2015, the Interim Juba Administration launched a transport beautification and cleaning campaign in Kismayo. Part of a broader urbanization drive, the initiative includes the clearing of clogged streets and lanes, razing of illegal buildings therein, and further development of the municipal road network. Kismayo's large docks are situated on a peninsula on
17808-417: The effects of heavy weaponry utilized by UN forces in Mogadishu, such as AC-130s , helicopter gunships , wire-guided TOW missiles and rockets. Airstrikes in particular heavily affected Somali civilians and sparked hostility. Each major armed confrontation with UN forces was noted to have the deleterious effect of increasing Aidid's stature with the Somali public. In the view of Professor Mats Berdal of
17976-548: The end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops. Between 31 May and 9 June 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate Alliance for
18144-463: The end of the hunt for Aidid and military operations in Somalia. The United States withdrew six months after the battle, and the remaining UN forces departed from Somalia in early 1995, concluding the operation. UNOSOM II faced heavy criticism for alleged human rights abuses, violations of international law , and the use of excessive force, attracting scrutiny from a wide range of humanitarian organizations, academics and journalists. Furthermore,
18312-546: The establishment of UNOSOM II, centering on the perceived true nature of the operations political mandate. In May 1993, relations between the SNA and UNOSOM would rapidly deteriorate following two significant events. During the March Addis Ababa conference , the Somali National Front (SNF), a pro- Barre faction opposing Aidid, smuggled weapons into the strategic port city of Kismayo . Although
18480-517: The evening of 4 December 1992, U.S. President George H. W. Bush addressed the nation, informing them that U.S. troops would be sent to Somalia. The U.S. contribution would be known as Operation Restore Hope , which joined a multinational force and became known as the United Task Force (UNITAF). The operations of UNOSOM I were suspended. UNITAF was authorized under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter . The United States designed
18648-802: The far more aggressive UNOSOM II mandate. UNOSOM II would be composed of four main divisions. They would be officially led and coordinated in Somalia by the representative of the UN Secretary-General , retired US Admiral Jonathan Howe . The four divisions were tasked with: UNOSOM II had a strength of 30,000 personnel, including 22,000 troops and 8,000 logistic and civilian staff from Algeria , Australia , Austria , Bangladesh , Belgium , Botswana , Canada , Denmark , Egypt , Fiji , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , India , Indonesia , Ireland , Italy , Kuwait , Jordan , Malaysia , Morocco , Nepal , New Zealand , Nigeria , Norway , Pakistan , Philippines , Spain , South Korea , Romania , Saudi Arabia , Sweden , Switzerland , Tunisia , Turkey ,
18816-533: The farms of the Geledi in the interior. Kirk met the Imam Mahmood who reigned over Mogadishu. The Shabelle river itself was referred to as the 'Geledi river' by Kirk, perhaps in respect of the volume of produce that the Sultanate output. In Barawa there was little grain instead a large quantity of ivory and skins which had already been loaded onto ships destined for Zanzibar . The Geledi Sultans were at
18984-613: The head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic , arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programmes, including the Mogadishu Stadium . In addition to a nationalization programme of industry and land,
19152-598: The height of their power. They dominated the East African ivory trade, and also held sway over the Jubba and Shebelle valleys in the hinterland. The Omani Sultans' authority in Mogadishu, however, was largely nominal (existing by name only). When Imam Azzan bin Qais of Oman sought to build a fort in the city, he was thus obligated to request permission from Sultan Ahmed Yusuf the real power broker who in turn convinced
19320-587: The hospitality of the people of Mogadishu and how locals would put travellers up in their home to help the local economy. Battuta added that the city was ruled by a Somali sultan , Abu Bakr ibn Shaikh 'Umar, He noted that Sultan Abu Bakr had dark skin complexion and spoke in his native tongue (Somali) but was also fluent in Arabic. The Sultan also had a retinue of viziers , legal experts, commanders, royal eunuchs , and other officials at his beck and call. Ibn Khaldun (1332 to 1406) noted in his book that Mogadishu
19488-519: The identification of ancient Sarapion with the city that would later be known as Mogadishu. When Ibn Battuta visited the Sultanate in the 14th century, he identified the Sultan as being of Barbara origin, an ancient term to describe the ancestors of the Somali people . According to Ross E. Dunn neither Mogadishu, or any other city on the coast could be considered alien enclaves of Arabs or Persians, but were in-fact African towns. Yaqut al-Hamawi ,
19656-505: The intensive American aerial bombardment had decimated most of the Somali National Alliance's arsenal. American officials involved in the war estimated that the SNA had no more than 300 loyal fighters, motivated merely by cash or Khat handouts. However, interviews conducted by the Washington Post with Somali insurgents painted a contrasting picture: a highly motivated and committed military force whose morale seemed to strengthen as
19824-417: The intervention progressed, military operations against the SNA took focus, relegating the task of political reconciliation, institution-building and humanitarian aid to a peripheral role. Three months into the conflict, the US military would implement Operation Gothic Serpent to assist UNOSOM II against the SNA with special forces . Soon after, the infamous Battle of Mogadishu took place, signifying
19992-625: The intervention. On 12 June 1993 US troops began a military offensive around Mogadishu. On 17 June, a warrant with a $ 25,000 reward was issued by Admiral Jonathan Howe for information leading to the arrest of Aidid , but he was never captured. That same day, Aidid's compound and Radio Mogadishu were directly targeted by US AC-130 gunships. Over the following weeks, strikes were carried out all over Mogadishu with AC-130s and attack helicopters . UNOSOM began to greatly increase its firepower in Mogadishu and started making deliberate shows of force with Italian and American helicopters over
20160-473: The leading Islamic centre in the region. By the time of the Tangier -born traveller ibn Battuta 's appearance on the coastline of Somalia in 1331, the city was at the zenith of its prosperity. He described Mogadishu as "an exceedingly large city" with many rich merchants, which was famous for its high quality fabric that it exported to Mamluk Sultanate -ruled Egypt , among other places. He also describes
20328-470: The majority of Benadiris with a small minority being Gibil Cads (Light Skins) which descend from Muslim immigrants. The Mogadishu Sultanate was a medieval Somali sultanate centered in southern Somalia . It rose as one of the pre-eminent powers in the Horn of Africa under the rule of Fakhr ad-Din before becoming part of the expanding Ajuran Empire in the 13th century. The Mogadishu Sultanate maintained
20496-415: The majority of Somali political leaders rejected the notion of UN administering any aspect of Somalia, though some prominent figures such as Gen. Mohamed Abshir called for the return of trusteeship. The shift raised suspicions among a wide spectrum of Somalis, inciting concerns about the UN's possible attempts to reestablish a trusteeship. Aidid's faction was particularly vocal about these apprehensions, but
20664-481: The majority of night military operations throughout 1993 were coordinated by a variety of Somali Islamic groups within the city . Notably, Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya , a prominent Somali Islamist militant organization that had previously been in conflict with Aidid's forces in 1992, also began engaging in the insurgency against the American and UN forces. While Aidid did not overtly claim responsibility for these night operations, Al-Hayat noted that he sought to project
20832-473: The markets in Egypt and Syria ), together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa . Jewish merchants from Ormus also brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood. Duarte Barbosa , the famous Portuguese traveller, wrote about Mogadishu (c 1517–1518): It has
21000-414: The militia. All this has taken place in a heavily built-up urban environment, with the inevitable heavy casualties. By night, the macabre events continue. Loud explosions are common as militia mortars are aimed at the UN compound or the fortified, UN-controlled airport. UN forces' flares light up the sky in an often futile attempt to pinpoint their enemy. Slow dull tracer fire streaks across the blackness from
21168-436: The militias' weapons. The crack-crack-crack and flash-flash-flash of cannons fired from U.S. helicopter gunships can be seen spitting at apparent militia emplacements. In the week after the offensive, US officers and intelligence experts contended that Aidid's command and control capability over his SNA fighters had been significantly weakened, and the organization's morale had taken a substantial hit. They also believed that
21336-549: The mission. In the months following US officers would operate with minimal consultations with UN headquarters in New York. Marine Lt. Gen. Robert B. Johnston , head of UNITAF , would state that although in his view UNITAF had been success US efforts and losses would be in vain if UNOSOM II was also not successful. UNOSOM II would divide Somalia into five distinct zones. Northwest, Northeast, Central, South and Mogadishu . A federalist government based on 18 autonomous regions
21504-527: The north, to Qelafo in the west, to Kismayo in the south. In the early modern period , Kismayo was ruled by the Geledi Sultanate and by the later 1800s, the Boqow dynasty. The kingdom was eventually incorporated into Italian Somaliland in 1925/6 after the death of the last sultan, Osman Ahmed . After independence in 1960, the city was made the center of the official Kismayo District . Kismayo
21672-472: The northeast Xamareyso (5.0 nm), to the north Dalxiiska (1.3 nm), to the northwest Qeyla Dheere (6.4 nm), to the west Saamogia (0.9 nm), to the southwest Iach Bulle (10.0 nm), and to the south Qandal (6.5 nm). The largest cities in the country most proximate to Kismayo are Jamaame (52 km), Jilib (97 km), and Merca (337 km). Kismayo has a tropical semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BWh ) Weather
21840-548: The northern people of Zeila the capital of Adal Sultanate . They were generally tall with an olive skin complexion, some darker. They would wear traditional rich white silk wrapped around their bodies and have Islamic turbans, and coastal people only wore sarongs and wrote in Arabic as a lingua franca . Their weaponry consisted of traditional Somali weapons such as swords , daggers , spears , battle axe , and bow and arrows . However, they received assistance from its close ally,
22008-451: The operation internationally. As a result numerous UNOSOM II contingents began to increasingly push for a more conciliatory and diplomatic approach with the SNA . Relief agencies and humanitarian organizations publicly distanced themselves from the UN offensive. The backlash from Somali political and military factions against the offensive was so profound that even groups previously ambivalent or antagonistic towards Aidid began to perceive
22176-401: The operation was widely criticized for an overemphasis on military operations, diverging from its original humanitarian intent. The humanitarian impact and number of lives saved is disputed. Following the failure of the monitoring mission created as UNOSOM by the United Nations, the United States offered to lead a substantial intervention force, made up chiefly of American personnel. This
22344-401: The operation's objectives were to aid in relief provision and economic rehabilitation, foster political reconciliation, and re-establish political and civil administrations across Somalia. UNOSOM II was a substantial multinational initiative, uniting over 22,000 troops from 27 nations. This operation marked the largest multilateral force ever assembled for peacekeeping , and at that time, it
22512-428: The people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed. However, several officials escaped abroad and started to form dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force. By the late 1980s, Barre's regime had become increasingly unpopular. The authorities became ever more totalitarian , and resistance movements , encouraged by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across
22680-411: The power to make arbitrary detentions and offer no right to habeas corpus for Somalis. In Drysdale's view UNITAF had avoided armed conflict with Somali factions due to the careful rules of engagement created by the head of the operation, US Marine Lt. Gen. Robert B. Johnston . Johnston's approach, which focused above all on winning the Somali's public confidence, was lost during the transfer to
22848-741: The presence of peacekeepers. The last UN troops left the city in December 1994. General Morgan briefly declared Jubaland independent on September 3, 1998. Political opponents of his subsequently united as the Allied Somali Forces (ASF), seizing control of Kismayo by June of the following year. Led by Colonel Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale , the ASF administration renamed itself the Juba Valley Alliance in 2001. On June 18 of that year, an 11-member interclan council decided to ally
23016-578: The respective organizations were discussed at length and understandings were reached, facilitating the normalization of the relationship between the UN and the SNA. That same year the UNOSOM II began withdrawing. The withdrawal of UNOSOM forces weakened Aidids prominence within the SNA, as the war had served to unify the alliance around a common foreign enemy. All US forces in Somalia completely withdrew on March 3, 1994. All European contingents also decided to withdraw at this time, leaving behind almost exclusively Third World forces to man UNOSOM II. Though it
23184-407: The security zone into Kismayo and Bardera while ensuring secure routes for humanitarian operations. Finally, in the last phase the U.S. transferred operations to the United Nations and withdrew most UNITAF forces. On 3 March 1993, the Secretary-General submitted to the Security Council his recommendations for effecting the transition from UNITAF to UNOSOM II. He noted that despite the size of
23352-457: The skies at low level; militia with small arms or rocket-propelled grenade launchers (RPGs) take aim at what they see as an offensive provocation. It's not unusual, from the main hotel in south Mogadishu, to view open battles, with U.S. helicopters firing 20-millimeter cannons at apparent militia ground positions. From other vantage points, full-scale battles have been observed pitting Turkish tanks, Pakistani APCs , and American Humvees against
23520-622: The south near the capital, such as Janale and the Villaggio duca degli Abruzzi (present-day Jowhar ). In the 1930s, new buildings and avenues were built. A 114 km (71 mi) narrow-gauge railway was laid from Mogadishu to Jowhar. An asphalt road, the Strada Imperiale , was also constructed and intended to link Mogadishu to Addis Ababa . In 1940, the Italo-Somali population numbered 22,000, accounting for over 44% of
23688-416: The streets were broadcast on internationally, infuriating the American public. On 6 October 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton would personally order General Joseph P. Hoar to cease all combat operations against Somali National Alliance , except in self defence . General Hoar would proceed to relay the stand down order to Generals William F. Garrison of Task Force Ranger and Thomas M. Montgomery of
23856-517: The subsequent ouster of the Al-Shabaab rebels in September 2012, the Somali government began preparing mediations between the city's various stakeholders in order to establish an inclusive local administration. On 28 August 2013, the autonomous Jubaland administration signed a national reconciliation agreement in Addis Ababa with the federal government. Endorsed by the federal State Minister for
24024-592: The successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim , who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars, and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf , who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute . The Italians referred to the city as Chisimaio . Kismayo and the northern half of the Jubaland region were incorporated into neighboring Italian Somaliland on 30 June 1926. The colony had
24192-402: The technical expertise required for such an operation and requested that the US supply experts. Importantly, Radio Mogadishu had also been an Authorized Weapons Store Site (AWSS), subject to UNOSOM inspection. It was decided the American special forces technicians would accompany a Pakistani weapons inspection team to the site in order to determine how to disable the station. Gen. Aidid and
24360-479: The toppling of Barre's government, and the disbandment of the Somali National Army . Many of the opposition groups began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. Armed factions led by United Somali Congress commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed , in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital. During
24528-427: The upper echelons of the Somali National Alliance , had been made aware of the discussions to seize or destroy the station. According to the 1994 United Nations Inquiry: Opinions differ, even among UNOSOM officials, on whether the weapons inspections of 5 June 1993 was genuine or was merely a cover-up for reconnaissance and subsequent seizure of Radio Mogadishu. On the morning of Saturday June 5, 1993 an element of
24696-544: The war, had now tacitly allied with the SNA. When the conflict had begun in June 1993 Islamic factions had divided over whether not to fight foreign troops because Aidid had previously been a major threat to them. As civilian casualties began mounting in July and August numerous Islamic factions began to launch attacks on UNOSOM forces in Mogadishu after sunset. Independent sources in Mogadishu, corroborated by Al-Hayat, indicated that
24864-522: The whole operation a few days later citing concerns that the escalation was indicative that relief role of UNOSOM II had been overtaken by an American-led campaign against Mohammed Farah Aidid . The Italians, who had ruled Somalia as a colonial territory for half a century, believed that the unprecedented attack threatened to widen the civil war and turn the Somalis against the entire UN peacekeeping force. A Pakistani officer in Mogadishu noted that
25032-477: Was Somali owned. In 1905, Italy made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Italian Somaliland . The Italians subsequently spelled the name of the city as Mogadiscio . After World War I , the surrounding territory came under Italian control with some resistance. Thousands of Italians and other people from the Italian empire began to settle in Mogadishu and founded small manufacturing companies across Somalia. They also developed some agricultural areas in
25200-631: Was a culmination to the Kenyan Operation Linda Nchi attack into Somalia which had begun late the year before. On 12 July 2019, a car bomb and a gun attack at the Asasey hotel killed at least 26, including two prominent journalists and nine foreigners. Islamist group al-Shabab claimed responsibility. Kismayo is located in the fertile Juba Valley in southeastern Somalia, on the Somali Sea coast. Nearby settlements include to
25368-496: Was a massive metropolis . He also claimed that the city was very populous with many wealthy merchants . This period gave birth to notable figures like Abd al-Aziz of Mogadishu who was described as the governor and island chief of Maldives by ibn Battuta. After him is named the Abdul-Aziz Mosque of Mogadishu, which survived for centuries. The island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but rather
25536-490: Was accepted by the UN and made possible through United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 , authorizing the use of "all necessary means to establish as soon as possible a secure environment for humanitarian relief operations in Somalia". The Security Council urged the Secretary-General and member states to make arrangements for the unified command and control of the military forces that would be involved. On
25704-427: Was agreed upon by the leaders of Somalia's various armed factions. It was the objective of UNOSOM II to support this new system and initiate nation-building in Somalia. This included disarming the various factions, restoring law and order, helping the people to set up a representative government , and restoring infrastructure . Major disagreements between the UN and the Somali National Alliance began soon after
25872-449: Was already lost. On 8 August, SNA forces detonated a remote controlled bomb against a U.S. military vehicle and killed American soldiers for the first time. Two weeks later, another bomb injured seven. In response, President Bill Clinton approved the proposal to deploy a special task force composed of 400 US Army Rangers and Delta-force Commandos. Despite growing reservations about the effectiveness of UNOSOM military operations against
26040-474: Was appointed by Shermarke. On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially
26208-442: Was attacked by US AH-1 Cobra helicopters in what became known to the Somalis as Bloody Monday . UNOSOM claimed that they had launched a successful raid on a Somali National Alliance command and control center where hardliners had been gathered, an account that is widely disputed by Somalis, foreign journalists and human rights organizations. Johnathan Howe alleged that evidence to back UN claims could not be provided because
26376-515: Was dissolved just over a month later on 4 May 1993. UNOSOM II was the first UN mission authorized from the start to use military force proactively, beyond self-defense. John Drysdale notes that by invoking Chapter VII , the UNOSOM II Force Commander could operate with near impunity depending on their interpretation of Article 42 of Chapter VII. Article 42 offered no rules of engagement , in effect gave UNOSOM II forces
26544-489: Was formerly a Somali Air Force training base. Following the outbreak of the civil war, the airport was closed down for a period of time and its infrastructure was significantly damaged. However, the facility was reopened in October 2008 by the Islamic Courts Union after undergoing some renovations. That same year, the airport was also renamed after Imam Ahmed Gurey , a 16th‑century Somali military leader. The Kismayo Airport
26712-437: Was founded upon an indigenous network involving hinterland trade and that happened even before significant Arab migrations or trade with the Somali coast. That goes back approximately four thousand years and are supported by archaeological and textual evidences. This is corroborated by the first century AD Greek document the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , detailing multiple prosperous port cities in ancient Somalia, as well as
26880-464: Was not alone. A variety of other Somali factions, including that of Aidid's main adversary, Ali Mahdi , also expressed similar concerns. During March 1993, several weeks before UNOSOM II was created, the first UN sponsored Somali peace conference was being held in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . The Conference on National Reconciliation consisted of the majority of Somalis factions and leaders. UN Special Representative Lansana Kouyate of Guinea warned
27048-650: Was officially brought under the Juba Interim Administration in August 2013. According to the agreement, management of the facility was scheduled to be transferred to the Somali Federal Government after a period of six months. Like Kismayo Airport, revenues and resources generated by the seaport are to be earmarked for Jubaland's service delivery and security sectors as well as local institutional development. Mogadishu Mogadishu , locally known as Xamar or Hamar ,
27216-513: Was officially brought under the Juba Interim Administration in August 2013. Per agreement, management of the facility was scheduled to be transferred to the Federal Government after a period of six months. Revenues and resources generated from the airport will also be earmarked for Jubaland's service delivery and security sectors as well as local institutional development. Three main thoroughfares connect Kismayo to other major areas in
27384-483: Was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. The name Madageiscar was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted transliteration of the name Mogadishu, the famous port with which Polo had confused the island. Vasco da Gama , who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and large palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets. In
27552-609: Was signalled by Defense Secretary Les Aspin in his 27 August speech, advocating for a decreased military focus in UNOSOM II and urging the UN and the OAU to resume negotiations with all parties. Both the US Secretary of State and the National Security Advisor pushed for a shift towards diplomacy . Certain US officials advocated for a more aggressive response, among them was Ambassador Robert R. Gosende from
27720-411: Was the costliest UN operation. Notably, it was the first UN mission authorized from the start to use military force proactively, beyond self-defense. Four months into its mandate in June 1993, UNOSOM II transformed into a military campaign as it found itself entangled in armed conflict with Somali factions, predominantly against the Somali National Alliance (SNA) led by Gen. Mohammed Farah Aidid . As
27888-560: Was the second phase of the United Nations intervention in Somalia and took place from March 1993 until March 1995, following the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991. UNOSOM II carried on from the transitory United States -controlled (UN-sanctioned) Unified Task Force (UNITAF), which had been preceded by UNOSOM I . Notably, UNOSOM II embarked on a nation-building mission, diverging from its predecessors. As delineated in UNSCR 814 ,
28056-399: Was the site of numerous battles during the civil war , from the early 1990s. In late 2006, Islamist militants affiliated with Al-Shabaab gained control of most of the city. To reclaim possession of the territory, a new autonomous regional administration dubbed Azania was announced in 2010 and formalized in 2011. In September 2012, the Somali National Army and AMISOM troops re-captured
28224-514: Was widely feared the less equipped contingents would come under attack from Somali militia following the Western withdrawal, the period was mostly uneventful. Local hostility forced the remaining UNOSOM staff in Somalia to travel by helicopter, even for distances as short as a kilometre. This was in stark contrast to the intervention's onset when the UN personnel could travel via bus shuttle system. On November 4, 1994, after peacemaking efforts by
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