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51-408: The observatory was noted for its work on photometry, conducted by astronomer Karl Schwarzschild , star catalogs, and the determining of distances to other stars. The observatory has several astronomical instruments of historical interest, including a noted heliometer and large meridian circle, and also a vertical circle. The observatory's first observations were made in 1886. The Kuffner observatory

102-700: A master's degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. For research-oriented careers, students work toward a doctoral degree specializing in a particular field. Fields of specialization include experimental and theoretical astrophysics , atomic physics , biological physics , chemical physics , condensed matter physics , cosmology , geophysics , gravitational physics , material science , medical physics , microelectronics , molecular physics , nuclear physics , optics , particle physics , plasma physics , quantum information science , and radiophysics . The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with

153-654: A character in the science fiction short story "Schwarzschild Radius" (1987) by Connie Willis . Karl Schwarzchild appears as a fictionalized character in the story “Schwarzchild’s Singularity” in the collection "When We Cease to Understand the World" (2020) by Benjamín Labatut . The entire scientific estate of Karl Schwarzschild is stored in a special collection of the Lower Saxony National- and University Library of Göttingen . Relativity Other papers English translations Physicist A physicist

204-482: A formula that allowed to calculate the relation between the intensity of faint astronomical light sources, the exposure time, and the degree of opacity created in photographic emulsions. Schwarzschild is noted for his work on advancing photographic photometry. The financial situation of the Kuffner dynasty deteriorated with the onset of World War I. The observatory was closed in 1915 and, after several failed attempts,

255-452: A minimum, the owner must possess a three-year bachelors or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of six years' experience in a physics-related activity; or an Honor or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of five years' experience in a physics-related activity; or master or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of three years' experience in

306-660: A minor modification of these results gives the well-known solution that now bears his name — the Schwarzschild metric . In March 1916, Schwarzschild left military service because of his illness and returned to Göttingen . Two months later, on May 11, 1916, his struggle with pemphigus may have led to his death at the age of 42. He rests in his family grave at the Stadtfriedhof Göttingen . With his wife Else he had three children: Thousands of dissertations, articles, and books have since been devoted to

357-565: A physics-related activity; a Doctorate or equivalent degree in Physics or a related field; or training or experience which, in the opinion of the Council, is equivalent to any of the above. Physicists may be a member of a physical society of a country or region. Physical societies commonly publish scientific journals, organize physics conferences and award prizes for contributions to the field of physics. Some examples of physical societies are

408-416: A professional practice examination must also be passed. An exemption can be granted to a candidate that has practiced physics for at least seven years and provide a detailed description of their professional accomplishments which clearly demonstrate that the exam is not necessary. Work experience will be considered physics-related if it uses physics directly or significantly uses the modes of thought (such as

459-753: A scientific museum and its ongoing mission concerning popularization of astronomy, the Kuffner observatory serves as the Austrian national host for the INES ( International Ultraviolet Explorer New Extracted Spectra) database. It hosted the Meeting on Asteroids and Comets in Europe (MACE) in 2006, and the DARKSKY European Symposium, an event of the Dark-sky movement , in 2008. The current director

510-424: A shell of radius r=R. It is applicable to solids; incompressible fluids; the sun and stars viewed as a quasi-isotropic heated gas; and any homogeneous and isotropic distributed gas. Schwarzschild's first (spherically symmetric) solution does not contain a coordinate singularity on a surface that is now named after him. In his coordinates, this singularity lies on the sphere of points at a particular radius, called

561-540: A special interest in astronomy early on. In fact he was something of a child prodigy, having two papers on binary orbits ( celestial mechanics ) published before the age of sixteen. After graduation in 1890, he attended the University of Strasbourg to study astronomy. After two years he transferred to the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich where he obtained his doctorate in 1896 for

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612-625: A work on Henri Poincaré 's theories. From 1897, he worked as assistant at the Kuffner Observatory in Vienna. His work here concentrated on the photometry of star clusters and laid the foundations for a formula linking the intensity of the starlight, exposure time, and the resulting contrast on a photographic plate . An integral part of that theory is the Schwarzschild exponent ( astrophotography ). In 1899, he returned to Munich to complete his Habilitation . From 1901 until 1909, he

663-514: Is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics , which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena , and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of research fields , spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics , through biological physics , to cosmological length scales encompassing

714-705: Is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers , the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus , Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt , Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos . Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly

765-469: Is optical density of exposed photographic emulsion, a function of I {\displaystyle I} , the intensity of the source being observed, and t {\displaystyle t} , the exposure time, with p {\displaystyle p} a constant). This formula was important for enabling more accurate photographic measurements of the intensities of faint astronomical sources. According to Wolfgang Pauli , Schwarzschild

816-615: Is the Nobel Prize in Physics , awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . National physical societies have many prizes and awards for professional recognition. In the case of the American Physical Society , as of 2023, there are 25 separate prizes and 33 separate awards in the field. Chartered Physicist (CPhys) is a chartered status and a professional qualification awarded by

867-513: Is the Austrian physicist and author Werner Gruber . 48°12′45″N 16°17′28″E  /  48.21250°N 16.29111°E  / 48.21250; 16.29111 Karl Schwarzschild Karl Schwarzschild ( German: [kaʁl ˈʃvaʁtsʃɪlt] ; 9 October 1873 – 11 May 1916) was a German physicist and astronomer. Schwarzschild provided the first exact solution to the Einstein field equations of general relativity , for

918-619: Is the first to introduce the correct Lagrangian formalism of the electromagnetic field as S = ( 1 / 2 ) ∫ ( H 2 − E 2 ) d V + ∫ ρ ( ϕ − A → ⋅ u → ) d V {\displaystyle S=(1/2)\int (H^{2}-E^{2})dV+\int \rho (\phi -{\vec {A}}\cdot {\vec {u}})dV} where E → , H → {\displaystyle {\vec {E}},{\vec {H}}} are

969-753: The Institute of Physics . It is denoted by the postnominals "CPhys". Achieving chartered status in any profession denotes to the wider community a high level of specialised subject knowledge and professional competence. According to the Institute of Physics, holders of the award of the Chartered Physicist (CPhys) demonstrate the "highest standards of professionalism, up-to-date expertise, quality and safety" along with "the capacity to undertake independent practice and exercise leadership" as well as "commitment to keep pace with advancing knowledge and with

1020-495: The Islamic medieval period , which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation , such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in

1071-465: The Schwarzschild radius : where G is the gravitational constant , M is the mass of the central body, and c is the speed of light in vacuum. In cases where the radius of the central body is less than the Schwarzschild radius, R s {\displaystyle R_{s}} represents the radius within which all massive bodies, and even photons , must inevitably fall into

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1122-562: The universe as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics ). The study and practice of physics

1173-579: The 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology . The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy , was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of "science" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics" and "physicist", "chemistry" and "chemist", among other technical fields and titles. The term physicist

1224-498: The 270 mm refracting telescope , built in 1884, to which a 156 mm astrograph (now used with modern CCD imagers) was added in 1890; the 132 mm meridian circle , the largest meridian passage instrument of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; its ancillary vertical circle instrument, one of the few that still exist at European observatories; and the 217/3000 mm heliometer , the largest of its type that

1275-662: The German army during World War I . He died the following year from the autoimmune disease pemphigus , which he developed while at the Russian front . Various forms of the disease particularly affect people of Ashkenazi Jewish origin. Asteroid 837 Schwarzschilda is named in his honour, as is the large crater Schwarzschild , on the far side of the Moon . Karl Schwarzschild was born on 9 October 1873 in Frankfurt on Main ,

1326-399: The approach to problem-solving) developed in your education or experience as a physicist, in all cases regardless of whether the experience is in academia, industry, government, or elsewhere. Management of physics-related work qualifies, and so does appropriate graduate student work. The South African Institute of Physics also delivers a certification of Professional Physicist (Pr.Phys). At

1377-519: The central body (ignoring quantum tunnelling effects near the boundary). When the mass density of this central body exceeds a particular limit, it triggers a gravitational collapse which, if it occurs with spherical symmetry, produces what is known as a Schwarzschild black hole . This occurs, for example, when the mass of a neutron star exceeds the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (about three solar masses). Karl Schwarzschild appears as

1428-520: The designation of Professional Engineer (P. Eng.). This designation was unveiled at the CAP congress in 1999 and already more than 200 people carry this distinction. To get the certification, at minimum proof of honours bachelor or higher degree in physics or a closely related discipline must be provided. Also, the physicist must have completed, or be about to complete, three years of recent physics-related work experience after graduation. And, unless exempted,

1479-459: The early 1600s. The work on mechanics , along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century. The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during

1530-663: The eldest of six boys and one girl, to Jewish parents. His father was active in the business community of the city, and the family had ancestors in Frankfurt from the sixteenth century onwards. The family owned two fabric stores in Frankfurt. His brother Alfred became a painter. The young Schwarzschild attended a Jewish primary school until 11 years of age and then the Lessing-Gymnasium (secondary school). He received an all-encompassing education, including subjects like Latin, Ancient Greek, music and art, but developed

1581-1159: The electric and applied magnetic fields, A → {\displaystyle {\vec {A}}} is the vector potential and ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is the electric potential. He also introduced a field free variational formulation of electrodynamics (also known as "action at distance" or "direct interparticle action") based only on the world line of particles as S = ∑ i m i ∫ C i d s i + 1 2 ∑ i , j ∬ C i , C j q i q j δ ( ‖ P i P j ‖ ) d s i d s j {\displaystyle S=\sum _{i}m_{i}\int _{C_{i}}ds_{i}+{\frac {1}{2}}\sum _{i,j}\iint _{C_{i},C_{j}}q_{i}q_{j}\delta \left(\left\Vert P_{i}P_{j}\right\Vert \right)d\mathbf {s} _{i}d\mathbf {s} _{j}} where C α {\displaystyle C_{\alpha }} are

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1632-538: The exact solution of the problem in such a simple way. I liked very much your mathematical treatment of the subject. Next Thursday I shall present the work to the Academy with a few words of explanation. Schwarzschild's second paper, which gives what is now known as the "Inner Schwarzschild solution" (in German: "innere Schwarzschild-Lösung"), is valid within a sphere of homogeneous and isotropic distributed molecules within

1683-568: The improvement of optical systems, through the perturbative investigation of geometrical aberrations. While at Vienna in 1897, Schwarzschild developed a formula, now known as the Schwarzschild law , to calculate the optical density of photographic material. It involved an exponent now known as the Schwarzschild exponent, which is the p {\displaystyle p} in the formula: i = f ( I ⋅ t p ) {\displaystyle i=f(I\cdot t^{p})} (where i {\displaystyle i}

1734-756: The increasing expectations and requirements for which any profession must take responsibility". Chartered Physicist is considered to be equal in status to Chartered Engineer, which the IoP also awards as a member of the Engineering Council UK, and other chartered statuses in the UK. It is also considered a "regulated profession" under the European professional qualification directives. The Canadian Association of Physicists can appoint an official designation called Professional Physicist ( P. Phys. ), similar to

1785-1180: The largest employer being the last. Physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors , Sr./Jr. Scientist, or postdocs . As per the American Institute of Physics , some 20% of new physics Ph.D.s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software and about 11% are in business/education. A majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors (e.g. finance ). Job titles for graduate physicists include Agricultural Scientist , Air Traffic Controller , Biophysicist , Computer Programmer , Electrical Engineer , Environmental Analyst , Geophysicist , Medical Physicist , Meteorologist , Oceanographer , Physics Teacher / Professor / Researcher , Research Scientist , Reactor Physicist , Engineering Physicist , Satellite Missions Analyst, Science Writer , Stratigrapher , Software Engineer , Systems Engineer , Microelectronics Engineer , Radar Developer, Technical Consultant, etc. The majority of Physics terminal bachelor's degree holders are employed in

1836-439: The limited case of a single spherical non-rotating mass, which he accomplished in 1915, the same year that Einstein first introduced general relativity. The Schwarzschild solution , which makes use of Schwarzschild coordinates and the Schwarzschild metric , leads to a derivation of the Schwarzschild radius , which is the size of the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole . Schwarzschild accomplished this while serving in

1887-476: The most important astronomy sites in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and established a considerable international reputation. Carl Wilhelm Wirtz , Leo Anton Karl de Ball , Samuel Oppenheim , and most notably Karl Schwarzschild spent parts of their careers here. During his assistantship at the Kuffner observatory, Schwarzschild – who would later become the “grandfather of black hole theory”—developed

1938-717: The post of director of the Astrophysical Observatory. This was then the most prestigious post available for an astronomer in Germany. From 1912, Schwarzschild was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences . At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Schwarzschild volunteered for service in the German army despite being over 40 years old. He served on both the western and eastern fronts, specifically helping with ballistic calculations and rising to

1989-433: The private sector. Other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching. Typical duties of physicists with master's and doctoral degrees working in their domain involve research, observation and analysis, data preparation, instrumentation, design and development of industrial or medical equipment, computing and software development, etc. The highest honor awarded to physicists

2040-453: The rank of second lieutenant in the artillery. While serving on the front in Russia in 1915, he began to suffer from pemphigus , a rare and painful autoimmune skin-disease. Nevertheless, he managed to write three outstanding papers, two on the theory of relativity and one on quantum theory . His papers on relativity produced the first exact solutions to the Einstein field equations , and

2091-677: The sky, and also be used to calculate a local time. The instrument type was very important in the old observatories, and had to do with time, the geography of the Earth, and the location of things in the sky. The great refractor is a double telescope, with a primary of 270 mm (27 cm) aperture objective lens, and was built by Repsold and also Steinheill; it was installed at the observatory in 1886. The observatory also has some other astronomical instruments, and an Urban No.18 pendulum clock . The clock would often be used in conjunction with other astronomical instruments. Besides its function as

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2142-505: The study of Schwarzschild's solutions to the Einstein field equations . However, although his best known work lies in the area of general relativity , his research interests were extremely broad, including work in celestial mechanics , observational stellar photometry , quantum mechanics , instrumental astronomy , stellar structure, stellar statistics , Halley's comet , and spectroscopy . Some of his particular achievements include measurements of variable stars , using photography, and

2193-598: The world lines of the particle, d s α {\displaystyle d\mathbf {s} _{\alpha }} the (vectorial) arc element along the world line. Two points on two world lines contribute to the Lagrangian (are coupled) only if they are a zero Minkowskian distance (connected by a light ray), hence the term δ ( ‖ P i P j ‖ ) {\displaystyle \delta \left(\left\Vert P_{i}P_{j}\right\Vert \right)} . The idea

2244-461: Was a professor at the prestigious Göttingen Observatory within the University of Göttingen , where he had the opportunity to work with some significant figures, including David Hilbert and Hermann Minkowski . Schwarzschild became the director of the observatory. He married Else Rosenbach, a great-granddaughter of Friedrich Wöhler and daughter of a professor of surgery at Göttingen, in 1909. Later that year they moved to Potsdam , where he took up

2295-746: Was coined by William Whewell (also the originator of the term "scientist") in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences . A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics , electricity and magnetism , non-relativistic quantum mechanics , optics , statistical mechanics and thermodynamics , and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics ( calculus , differential equations , linear algebra , complex analysis , etc.), and in computer science . Any physics-oriented career position requires at least an undergraduate degree in physics or applied physics, while career options widen with

2346-416: Was constructed from 1884-1886 according to plans of Franz Ritter von Neumann . Originally it was a private research institution for which the philanthropic head of the Kuffner brewery dynasty from Lundenburg , Moriz von Kuffner financed the construction (including extensions built in 1889-1890), the equipment, and also the operation. During the years leading up to World War I the observatory became one of

2397-412: Was ever built. The heliometer was designed for measuring tiny distances, and could be used for measuring the distance to other stars by trigonometric parallax. The instrument was installed in 1896, an by 1910 it had computed 16 parallax distances to other stars , out only 108 total known to science at that time. The meridian circle (i.e. transit-type instrument) can record the locations of the things in

2448-467: Was further developed by Hugo Tetrode and Adriaan Fokker in the 1920s and John Archibald Wheeler and Richard Feynman in the 1940s and constitutes an alternative but equivalent formulation of electrodynamics. Einstein himself was pleasantly surprised to learn that the field equations admitted exact solutions, because of their prima facie complexity, and because he himself had produced only an approximate solution. Einstein's approximate solution

2499-437: Was given in his famous 1915 article on the advance of the perihelion of Mercury. There, Einstein used rectangular coordinates to approximate the gravitational field around a spherically symmetric, non-rotating, non-charged mass. Schwarzschild, in contrast, chose a more elegant "polar-like" coordinate system and was able to produce an exact solution which he first set down in a letter to Einstein of 22 December 1915, written while he

2550-477: Was reopened only in 1947. The Vienna city council acquired the facility in 1987, and initiated a total refurbishment that lasted from 1989 to 1995 when it was reopened to the public under the direction of the Folk high school Ottakring as an institution for public education, a Volkssternwarte . The Kuffner observatory maintains four major pieces of observation equipment from the late 19th century in working condition:

2601-471: Was serving in the war stationed on the Russian front. He concluded the letter by writing: "As you see, the war is kindly disposed toward me, allowing me, despite fierce gunfire at a decidedly terrestrial distance, to take this walk into this your land of ideas." In 1916, Einstein wrote to Schwarzschild on this result: I have read your paper with the utmost interest. I had not expected that one could formulate

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