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82-410: Kutai Kartanegara Regency (abbreviated as Kukar ) is a regency of East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia . It has a land area of 27,263.10 km and a water area of 4,097 km, geographically located between 1°18′40″S and 116°31′36″E. The population of the regency was 626,286 at the 2010 Census and 729,382 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as of mid-2023 was 788,113. The town of Tenggarong

164-594: A gestation period of 162–193 days, the female gives birth to one infant. The infant's weight at birth is about 320 g (11 oz). Infants are born with black fur which will begin to turn to a grey or reddish-brown shade (depending on the subspecies) after about three months of age. This natal coat may indicate to others the status of the infant, and other group members treat infants with care and rush to their defense when distressed. Immigrant males sometimes kill infants not their own in order to shorten interbirth intervals . High-ranking females will sometimes kidnap

246-406: A 40% decline in the entire crab eating macaque population between 1980 and 2006. This comes from a population estimate of 5 million in the 1980s-90s. population estimate of 3 million in 2006. It is unclear how the 3 million estimate was reached. Using a noninvasive probability model to estimate the maximum population abundance, it was estimated that the current population of crab eating macaques

328-619: A 64-metre canopy bridge that connects five big Bangkirai trees 30 metres above the ground. In 2011, East Kalimantan province developed an 18-hectare plot of land for mangrove information and research center in Sepatin village, in Anggana District, as Bali has done. It will function as a research, exhibition, information, breeding as well as education center on mangroves, especially in the Mahakam Delta. In early 2015 it

410-574: A broad range of admixture proportions. Introgression from rhesus to crab eating macaque populations extends beyond Indochina and the Kra Isthmus , whereas introgression from crab eating to rhesus macaques is more restricted. There seems to be a rhesus biased and male biased gene flow between rhesus and crab eating macaque population which has led to different degrees of genetic admixture in these two species. The crab-eating macaque's native range encompasses most of mainland Southeast Asia , through

492-838: A group is not often stable, and males probably change troops several times during their life; rank below the dominant male is not consistent or stable either – males show sophisticated decision-making when it comes to transferring dominance. Direct encounters between adjacent non-provisioned troops are relatively rare which suggests mutual avoidance. Interactions have been reported between crab-eating and southern pig-tailed macaques, Colobinae species, proboscis monkey , gibbons and orangutans . Dusky leaf monkeys , crab eating macaques and white-thighed surilis form tolerant foraging associations, with juveniles playing together. Crab eating macaques have also been observed grooming Raffles' banded langurs in Malaysia. Group living in all species

574-573: A higher chance of survival. Crab-eating macaques are omnivorous frugivores and eat fruits, leaves, flowers, shoots, roots, invertebrates, and small animals in variable quantities. They feed on cultivated crops such as rice, sweet potatoes, coconuts, bananas, sugar cane. Macaques have also been reported to feed on food scraps in refuse/trash. Fruit makes up 40% to over 80% of diet in wild crab eating macaque populations, except in highly provisioned populations or highly disturbed environments (Sussman et al. 2011). In Padangtegal Bali macaque 70% of their diet

656-407: A mother's kin are closer to her on average. When given a nonfood object and two owners, one being a kin and one not, the rival will choose the older individual to attack regardless of kinship . Though the hypothesis remains that mother-juvenile relationships may facilitate social learning of ownership, the combined results clearly point to aggression towards the least-threatening individual. A study

738-400: A partner are more successful than those that leave alone. Young females, though, stay with the group and become incorporated into the matriline into which they were born. Male crab-eating macaques groom females to increase the chance of mating. A female is more likely to engage in sexual activity with a male that has recently groomed her than with one that has not. Studies have found that

820-480: A relationship with the native rulers who continued to prevail in much of Indonesia outside Java), but in practice the bupati had to follow Dutch instructions on any matter of concern to the colonial authorities. Like the current system of government in Indonesia, the system of historical times is still in effect. The relationship between those sides was ambivalent: while legal and military power rested with

902-399: A species on the edge, living on the edge of forests, rivers, and seas, at the edge of human settlements, and perhaps on the edge of rapid extinction. Crab-eating macaques are omnivorous and frugivorous . They live in matrilineal groups ranging from 10 to 85 individuals, with groups exhibiting female philopatry and males emigrating from natal group at puberty . Crab eating macaques are

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984-467: A staggered time between when the dominant individual begins to drink and the subordinate. Long-term studies reveal the gap in drinking time closes as the conflict moves further into the past. Grooming and support in conflict among primates is considered to be an act of reciprocal altruism . In crab-eating macaques, an experiment was performed in which individuals were given the opportunity to groom one another under three conditions: after being groomed by

1066-484: A third individual. Consolation was not seen in any study performed. When crab-eating macaques are approached by others while foraging, they tend to move away. Postconflict anxiety has been reported in crab-eating macaques that have acted as the aggressor. After a conflict within a group, the aggressor appears to scratch itself at a higher rate than before the conflict. Though the scratching behavior cannot definitely be termed as an anxious behavior, evidence suggests this

1148-415: Is 1 million, which reflects a continuous decline in the population – 80% reduction over 35 years. This study used a model that overestimated population so the true decline is probably even greater. A population Viability Analysis (PVA) for crab-eating macaques revealed that the presence and absence of females in a population are key to its short and long term viability. Anything that negatively targets females

1230-455: Is a cercopithecine primate native to Southeast Asia. As a synanthropic species, the crab-eating macaque thrives near human settlements and in secondary forest. Crab-eating macaques have developed attributes and roles assigned to them by humans, ranging from cultural perceptions as being smart and adaptive, to being sacred animals, being regarded as vermin and pests, and becoming resources in modern biomedical research. They have been described as

1312-556: Is considered sacred at some Hindu temples and on some small islands, but as a pest around farms and villages. Typically, it prefers disturbed habitats and forest periphery. Humans have transported crab-eating macaques to at least five islands: Mauritius , West Papua , Ngeaur , Tinjil Island near Java, and Kabaena Island off of Sulawesi , and to Kowloon Hills of Hong Kong . There was no indigenous human population on Mauritius. Early exploration of Mauritius by Phoenicians , Swahili people and Arab merchants has been suggested but it

1394-540: Is currently being tested in Hong Kong to investigate its use as potential population control. Crab-eating macaques have been in West Papua for around 30 to 100 years, but this population has not expanded, remaining at around 60 to 70 individuals. There is little known of the population on Kabaena Island, Sulawesi. These crab-eating macaques appear to have distinct morphology, which may suggest that they have been on

1476-460: Is dependent on the tolerance of other group members. In crab-eating macaques, successful social group living requires postconflict resolution. Usually, less dominant individuals lose to a higher-ranking individual when conflict arises. After the conflict has taken place, lower-ranking individuals tend to fear the winner of the conflict to a greater degree. In one study, this was seen in the ability to drink water together. Postconflict observations showed

1558-464: Is due to the observation that food was given to kin for a significantly longer period of time than needed. The benefit to the mother is decreased due to less food availability for herself and the cost remains great for nonkin due to not receiving food. If these results are correct, crab-eating macaques are unique in the animal kingdom, as they appear not only to behave according to the kin selection theory, but also act spitefully toward one another. After

1640-445: Is expected due to female philopatry . Macaque social groups have a clear dominance hierarchy among females, these ranks are stable over a female's lifetime and the matriline's rank may be sustained for generations. Matrilines creating interesting group dynamics, for example males are dominant to females at the individual level but groups of closely related females can have some level of dominance over males. The dominant male within

1722-504: Is likely correlated to the booming Macaque breeding industry on Mauritius. As crab-eating macaques are considered invasive and destructive this justifies their use in biomedical research. On Mauritius macaques are also perceived as sacred, source of tourism, pets, pest, and food. Crab eating macaques first appeared on Ngeaur Island, during German rule in the early 20th century. Population size has fluctuated between 800 and 400 individuals. The population losses due to eradication efforts, yet

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1804-657: Is likely to threaten population viability, e.g., harvesting for biomedical research targets females. The crab-eating macaque is highly adaptive, living near and benefiting from humans and environmental modifications. Crab-eating macaques live in matrilineal groups ranging from 10 to 85 members, but most often fall in the range of 35–50. Group size varies greatly, especially between non-provisioned and provisioned groups. Large groups are found secondary forest, savanna and thorn scrub vegetation, and urban habitats and temples. Smaller groups are found in primary forest, swamp and mangrove forests. Groups will break into subgroups during

1886-531: Is mentioned among the titles of local rulers who paid allegiance to Sriwijaya's kings. Related titles which were also used in precolonial Indonesia are adipati ('duke') and senapati ('lord of the army' or 'general'). Regencies as we know them today were first created January 28, 1892, when the Dutch East Indies government established the Landarchief. The first landarchivasis was confirmed

1968-587: Is originally a loanword from Sanskrit , a shortening of the Sanskrit title bhumi-pati ( bhumi भूमि '(of the) land' + pati पति 'lord', hence bhumi-pati 'lord of the land'). In Indonesia, bupati was originally used as a Javanese title for regional rulers in precolonial kingdoms, its first recorded usage being in the Telaga Batu inscription , which dates to the Srivijaya period, in which bhupati

2050-434: Is provisioned. The crab-eating macaque exhibits particularly low tolerance for swallowing seeds. Despite its inability to digest seeds, many primates of similar size swallow large seeds, up to 25 mm (0.98 in), and simply defecate them whole. The crab-eating macaque, though, spits seeds out if they are larger than 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in). This decision to spit seeds is thought to be adaptive; it avoids filling

2132-558: Is seen in crab eating macaques at Uluwatu population in Bali, and is described as a population specific behavioral practice, prevalent and persistent across generations and characterized by marked intergroup variation. Synchronized expression of robbing and bartering was socially influenced and more specifically explained by response facilitation. This result further supports the cultural nature of robbing and bartering. Token-robbing and token/reward-bartering are cognitively challenging tasks for

2214-645: Is significant because the perception of crab-eating macaques being invasive and destructive to "native" biodiversity are used as a justification for use in biomedical research. It is important to be aware of perceptions, and how we categorize other beings because, for example, the label of "pest" or "invasive" provides justification and moral comfort about killing those that don't "belong" – these lives are viewed as not legitimate, killable, bare life lacking grievability. "Weed" and "non-weed" species are distinguished based on that species ability to thrive in close proximity and association with human settlements. This label

2296-558: Is the capital of the regency. The regency includes the middle and lower reaches of the Mahakam River , the longest river in East Kalimantan, including its extensive delta. The city of Samarinda is situated on the river, about 48 km (30 miles) from its mouth; it is an administrative enclave within the regency, which thus contains much of the metropolitan area of Samarinda. In 2019, President Joko Widodo proclaimed that

2378-421: Is the case. An aggressor's scratching decreases significantly after reconciliation. This suggests reconciliation rather than a property of the conflict is the cause of the reduction in scratching behavior. Though these results seem counterintuitive, the anxiety of the aggressor appears to have a basis in the risks of ruining cooperative relationships with the opponent. In a study, a group of crab-eating macaques

2460-669: Is the cynomolgus monkey which derives from Greek Kynamolgoi meaning "dog milkers". It has also been suggested that cynomolgus refers to a race of humans with long hair and handsome beards who used dogs for hunting according to Aristophanes of Byzantium , who seemingly derived the etymology of the word cynomolgus from the Greek κύων, cyon 'dog' (gen. cyno-s ) and the verb ἀμέλγειν , amelgein 'to milk' (adj. amolg-os ), by claiming that they milked female dogs. Crab-eating macaques are understood and perceived in many ways: smart, pestiferous, exploited, sacred, vermin, invasive. In 2000

2542-655: The IUCN Red List in 2022. Macaca comes from the Portuguese word macaco , which was derived from makaku , a word in Ibinda , a language of Central Africa ( kaku means monkey in Ibinda). The specific epithet fascicularis is Latin for a small band or stripe. Sir Thomas Raffles , who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821, did not specify what he meant by the use of this word. In Indonesia and Malaysia,

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2624-479: The IUCN Red List ; it is threatened by habitat loss due to rapid land use changes in the landscapes of Southeast Asia and the surging demand by the medical industry during the COVID-19 pandemic . A 2008 review of population trends suggested a need for better monitoring of populations due to increased wild trade and rising levels of human-macaque conflict, which continue to decrease overall population levels despite

2706-1031: The Malay Peninsula and Singapore , the Maritime Southeast Asia islands of Sumatra , Java , and Borneo , offshore islands, the islands of the Philippines , and the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal . This primate is a rare example of a terrestrial mammal that violates the Wallace line , being found out across the Lesser Sunda Islands . It lives in a wide variety of habitats, including primary lowland rainforests , disturbed and secondary rainforests, shrubland, and riverine and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove . It also easily adjusts to human settlements and

2788-548: The fascicularis clade, thus it is argued that M. mulatta evolved from a fascicularis -like ancestor that reached mainland from its homeland in Indonesia around 1mya. A phylogenetic analysis found evidence that the fascicularis group originated from an ancient hybridization between the sinica and silenus groups ~3.45–3.56 mya, soon after the initial separation of two parent lineages (proto- sinica and proto- silenus ) ~3.86 mya. This divergence and subsequent hybridization occurred during rapid glacial-eustatic fluctuations in

2870-617: The new national capital of Indonesia would be built in an area partly in the Kutai Kartanegara Regency and partly in the adjacent Penajam North Paser Regency and that the construction process would set off around 2024. Kutai Kartanegara Regency lies in the historical region of Kutai , home to the first and oldest Hindu kingdom of Indonesia , the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom founded in the 4th century CE by King Kudungga . From 1953 until 1960,

2952-466: The CITES appendices. The international trade in crab-eating macaques is a multibillion-dollar industry. Crab-eating macaques are sold for up to $ 20,000 to $ 24,000, and prices rise when supply reduces. International crab-eating macaque trade does not appear to follow a particular trend but continues to change over time. Although peak exports often correlate with declarations of public health emergences. In

3034-582: The Dutch government (or, for a long time, with the Dutch East India Company ) under a Governor General in Batavia on Java, the regents held higher protocollary rank than the assistant-resident who supposedly advised them and held day-to-day sway over the population. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945, the terms bupati and kabupaten were applied throughout the archipelago to

3116-473: The IUCN Red List. The Philippine long-tailed macaque ( M. f. philippensis ) is listed as near threatened, and M. f. condorensis is vulnerable. All other subspecies are listed as data deficient and need further study; although recent work is showing M. f. aurea and M. f. karimondjawae need increased protection. The crab-eating macaque is one of the most widely traded species of mammal listed on

3198-404: The Portuguese or the Dutch in the late 1500s to early 1600s. This founder population likely came from Java, although a mixed origin has been suggested. From the mid-1980s to mid-1990s the population of crab-eating macaques on Mauritius was estimated at 35,000 to 40,000. The present population is not known but estimates indicate it may be as low as 8,000. This significant decline in the population

3280-465: The Uluwatu macaques that revealed unprecedented economic decision-making processes, i.e., value based token selection and payoff maximization. This spontaneous, population specific, prevalent, cross-generational, learned and socially influenced practice may be the first example of a culturally maintained token economy in free-ranging animals. The crab-eating macaque has been categorized as Endangered on

3362-502: The administrative fragmentation has proved costly and has not brought the hoped-for benefits. Senior levels of the administration expressed a general feeling that the process of pemekaran needed to be slowed (or even stopped for the time being), although local politicians at various levels across government in Indonesia continue to express strong populist support for the continued creation of new regencies. Indeed, no further regencies or independent cities have been created since 2014, with

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3444-530: The administrative unit below the residency ( karesidenan ). In the Telaga Batu inscription, which was found in the village near Palembang and contains a worship of the king of Srivijaya, there may be the word bhupati . The inscription is estimated to be from the end of the 7th century AD, Indonesia inscription expert Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis translated bhupati with the term head ( hoofd in Dutch),

3526-425: The crab-eating macaque and other macaque species are known generically as kera. The crab-eating macaque has several common names. It is often referred to as the long-tailed macaque due to its tail, which is the length of their body and head combined. The name crab-eating macaque refers to it to it being seen foraging beaches for crabs. Another common name for M. fascicularis , often used in laboratory settings,

3608-592: The crab-eating macaque was placed on the list of 100 most invasive species. For example, they are considered an invasive alien species (IAS) on Mauritius, articles argue for long-tailed macaques spreading seeds of invasive plants, competing with native species like the Mauritian flying fox , and having a detrimental impact on native threatened species. Several authors pointed out that the present evidence indicates that predation on birds by monkeys may have been overestimated. address these accusations and they point out

3690-401: The crab-eating macaques do not prefer primary forest thus it is unlikely that Mauritius macaques were ever a major source of indigenous forest destruction. The primary driver of bird extinction has been habitat destruction by humans. Sussman and Tattersall mention that the Dutch abandoned the island in 1710–12 due to monkeys and rats destroying plantations, they point out that the human population

3772-481: The day throughout their range. Composition of groups is multi-male/multi-female but females outnumber males with the sex ratio varying between 1:5–6 and 1:2. Groups exhibit female philopatry with males emigrating from natal group at puberty. Males leave natal group as late juveniles or subadults before the age of seven. On average, adult females and juveniles in groups are related at the level of cousins, whereas adult males are unrelated. Higher relatedness in females

3854-402: The dominant male copulates more than other males in the group. DNA tests indicate that dominant males sire most of the offspring in natural crab-eating macaque troops. Reproductive success in females is also linked to dominance. High ranking females have more offspring over their life-time than  low-ranking females – higher ranking females reproduce at a younger age and their offspring have

3936-482: The early Pleistocene: high sea levels may have led to the initial separation of proto- sinica and proto- silenus while the subsequent lowering of sea levels facilitated the secondary contact needed for hybridization. Known fossils indicate that crab-eating macaques inhabited the Sunda Shelf since at least early Pleistocene, ~1mya. It is likely that crab-eating macaques were introduced to Timor and Flores (both on

4018-516: The east side of the Wallace line), by humans around 4,000–5,000 years ago. Crab-eating macaques are the only species on both sides of the Wallace line. The possible stages of crab-eating macaque evolution and dispersal were proposed: Crab-eating macaques are sexually dimorphic, males weigh between 4.7 and 8.3 kg and females weigh 2.5–5.7 kg. The height of an adult male is between 412-648mm and 385-505mm for adult females. Their tails are

4100-537: The extensive area, relatively moderate levels of population density, effective planning in the area, and rich energy resources. Regency (Indonesia) The English name "regency" comes from the Dutch colonial period , when regencies were ruled by bupati (or regents ) and were known as regentschap in Dutch ( kabupaten in Javanese and subsequently Indonesian). Bupati had been regional lords under

4182-481: The extensive delta of the Mahakam River. (l) except the desa of Sidomulyo, which has a postcode of 76131. (m) including 6 offshore islands. Bukit Bangkirai ( Bangkirai Hill ) is a 1,500-hectare natural tropical located about 58 kilometres (around 45 minutes by car) from the city of Balikpapan . Plants of the family Dipterocarpaceae dominate in the area, especially Bangkirai trees ( Shorea laevis of

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4264-417: The figures for Kota Bangun District, from which it was split off in 2021. (h) including the offshore island of Pulau Kumala . (i) comprising 12 urban kelurahan (Baru, Bukit Biru, Jahab, Loa Ipuh, Loa Ipuh Darat, Loa Tebu, Maluhu, Mangkurawang, Melayu, Panji, Sukarame and Timbau) and 2 rural desa . (j) including the offshore island of Pulau Yupa . (k) including 32 offshore islands, and mainly comprising

4346-488: The figures for the districts from which they were removed. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of villages in each district (totaling 44 urban kelurahan and 193 rural desa ), and its postcode(s). Notes: (a) Samboja District comprising 10 urban kelurahan (Handil Baru, Handil Baru Darat, Kampung Lama, Muara Sembilang, Samboja Kuala, Sanipah, Sungai Seluang, Tanjung Harapan, Teluk Pemedas and Wonotirto) and 3 rural desa ;

4428-417: The genus Shorea ) growing to 40–50 metres in height. There are over 120 bird species as well as gibbons ( Müller's Bornean gibbon ), macaque monkeys ( Southern pig-tailed macaques , Crab-eating macaques ), Maroon leaf monkeys , Banded pigs , and Banggai crows . Black Orchids ( Coelogyne pandurata ), among 45 kinds of orchids, are endemic to Bukit Bangkirai. To visit the forest, visitors can walk along

4510-400: The genus Macaca likely occurred ~4.5 mya between an ancestor of the silenus group and a fascicularis -like ancestor from which non- silenus species later evolved. The species of the fascicularis group (which include m. fascicularis, m. mulatta, and m. fuscata) share a common ancestor that lived 2.5 mya. It is suggested that M. fascicularis are the most plesiomorphic (ancestral) taxon in

4592-403: The infants of lower-ranking females. These kidnappings can result in the death of the infants, as the other female is usually not lactating . A young juvenile stays mainly with its mother and relatives. As male juveniles get older, they become more peripheral to the group. Here they play together, forming crucial bonds that may help them when they leave their natal group. Males that emigrate with

4674-684: The island for a long period of time. Between 1988 and 1994, a total of 520 crab-eating macaques including 58 males and 462 females were released on Tinjil Island for the purpose of starting a natural habitat breeding facility. This may be a sustainable way of supplying monkeys for research, but it is in a legal gray area for trading regulations, using captive bred codes (F, C) rather than wild-caught (W). Because crab-eating macaques are synanthropic, enhancing their visibility to humans, this leads to an overestimation in their population size. Researchers have been raising alarms about crab-eating macaque population decline at least since 1986. Many authors cite

4756-565: The largest range, followed by M.f. aurea . The other seven subspecies are isolated on small islands: M.f. antriceps, M.f. condorensis , and M.f. karimondjiwae all populate small shallow-water fringe-islands; M.f. umbrosa, M.f. fusca, M.f. lasiae , and M.f. tua all inhabit deep-water fringing-islands. The macaque originated in northeastern Africa some 7 million years ago and spread through most of continental Asia by 5.5  million years ago , and subdivided into four groups (sylvanus, sinica, silenus, and fascicularis). The earliest split in

4838-670: The last being Central Buton , South Buton , and West Muna regencies in Southeast Sulawesi, all created on 23 July. However, a paper on fiscal decentralization and regional income inequality in 2019 argued that that fiscal decentralization reduces regional income inequality. Since 1998, a large portion of governance have been delegated from central government in Jakarta to local regencies, with regencies now playing important role in providing services to Indonesian people. Direct elections for regents and mayors began in 2005, with

4920-831: The leaders previously being elected by local legislative councils. As of 2020, there are 416 regencies in Indonesia, and 98 cities. 120 of these are in Sumatra , 85 are in Java , 37 are in Nusa Tenggara , 47 are in Kalimantan , 70 are in Sulawesi , 17 are in Maluku , and 40 in Papua . Crab-eating macaque The crab-eating macaque ( Macaca fascicularis ), also known as the long-tailed macaque or cynomolgus macaque ,

5002-550: The length of their head and body combined. Dorsal pelage is generally greyish or brownish with a white underbelly with black and white highlights around the crown and face. The face skin is brownish to pinkish except for the eyelids which are white. Adults are usually bearded on and around the face, except for around the snout and eyes. Older females have the fullest beards, with males' being more whisker like. Subspecies on islands seem to have black coloration of their pelage and large island, and mainland subspecies are lighter. Along

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5084-821: The monkey's stomach with wasteful bulky seeds that cannot be used for energy. It also can help the plants by distributing seeds to new areas: Crab-eating macaques eat durians , such as Durio graveolens and D. zibethinus , and are a major seed disperser for the latter species. The crab-eating macaque can become a synanthrope , living off human resources. It feeds in cultivated fields on young dry rice, cassava leaves, rubber fruit, taro plants, coconuts, mangos, and other crops, often causing significant losses to local farmers. In villages, towns, and cities, it frequently takes food from garbage cans and refuse piles. It can become unafraid of humans in these conditions, which can lead to macaques directly taking food from people, both passively and aggressively. Crab eating macaques are

5166-652: The new Samboja Barat District comprises 9 urban kelurahan (Amborawang Darat, Amborawang Laut, Argosari, Bukit Merdeka, Karya Merdeka, Margomulyo, Salok Api Darat, Salok Api Laut and Sungai Merdaka) and 1 rural desa . (b) included in the figures for Samboja District, from which it was split off in 2021. (c) including 14 offshore islands. (d) all 8 are kelurahan (Dondang, Muara Jawa Pesisir, Muara Jawa Ilir, Muara Jawa Tengah, Muara Jawa Ulu, Muara Kembang, Tama Pole and Teluk Dalam). (e) all 5 are kelurahan (Jawa, Pendingin, Sanga-Sanga Dalam, Sanga-Sanga Muara and Sarijaya). (f) including one offshore island. (g) included in

5248-459: The next day and lasted until 1905. Officially, Indonesia's current regencies were established with the proclamation of Indonesian independence on August 17, 1945. Regencies in Java territorial units were grouped together into residencies headed by exclusively European residents. This term hinted that the residents had a quasi-diplomatic status in relation to the bupati (and indeed they had such

5330-507: The northern part of range crab eating macaques hybridize with rhesus macaques ( M. mulatta ). They also have been known to hybridize with southern pig-tailed macaques ( M . nemestrina ). Hybrids also occur across subspecies too. Rhesus and crab eating macaques hybridize within a contact zone where their ranges overlap, which has been proposed to lie between 15 and 20 degrees north and includes Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam. Their offspring are fertile, and they continue to mate which leads to

5412-648: The only old world monkey known to use stone tools in their daily foraging. This is mainly observed in populations along the ocean of Thailand and Myanmar ( M.f. aurea subspecies). A 1887 report described observations to tool use in a Myanmar population. Over 100 years later the first published report is published in 2007. describing crab eating macaques in Thailand using ax shaped stones to crack rock oysters, detached gastropods, bivalves, and swimming crabs. Also in Thailand, crab eating macaques have been observed using tools to crack open oil palm nuts in abandoned plantations,

5494-422: The only old-world monkey known to use stone tools in their daily foraging, and they engage in a robbing and bartering behavior in some tourist locations. The crab-eating macaque is the most traded primate species, the most culled primate species, the most persecuted primate species and also the most popular species used in scientific research. Due to these threats, the crab-eating macaque was listed as Endangered on

5576-504: The other, after grooming the other, and without prior grooming. After grooming took place, the individual that received the grooming was much more likely to support their groomer than one that had not previously groomed that individual. Crab-eating macaques demonstrate two of the three forms of suggested postconflict behavior. In both captive and wild studies, they demonstrated reconciliation, or an affiliative interaction between former opponents, and redirection, or acting aggressively towards

5658-464: The population has survived despite typhoons and WWII bombing on the island. In Kowloon Hills there are groups of differing species and their hybrids, where they were released during the 1910s. Rhesus macaques and crab-eating macaques interbred and hybridized. Tibetan macaques were also released but did not interbreed. This location has become a popular tourist attraction. The immunovaccine porcine zona pellucida (PZP), which causes infertility in females,

5740-448: The precolonial monarchies of Java . When the Dutch abolished or curtailed those monarchies, the bupati were left as the most senior indigenous authority. They were not, strictly speaking, "native rulers" because the Dutch claimed full sovereignty over their territory, but in practice, they had many of the attributes of petty kings, including elaborate regalia and palaces and a high degree of impunity. The Indonesian title of bupati

5822-631: The rapid uptake of oil palm nutcracking shows macaques ability to take advantage of anthropogenic changes and the recent establishment of this behavior indicates the potential for macaques to exhibit cultural tendencies. Unfortunately, human activities can negatively impact tool-using macaques, thus disrupting the persistence of these stone tool use traditions. Another instance of tool use is washing and rubbing foods, such as sweet potatoes, cassava roots, and papaya leaves, before consumption. Crab-eating macaques either soak these foods in water or rub them through their hands as if to clean them. They also peel

5904-571: The region became part of the Special Region of Kutai . Kutai Kartanegara Regency is divided into twenty districts ( kecamatan ), tabulated below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid-2023. The newly formed Kota Bangun Darat and West Samboja districts were split from Kota Bangun and Samboja districts respectively on 5 March 2021, but no separate figures are yet available for their areas, which are still included in

5986-413: The species' wide distribution. Each subspecies faces differing levels of threats, and too little information is available on some subspecies to assess their conditions. M. f. umbrosa is likely of important biological significance and has been recommended as a candidate for protection in the Nicobar Islands , where its small, native population has been seriously fragmented. It is listed as vulnerable on

6068-422: The surge of support for decentralisation across Indonesia which occurred following the fall of Soeharto in 1998, key new decentralisation laws were passed in 1999. Subsequently, there was a jump in the number of regencies (and cities) from around 300 at the end of 1998 to 514 in 2014 sixteen years later. This secession of new regencies, welcome at first, has become increasingly controversial within Indonesia because

6150-406: The sweet potatoes, using their incisors and canine teeth. Adolescents appear to acquire these behaviors by observational learning of older individuals. Robbing and bartering is a behavioral pattern in which free ranging nonhuman primates spontaneously steal an object from a human and then hold onto that object until that or another human solicits an exchange by offering food. This behavior

6232-705: The word bhupati is also found in the Ligor inscription , which was found in the Nakhon Si Thammarat province of Thailand . In the 17th century, Europeans called the area Ligor . this inscription was identified in 775 AD 7th century AD, the term bhupati was used to refer to the king of Srivijaya Hujunglangit in the 9th century AD Since the start of the Reform Era in 1998 a remarkable secession of regency governments has arisen in Indonesia. The process has become known as pemekaran (division). Following

6314-544: Was announced that part of Kutai Kartanegara Regency had been selected to be a trial ' smart city ', the first in Indonesia, based on the Fujisawa Sustainable Smart Town (SST) concept. The aim of the SST concept was to reduce CO 2 emissions by 70 percent and reduce consumption of water by 30 percent. The Kutai Kartanegara area was chosen as a trial area because of good investment growth in the region,

6396-473: Was conducted in which food was given to 11 females. They were then given a choice to share the food with kin or nonkin. The kin altruism hypothesis suggests the mothers would preferentially give food to their own offspring. Yet eight of the 11 females did not discriminate between kin and nonkin. The remaining three did, in fact, give more food to their kin. The results suggest it was not kin selection , but instead spite that fueled feeding kin preferentially. This

6478-410: Was given ownership of a food object. Adult females favored their own offspring by passively, yet preferentially, allowing them to feed on the objects they held. When juveniles were in possession of an object, mothers robbed them and acted aggressively at an increased rate towards their own offspring compared to other juveniles. These observations suggest close proximity influences behavior in ownership, as

6560-438: Was low at this time and the crab eating macaques would have had plenty of primary forest to exploit, yet they chose to brave the dangers of raiding plantations. They do not deny that macaques on Mauritius prey on bird eggs and disseminate seeds of exotic plants yet the major loss of species on Mauritius is due to habitat loss caused by humans – macaques are successful because they prefer secondary forest and disturbed habitats. This

6642-525: Was not intentionally proposed to disparage crab-eating macaques but this term, like pest and invasive, can affect how people perceive this species and can trigger negatives perceptions. Previously ten subspecies of Macaca fascicularis , but the Philippine long-tailed macaque ( M.f. philippinensis ) is under dispute and is tentatively removed from IUCN Red List assessments, with those individuals included with M.f. fascicularis . M.f. fascicularis has

6724-460: Was not until the early 16th century that there is hard evidence of human presence on the island, with the Portuguese using it as a refreshing post. The Dutch reached the island in 1598 and attempted a permanent settlement from 1638 to 1658 when they abandoned the island, they resettled again from 1664 to 1710, but abandoned the island again due in part to monkeys and rats destroying plantations. Crab-eating macaques were brought to Mauritius either by

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