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84-557: In 1648, during Khmelnytsky Uprising , Irkliiv Regiment was raised, with colonel Mykhailo Teliuchenko commanding it. On 16 October 1649 Irkliiv and neighboring part of Lubny Regiment were merged to form Kropyvna Regiment. The only regimental colonel was Filon Dzhelaliy . Hetman Ivan Vyhovsky disbanded the regiment in 1658 after death of colonel Filon Dzhelaliy. The regiments sotnias were all transferred to recreated Irkliiv Regiment and Lubny Regiment . The regiment comprised 14 sotnias with 2010 cossacks: Zaruba and Kryvoshyia give

168-642: A Ukrainian national identity gradually dominating over much of present-day Ukraine in the 19th and 20th centuries, the endonym Rusyn is now mostly used among a minority of peoples on the territory of the Carpathian Mountains , including Carpathian Ruthenia . The word Ruthenia originated as a Latin designation of the region its people called Rus' . During the Middle Ages, writers in English and other Western European languages applied

252-766: A country extending from the Baltic Sea to the Caspian Sea and from the Don River to the northern ocean. It is a source of beeswax , its forests harbor many animals with valuable fur , and the capital city Moscow ( Moscovia ), named after the Moskva River ( Moscum amnem ), is 14 miles in circumference. Danish diplomat Jacob Ulfeldt , who traveled to Muscovy in 1578 to meet with Tsar Ivan IV , titled his posthumously (1608) published memoir Hodoeporicon Ruthenicum ("Voyage to Ruthenia"). In Kievan Rus',

336-835: A group of supporters he headed for the Zaporozhian Sich . The Cossacks were already on the brink of a new rebellion as plans for the new war with the Ottoman Empire advanced by the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa were cancelled by the Sejm . Cossacks were gearing up to resume their traditional and lucrative attacks on the Ottoman Empire (in the first quarter of the 17th century they raided the Black Sea shores almost annually), as they greatly resented being prevented from

420-513: A nationalist movement. After 1918, the name Ruthenia became narrowed to the area south of the Carpathian Mountains in the Kingdom of Hungary , also called Carpathian Ruthenia ( Ukrainian : карпатська Русь , romanized :  karpatska Rus , including the cities of Mukachevo , Uzhhorod , and Prešov ) and populated by Carpatho-Ruthenians , a group of East Slavic highlanders. While Galician Ruthenians considered themselves Ukrainians,

504-460: A part of Zakarpattia Oblast in present-day Ukraine), became subordinated to the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century. The Kings of Hungary continued using the title "King of Galicia and Lodomeria" until 1918. By the 15th century, the Moscow principality had established its sovereignty over a large portion of former Kievan territory and began to fight Lithuania over Ruthenian lands. In 1547,

588-758: A secular decline of Polish power during the period known in Polish history as "the Deluge ". In Jewish history , the Uprising is known for the atrocities against the Jews who, in their capacity as leaseholders ( arendators ), were seen by the peasants as their immediate oppressors and became the subject of antisemitic violence. In 1569 the Union of Lublin granted the southern Lithuanian-controlled Ruthenian voivodeships of Volhynia , Podolia , Bracław and Kiev —to

672-654: A symbolic meaning in the history of Ukraine 's relationship with Poland and Russia . It ended the Polish Catholic szlachta ′s domination over the Ukrainian Orthodox population; at the same time, it led to the eventual incorporation of eastern Ukraine into the Tsardom of Russia initiated by the 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement , whereby the Cossacks would swear allegiance to the tsar while retaining

756-707: A wide degree of autonomy. The event triggered a period of political turbulence and infighting in the Hetmanate known as the Ruin . The success of the anti-Polish rebellion, along with internal conflicts in Poland, as well as concurrent wars waged by Poland with Russia and Sweden (the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) and Second Northern War (1655–1660) respectively), ended the Polish Golden Age and caused

840-700: Is King Jan II Casimir Vasa, in Rus it is Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky". Following the Battles of Zbarazh and Zboriv , Khmelnytsky gained numerous privileges for the Cossacks under the Treaty of Zboriv . When hostilities resumed, however, his forces suffered a massive defeat in 1651 at the Battle of Berestechko , considered to be one of the largest land battles of the 17th century, and they were abandoned by their former allies,

924-844: Is an exonym , originally used in Medieval Latin , as one of several terms for Kievan Rus' . Originally, the term Rus' land referred to a triangular area, which mainly corresponds to the tribe of Polans in Dnieper Ukraine . Ruthenia was used to refer to the East Slavic and Eastern Orthodox people of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland , and later the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria-Hungary , mainly to Ukrainians and sometimes Belarusians , corresponding to

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1008-541: The Battle of Jezierna or Jeziorna (November 1655). There is some overlap between the last phase of the uprising and the beginning of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) , as Cossack and Russian forces became allied. Estimates of the death tolls of the Khmelnytsky uprising vary, as do many others from the eras analyzed by historical demography . As better sources and methodology are becoming available, such estimates are subject to continuing revision. Population losses of

1092-673: The Commonwealth's forces . The insurgency was accompanied by mass atrocities committed by Cossacks against prisoners of war and the civilian population, especially against the Roman Catholic and Ruthenian Uniate clergy and especially the Jews , as well as savage reprisals by loyalist Jeremi Wiśniowiecki , the voivode of Ukrainian descent (military governor) of the Ruthenian Voivodeship . The uprising has

1176-820: The Cossack–Polish War , or the Khmelnytsky insurrection , was a Cossack rebellion that took place between 1648 and 1657 in the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukraine. Under the command of hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky , the Zaporozhian Cossacks , allied with the Crimean Tatars and local Ukrainian peasantry , fought against Polish domination and

1260-462: The Crimean Tatars . They were forced at Bila Tserkva to accept the Treaty of Bila Tserkva . A year later, in 1652, the Cossacks had their revenge at the Battle of Batih , where Khmelnytsky ordered Cossacks to kill all Polish prisoners and paid Tatars for possession of the prisoners, an event known as the Batih massacre . However, the enormous casualties suffered by the Cossacks at Berestechko made

1344-585: The Crown of Poland under the agreement forming the new Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ( Rzeczpospolita ). The Kingdom of Poland already controlled several Ruthenian lands which formed the voivodeships of Lviv and Belz . The combined lands would be formed into the Lesser Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland . Although the local nobility were formally granted full rights within

1428-486: The Mongol Invasion of Kievan Rus' and a massive devastation of the core territory, the name Rus' was succeeded by Galician-Volhynian principality , which declared itself as Kingdom of Rus' . European manuscripts dating from the 11th century used the name Ruthenia to describe Rus' , the wider area occupied by the early Rus' (commonly referred to as Kievan Rus ' ). This term was also used to refer to

1512-676: The Ottoman Empire in the Moldavian Magnate Wars . After being held captive in Constantinople , he returned home as a Registered Cossack , settling in his khutor Subotiv with a wife and several children. He participated in campaigns for Grand Crown Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski , led delegations to King Władysław IV Vasa in Warsaw and generally was well respected within the Cossack ranks. The course of his life

1596-433: The Ruthenian Voivodeship was established in the territory of Galicia-Volhynia and existed until the 18th century. These southern territories include: The Russian Tsardom was officially called Velikoye Knyazhestvo Moskovskoye (Великое Княжество Московское), the Grand Duchy of Moscow , until 1547, although Ivan III (1440–1505, r.  1462–1505 ) had earlier borne the title "Great Tsar of All Russia". During

1680-597: The Tatars to join him in a potential assault against their shared enemy, the Commonwealth. By April 1648 word of an uprising had spread throughout the Commonwealth. Either because they underestimated the size of the uprising, or because they wanted to act quickly to prevent it from spreading, the Commonwealth's Grand Crown Hetman Mikołaj Potocki and Field Crown Hetman Marcin Kalinowski sent 3,000 soldiers under

1764-681: The USSR , as the Soviet government considered them to be Ukrainian. A Rusyn minority remained, after World War II, in eastern Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia ). According to critics, the Ruthenians rapidly became Slovakized . In 1995 the Ruthenian written language became standardized. Following Ukrainian independence and dissolution of the Soviet Union (1990–91), the official position of

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1848-524: The Uniate Church . While all of the people did not unite under one church , the concepts of autonomy were implanted into consciousness of the area and came out in force during the military campaign of Bohdan Khmelnytsky . Born to a noble family, Bohdan Khmelnytsky attended a Jesuit school, probably in Lviv . At the age of 22, he joined his father in the service of the Commonwealth, battling against

1932-601: The Zaporizhian Sich and quickly killed the guards assigned by the Commonwealth to protect the entrance. Once at the Sich, his oratory and diplomatic skills struck a nerve with oppressed Ruthenians. As his men repelled an attempt by Commonwealth forces to retake the Sich, more recruits joined his cause. The Cossack Rada elected him Hetman by the end of the month. Khmelnytsky threw most of his resources into recruiting more fighters. He sent emissaries to Crimea , enjoining

2016-690: The fall of Constantinople it began this process by insisting that the Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus′ was now the primate of the Russian Church . The pressure of Catholic expansionism culminated with the Union of Brest in 1596, which attempted to retain the autonomy of the Eastern Orthodox churches in present-day Ukraine , Poland and Belarus by aligning themselves with the Bishop of Rome . Many Cossacks were also against

2100-462: The 13th century, western Ruthenian principalities became incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , after which the state became called the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Ruthenia. The Polish Kingdom also took the title King of Ruthenia when it annexed Galicia. These titles were merged when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed. A small part of Rus' ( Transcarpathia , now mainly

2184-471: The 1637 rebellion, he realized that Cossacks, while having an excellent infantry, could not hope to match the Polish cavalry, which was possibly the best in Europe at the time. However, combining Cossack infantry with Crimean Tatar cavalry could provide a balanced military force and give the Cossacks a chance to beat the Polish army. On January 25, 1648, Khmelnytsky brought a contingent of 400–500 Cossacks to

2268-489: The 1880s through the first decade of the 20th century, the popularity of the ethnonym Ukrainian spread, and the term Ukraine became a substitute for Malaya Rus' among the Ukrainian population of the empire. In the course of time, the term Rus became restricted to western parts of present-day Ukraine ( Galicia /Halych, Carpathian Ruthenia ), an area where Ukrainian nationalism competed with Galician Russophilia . By

2352-648: The 1980s historians still considered 100,000 a reasonable estimate of the Jews killed and, according to Edward Flannery , many considered it "a minimum". Max Dimont in Jews, God, and History , first published in 1962, writes "Perhaps as many as 100,000 Jews perished in the decade of this revolution." Edward Flannery , writing in The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism , first published in 1965, also gives figures of 100,000 to 500,000, stating "Many historians consider

2436-608: The Carpatho-Ruthenians were the last East Slavic people who kept the historical name ( Ruthen is a Latin form of the Slavic rusyn ). Today, the term Rusyn is used to describe the ethnicity and language of Ruthenians , who are not compelled to adopt the Ukrainian national identity . Carpathian Ruthenia ( Hungarian : Kárpátalja , Ukrainian : Закарпаття , romanized :  Zakarpattia ) became part of

2520-530: The Commonwealth becoming increasingly weak, Cossacks became more and more integrated into the Russian Empire , with their autonomy and privileges eroded. The remnants of these privileges were gradually abolished in the aftermath of the Great Northern War (1700–1721), in which hetman Ivan Mazepa sided with Sweden. By the time that the last of the partitions of Poland ended the existence of

2604-469: The Commonwealth in 1795, many Cossacks had already left Ukraine to colonise the Kuban and, in process, were russified . Sources vary as to when the uprising ended. Russian and some Polish sources give the end-date of the uprising as 1654, pointing to the Treaty of Pereyaslav as ending the war; Ukrainian sources give the date as Khmelnytsky's death in 1657; and few Polish sources give the date as 1655 and

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2688-476: The Cossack-Polish War", Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1 (1977): 153–77. While many of them were killed, Jewish losses did not reach the hair-raising figures that are often associated with the uprising. In the words of Weinryb ( The Jews of Poland , 193–4), "The fragmentary information of the period—and to a great extent information from subsequent years, including reports of recovery—clearly indicate that

2772-420: The Cossacks (note the Treaty of Hadiach of 1658), the new Cossack subjects became even more dominated by Russia. The Hetmanate entered a new political situation which was far different than in the Commonwealth, and the church was much more subordinate to the tsar there. Russia had a traditional practice of imprisoning as well as executing Orthodox officials, which was foreign to people from the Commonwealth. With

2856-509: The Cossacks to ally with the Russian tsar in the Treaty of Pereyaslav , which led to the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) . When Poland–Lithuania and Russia signed the Truce of Vilna and agreed on an anti-Swedish alliance in 1657, Khmelnytsky's Cossacks supported the invasion of the Commonwealth by Sweden's Transylvanian allies instead. Although the Commonwealth tried to regain its influence over

2940-749: The French and Spanish press as "troublemaking".) On 15 March 1939, the Ukrainophile president of Carpatho-Ruthenia, Avhustyn Voloshyn , declared its independence as Carpatho-Ukraine . On the same day, regular troops of the Royal Hungarian Army occupied and annexed the region. In 1944 the Soviet Army occupied the territory , and in 1945 it was annexed to the Ukrainian SSR . Rusyns were not an officially recognized ethnic group in

3024-634: The Jews of Poland during the fatal decade 1648–1658 were appalling. In the reports of the chroniclers, the number of Jewish victims varies between one hundred thousand and five hundred thousand. But even if we accept the lower figure, the number of victims still remains colossal, even exceeding the catastrophes of the Crusades and the Black Death in Western Europe. Some seven hundred Jewish communities in Poland had suffered massacre and pillage. In

3108-660: The Messiah, and contributed in later years to growing interest in Hasidism . The accounts of contemporary Jewish chroniclers of the events tended to emphasize large casualty figures, but since the end of the 20th century they have been re-evaluated downwards. Early 20th-century estimates of Jewish deaths were based on the accounts of the Jewish chroniclers of the time, and tended to be high, ranging from 100,000 to 500,000 or more; in 1916 Simon Dubnow stated: The losses inflicted on

3192-412: The Moscow principality adopted the title of The Great Principat of Moscow and Tsardom of the Whole Rus and claimed sovereignty over "all the Rus'" — acts not recognized by its neighbour Poland. The Muscovy population was Eastern Orthodox and preferred to use the Greek transliteration Rossiya (Ῥωσία) rather than the Latin "Ruthenia". In the 14th century, the southern territories of Rus', including

3276-465: The Poles found a lot of support not only in his regiment but also throughout the Sich . All through the autumn of 1647, Khmelnytsky travelled from one regiment to another and had numerous consultations with different Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine. His activity raised the suspicions of Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts, and he was promptly arrested. Polkovnyk ( colonel ) Mykhailo Krychevsky assisted Khmelnytsky in his escape, and with

3360-448: The Rzeczpospolita by a 1572 royal decree, this was often ignored by city councils, and both the nobility and city burgers were under enormous pressure to convert to Roman Catholicism and use of the Polish language . This assimilation of Polish culture on the part of the Ruthenian nobility alienated them from the lower classes, and most especially to the Cossacks , who proved stubbornly resistant to Catholicism and Polonization . It

3444-417: The Slavs of the island of Rügen or to other Baltic Slavs, whom 12th-century chroniclers portrayed as fierce pirate pagans—even though Kievan Rus' had converted to Christianity by the 10th century: Eupraxia , the daughter of Rutenorum rex Vsevolod I of Kiev , had married the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV in 1089. After the devastating Mongolian occupation of the main part of Ruthenia which began in

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3528-406: The Ukrainian cities situated on the left banks of the Dnieper, the region populated by Cossacks ... the Jewish communities had disappeared almost completely. In the localities on the right shore of the Dnieper or in the Polish part of Ukraine as well as those of Volhynia and Podolia, wherever Cossacks had made their appearance, only about one tenth of the Jewish population survived. From the 1960s to

3612-461: The Ukrainian nation; and Ruthenophiles, who claimed that Carpatho-Ruthenians were a separate nation and who wanted to develop a native Rusyn language and culture. In 1938, under the Nazi regime in Germany, there were calls in the German press for the independence of a greater Ukraine, which would include Ruthenia, parts of Hungary, the Polish Southeast including Lviv, the Crimea, and Ukraine, including Kyiv and Kharkiv. (These calls were described in

3696-415: The catastrophe may have not been as great as has been assumed." A 2003 study by Israeli demographer Shaul Stampfer of Hebrew University dedicated solely to the issue of Jewish casualties in the uprising concludes that 18,000–20,000 Jews were killed of a total population of 40,000. Paul Robert Magocsi states that Jewish chroniclers of the 17th century "provide invariably inflated figures with respect to

3780-399: The command of Potocki's son, Stefan , towards Khmelnytsky, without waiting to gather additional forces from Prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki . Khmelnytsky marshalled his forces and met his enemy at the Battle of Zhovti Vody , which saw a considerable number of defections on the field of battle by Registered Cossacks , who changed their allegiance from the Commonwealth to Khmelnytsky. The victory

3864-417: The early 20th century, the term Ukraine had mostly replaced Malorussia in those lands, and by the mid-1920s in the Ukrainian diaspora in North America as well. Rusyn (the Ruthenian) has been an official self-identification of the Rus' population in Poland (and also in Czechoslovakia ). Until 1939, for many Ruthenians and Poles, the word Ukrainiec (Ukrainian) meant a person involved in or friendly to

3948-450: The early modern period, the term Ruthenia started to be mostly associated with the Ruthenian lands of the Polish Crown and the Cossack Hetmanate . Bohdan Khmelnytsky declared himself the ruler of the Ruthenian state to the Polish representative Adam Kysil in February 1649. The Grand Principality of Ruthenia was the project name of the Cossack Hetmanate integrated into the Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth . The use of

4032-423: The entire Commonwealth population in the years 1648–1667 (a period which includes the Uprising, but also the Polish-Russian War and the Swedish invasion ) are estimated at 4 million (roughly a decrease from 11 to 12 million to 7–8 million). Before the Khmelnytsky uprising, magnates had sold and leased certain privileges to arendators , many of whom were Jewish, who earned money from the collections they made for

4116-412: The fields and one grave alone contained over 270 bodies... All the infants were less than a year old since the older ones were driven off into captivity. The surviving peasants wander about in groups, bewailing their misfortune. From Autumn of 1654 to Spring of 1655 during the "Bracław Campaign" Stefan Czarniecki's army with the support of Crimean Tatars murdered 100,000 Ukrainians some sources even put

4200-468: The government and some Ukrainian politicians has been that the Rusyns are an integral part of the Ukrainian nation. Some of the population of Zakarpattia Oblast of Ukraine have identified as Rusyn (or Boyko, Hutsul, Lemko etc.) first and foremost; a subset of this second group has, nevertheless, considered Rusyns to be part of a broader Ukrainian national identity. In 1844, Karl Ernst Claus , Russian naturalist and chemist of Baltic German origin, isolated

4284-418: The idea of creating an independent state impossible to implement. Khmelnytsky had to decide whether to stay under Polish–Lithuanian influence or ally with the Muscovites. The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate , then a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire , participated in the insurrection, seeing it as a source of captives to be sold. Slave raiding sent a large influx of captives to slave markets in Crimea at

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4368-418: The initial stages of the uprising, armies of the magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki , on their retreat westward inflicted terrible retribution on the civilian population, leaving behind them a trail of burned towns and villages. In addition, Khmelnytsky's Tatar allies often continued their raids against the civilian population, in spite of protests from the Cossacks. After the Cossacks' alliance with Tsardom of Russia

4452-700: The lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history. In the two decades following the uprising the Commonwealth suffered two more major wars ( The Deluge and Russo-Polish War (1654–67) ; during that period total Jewish casualties are estimated at another 20,000 to 30,000. In Jewish circles, this massacre became known as Gzeyres Takh Vetat, sometimes shortened to Takh Vetat (spelled in multiple ways in English. In Hebrew : גזירת ת"ח ות"ט ). This translates to "the (evil) decrees of (years) 408 and 409" referring to

4536-493: The loss of life among the Jewish population of Ukraine. The numbers range from 60,000–80,000 (Nathan Hannover) to 100,000 (Sabbatai Cohen), but that "[t]he Israeli scholars Shmuel Ettinger and Bernard D. Weinryb speak instead of the 'annihilation of tens of thousands of Jewish lives', and the Ukrainian-American historian Jaroslaw Pelenski narrows the number of Jewish deaths to between 6,000 and 14,000". Orest Subtelny concludes: Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given

4620-399: The lower-class Ruthenians, with the introduction of Counter-Reformation missionary practices and the use of Jewish arendators to manage their estates. Local Orthodox traditions were also affected from the assumption of ecclesiastical power by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1448. The growing Russian state in the north sought to acquire the southern lands of Kievan Rus' , and with

4704-494: The magnates by receiving a percentage of an estate's revenue. By not supervising their estates directly, the magnates left it to the leaseholders and collectors to become objects of hatred to the oppressed and long-suffering peasants. Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." With this as their battle cry, Cossacks and the peasantry massacred numerous Jewish and Polish–Lithuanian townsfolk, as well as szlachta during

4788-416: The most numerous and accessible representatives of the szlachta regime. The uprising began a period in Polish history known as The Deluge (which included the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth during the Second Northern War of 1655–1660), that temporarily freed the Ukrainians from Polish domination but in a short time subjected them to Russian domination. Weakened by wars, in 1654 Khmelnytsky persuaded

4872-524: The name Rus' , or Rus'ka zemlia (land of Rus'), described the lands between Kiev , Chernihiv and Pereyaslav , corresponding to the tribe of Polanians , which started to identify themself as Rus' ( Ukrainian : Русь, Русини ) approximately in 9th century. In a broader sense, this name also referred to all territories under control of Kievan princes , and the initial area of Rus' land served as their metropole , yet this wider meaning declined when Kiev lost its power over majority of principalities. After

4956-420: The newly founded Hungarian Kingdom in 1000. In May 1919, it was incorporated with nominal autonomy into the provisional Czechoslovak state as Subcarpathian Rus' . Since then, Ruthenian people have been divided into three orientations: Russophiles , who saw Ruthenians as part of the Russian nation; Ukrainophiles , who like their Galician counterparts across the Carpathian Mountains considered Ruthenians part of

5040-487: The number as high as 300,000. The rebellion had a major effect on Poland and Ukraine . With Fire and Sword is a historical fiction novel, set in the 17th century in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Khmelnytsky Uprising. With Fire and Sword is also a Polish historical drama film directed by Jerzy Hoffman . The film is based on the novel With Fire and Sword , the first part in Henryk Sienkiewicz 's The Trilogy . Ruthenia Ruthenia

5124-701: The number of Jews that died during the national uprising of Ukrainians to 18,000–20,000 people between the years 1648–1649; of these, 3,000–6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemirov in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648. Due to the widespread murders, Jewish elders at the Council of Vilna banned merrymaking by a decree on July 3, 1661: they set limitations on wedding celebrations, public drinking, fire dances, masquerades, and Jewish comic entertainers. Stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces, or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. These stories filled many with despair, led others to identify Sabbatai Zevi as

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5208-399: The peasant uprisings now troubled a nobleman such as Khmelnytsky; however, after discussing information gathered across the country with his advisers, the Cossack leadership soon realized the potential for autonomy was there for the taking. Although Khmelnytsky's personal resentment of the szlachta and the magnates influenced his transformation into a revolutionary, it was his ambition to become

5292-440: The pirate activities by the peace treaties between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. Rumors about the emerging hostilities with "the infidels" were greeted with joy, and the news that there was to be no raiding after all was explosive in itself. However, the Cossack rebellion might have fizzled in the same manner as the great rebellions of 1637–1638 but for the strategies of Khmelnytsky. Having taken part in

5376-461: The principalities of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev , became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which in 1384 united with Catholic Poland in a union which became the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. Due to their usage of the Latin script rather than the Cyrillic script , they were usually denoted by the Latin name Ruthenia . Other spellings were also used in Latin, English , and other languages during this period. Contemporaneously,

5460-476: The realm of historical demography , became more widely adopted and tended to result in lower fatality numbers. Newer studies of the Jewish population of the affected areas of Ukraine in that period estimate it to be 50,000. According to Orest Subtelny : Weinryb cites the calculations of S. Ettinger  [ he ] indicating that about 50,000 Jews lived in the area where the uprising occurred. See B. Weinryb, "The Hebrew Chronicles on Bohdan Khmelnytsky and

5544-672: The rebellious Hetmanate were devastated by the uprising and ensuing massacres, though occasionally a Jewish population was spared, notably after the capture of the town of Brody (the population of which was 70% Jewish). According to the book known as History of the Rus , Khmelnytsky's rationale was largely mercantile and the Jews of Brody, which was a major trading centre, were judged to be useful "for turnovers and profits" and thus they were only required to pay "moderate indemnities" in kind. One estimate (1996) reports that 15,000–30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed. A 2014 estimate puts

5628-428: The regiment 1992 cossacks in 1649. Giving 3 Irkliiv companies 631 cossacks, the register lists them having 640. Also 2 Pyriatyn companies had 307, as opposed to registers 306. Other discrepancies are shown in ( ). In 1650 register sent by Bohdan Khmelnytsky to Alexis of Russia , strength of regiment is given at 2053. Notes Khmelnytsky Uprising See Aftermath The Khmelnytsky Uprising , also known as

5712-457: The royal delegation. Khmelnytsky answered that he would comply with his monarch's request and then turned back. He made a triumphant entry into Kiev on Christmas Day in 1648, and he was hailed as "the Moses, savior, redeemer, and liberator of the people from Polish captivity... the illustrious ruler of Rus". In February 1649, during negotiations with a Polish delegation headed by nobleman Adam Kysil in Pereiaslav , Khmelnytsky declared that he

5796-441: The ruler of a Ruthenian nation that expanded the uprising from a simple rebellion into a national movement. Khmelnytsky had his forces join a peasant revolt at the Battle of Pyliavtsi , striking another terrible blow to weakened and depleted Polish forces. Khmelnytsky was persuaded not to lay siege to Lviv, in exchange for 200,000 red guldens, according to some sources, but Hrushevsky stated that Khmelnytsky did indeed lay siege to

5880-561: The second figure exaggerated and the first a minimum." Martin Gilbert in his Jewish History Atlas published in 1976 states, "Over 100,000 Jews were killed; many more were tortured or ill-treated, others fled ...." Many other sources of the time give similar figures. Although many modern sources still give estimates of Jews killed in the uprising at 100,000 or more, others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000, and recent academic studies have argued fatalities were even lower. Modern historiographic methods, particularly from

5964-399: The term Rus/Russia in the lands of Rus' survived longer as a name used by Ukrainians for Ukraine. When the Austrian monarchy made the vassal state of Galicia–Lodomeria into a province in 1772, Habsburg officials realized that the local East Slavic people were distinct from both Poles and Russians and still called themselves Rus. This was true until the empire fell in 1918. In

6048-407: The term to lands inhabited by Eastern Slavs . Rusia or Ruthenia appears in the 1520 Latin treatise Mores, leges et ritus omnium gentium, per Ioannem Boëmum, Aubanum, Teutonicum ex multis clarissimis rerum scriptoribus collecti by Johann Boemus . In the chapter De Rusia sive Ruthenia, et recentibus Rusianorum moribus ("About Rus', or Ruthenia, and modern customs of the Rus'"), Boemus tells of

6132-410: The territories of modern Belarus , Ukraine , Eastern Poland and some of western Russia . Historically, in a broader sense, the term was used to refer to all the territories under Kievan dominion (mostly East Slavs). The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (1772–1918), corresponding to parts of Western Ukraine , was referred to as Ruthenia and its people as Ruthenians . As a result of

6216-401: The time of the Uprising. Ottoman Jews collected funds to mount a concerted ransom effort to gain the freedom of their people. Within a few months almost all Polish nobles, officials and priests had been wiped out or driven from the lands of present-day Ukraine. The Commonwealth population losses in the uprising exceeded one million. In addition, Jews suffered substantial losses because they were

6300-528: The town, for about two weeks. After obtaining the ransom, he moved to besiege Zamość , when he finally heard about the election of the new Polish King, John Casimir II , whom Khmelnytsky favored. According to Hrushevsky John Casimir II sent him a letter in which he informed the Cossack leader about his election and assured him that he would grant Cossacks and all of the Orthodox faith various privileges. He requested for Khmelnytsky to stop his campaign and await

6384-494: The years 1648–1649. Yeven Mezulah , the contemporary 17th-century chronicle by Nathan ben Moses Hannover , an eyewitness, states: Wherever they found the szlachta , royal officials or Jews, they [Cossacks] killed them all, sparing neither women nor children. They pillaged the estates of the Jews and nobles, burned churches and killed their priests, leaving nothing whole. It was a rare individual in those days who had not soaked his hands in blood ... Most Jewish communities in

6468-432: The years 5408 and 5409 on the Jewish calendar, which corresponds to the years 1648 and 1649 on the non-Jewish calendar. While the Cossacks and peasants (known as pospolity ) were in many cases the perpetrators of massacres of Polish szlachta members and their collaborators, they also suffered the horrendous loss of life resulting from Polish reprisals, Tatar raids, famine, plague and general destruction due to war. At

6552-571: Was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, Podolia , and Volhynia ... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Chełm , and Halych ". It became clear to the Polish envoys that Khmelnytsky had positioned himself no longer as simply a leader of the Zaporozhian Cossacks but as that of an independent state and stated his claims to the heritage of the Rus'. A Vilnius panegyric in Khmelnytsky's honour (1650–1651) explained it: "While in Poland it

6636-442: Was altered, however, when Aleksander Koniecpolski , heir to hetman Koniecpolski's magnate estate, attempted to seize Khmelnytsky's land. In 1647 Chyhyryn deputy of starosta (head of the local royal administration) Daniel Czapliński openly started to harass Khmelnytsky on behalf of the younger Koniecpolski in an attempt to force him off the land. On two occasions raids were made to Subotiv, during which considerable property damage

6720-481: Was done and his son Yurii was badly beaten, until Khmelnytsky moved his family to a relative's house in Chyhyryn . He twice sought assistance from the king by traveling to Warsaw, only to find him either unwilling or powerless to confront the will of a magnate. Having received no support from Polish officials, Khmelnytsky turned to his Cossack friends and subordinates. The case of a Cossack being unfairly treated by

6804-467: Was enacted, the Tatar raids became unrestrained; coupled with the onset of famine, they led to a virtual depopulation of whole areas of the country. The extent of the tragedy can be exemplified by a report of a Polish officer of the time, describing the devastation: I estimate that the number of infants alone who were found dead along the roads and in the castles reached 10,000. I ordered them to be buried in

6888-414: Was especially important in regard to powerful and traditionally influential great princely families of Ruthenian origins, among them Wiśniowiecki , Czartoryski , Ostrogski , Sanguszko , Zbaraski , Korecki and Zasławski , which acquired even more power and were able to gather more lands, creating huge latifundia . This szlachta , along with the actions of the upper-class Polish magnates , oppressed

6972-475: Was on the run from its peasants, their palaces and estates in flames. All the while, Khmelnytsky's army marched westward. Khmelnytsky stopped his forces at Bila Tserkva and issued a list of demands to the Polish Crown, including raising the number of Registered Cossacks, returning churches taken from the Orthodox faithful and paying the Cossacks for wages, which had been withheld for five years. News of

7056-510: Was quickly followed by rout of the Commonwealth's armies at the Battle of Korsuń , which saw both the elder Potocki and Kalinowski captured and imprisoned by the Tatars. In addition to the loss of significant forces and military leadership, the Polish state also lost King Władysław IV Vasa, who died in 1648, leaving the Crown of Poland leaderless and in disarray at a time of rebellion. The szlachta

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