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48-839: The river rises from Mount Ōmine in the Yoshino-Kumano National Park in Tenkawa, Nara and follows a generally southward course to drain into the Pacific Ocean on the border between Shingū, Wakayama and Kihō, Mie . The river is part of the Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range , a UNESCO World Heritage Site which incorporates nature scenery of the Kii peninsula with numerous Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines forming

96-729: A PhD in Asian Studies from the University of California, Berkeley, says that the religious leaders in Japan banned women from Omine because they were a distraction to their ascetic practices. A 1960 TIME story expands on Birnbaum's notion: Said 75-year-old Abbot Kaigyoku Okada: "Can a man meditate on the Buddha in the midst of passing geishas? That is why we sought mountain solitude. But now girls are to be allowed on our mountain, presumably with their boyfriends. If one of my priests doing

144-417: A UNESCO report titled "World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate". The Australian government's actions, involving considerable expense for lobbying and visits for diplomats , were in response to their concern about the negative impact that an "at risk" label could have on tourism revenue at a previously designated UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 2021, international scientists recommended UNESCO to put

192-571: A World Heritage Site is nominated by its host country and determined by the UNESCO's World Heritage Committee to be a unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable, having a special cultural or physical significance, and to be under a sufficient system of legal protection. For example, World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities, deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas. A World Heritage Site may signify

240-410: A cliff exercise happens to see a young couple, he may lose his balance and be killed." The abbot may have been thinking of a line popular with the mountain priests: "Woman is the root of disaster that even 500 reincarnations cannot absolve." The ban has been challenged many times but without success. Supporters note that sexual segregation does not equal sexual discrimination. Supporters also state that

288-488: A minor boundary change, one that does not have a significant impact on the extent of the property or affect its "outstanding universal value", is also evaluated by the advisory bodies before being sent to the committee. Such proposals can be rejected by either the advisory bodies or the Committee if they judge it to be a significant change instead of a minor one. Proposals to change a site's official name are sent directly to

336-464: A pilgrimage route. Municipalities through which the river passes are: There are eleven dams in the Kumano basin for generation of hydropower . Five of these are on the Kumano itself (from source to mouth): The other six dams are on tributaries of the Kumano. 33°43′54″N 136°00′00″E  /  33.73167°N 136.00000°E  / 33.73167; 136.00000 This article related to

384-756: A remarkable accomplishment of humankind and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet, or it might be a place of great natural beauty. As of July 2024, a total of 1,223 World Heritage Sites (952 cultural, 231 natural and 40 mixed cultural and natural properties) exist across 168 countries . With 60 selected areas, Italy is the country with the most sites, followed by China with 59, and Germany with 54. The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones. The World Heritage Sites list

432-486: A river in Japan is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mount %C5%8Cmine Mount Ōmine ( 大峰山 , Ōmine-san ) , is a sacred mountain in Nara , Japan , famous for its three tests of courage. Officially known as Mount Sanjō ( 山上ヶ岳 , Sanjō-ga-take ) , it is more popularly known as Mount Ōmine due to its prominence in the Ōmine mountain range. It is located in Yoshino-Kumano National Park in

480-1000: A single text was eventually agreed upon by all parties, and the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. The convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of November 2024, it has been ratified by 196 states: 192 UN member states , two UN observer states (the Holy See and the State of Palestine ), and two states in free association with New Zealand (the Cook Islands and Niue ). Only one UN member state, Liechtenstein , has not ratified

528-409: A subject of debate, owing to a disjuncture between religious narratives, historical and material records, and present-day practices. Extant textual records indicate that communities of celibate male Buddhist practitioners at places like Mt. Hiei and Mt. Kōya began implementing exclusionary measures from around the tenth century. The rise of spatial proscriptions aimed at permanently ridding women from

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576-500: A widespread cultural phenomenon in Japan. Most territorial proscriptions dissolved in 1872 when the Meiji government granted women full access to mountain shrine and temple lands, but traces of gender-exclusive practices can be found at many mountains in Japan, especially those like Mount Ōmine which powerful Buddhist temples controlled. The origins and early development of fixed male-only zones ( nyonin kinsei ; nyonin kekkai ) remain

624-412: Is based on the self-actualization of spiritual power in experiential form through challenging and rigorous ritualistic tests of courage and devotion known as shugyō . During the Meiji period , in 1872 the imperial government forbade all "superstitious practices" including belief in folkloric creatures such as Yōkai and Yūrei , as well as gender bans on sacred mountains such as Mount Fuji and all of

672-585: Is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee , composed of 21 "states parties" that are elected by the United Nations General Assembly , and advised by reviews of international panels of experts in natural or cultural history, and education. The Program catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to

720-490: The " Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range " . Mount Ōmine lays claim to a continuous 1300-year legacy as a male-access-only sacred peak. A thirteen-foot-tall stone pillar reading "From here [onward] is the zone restricted to women" (從是女人結界) stands at the main trailhead to the Sanjōgatake 山上ヶ岳 peak of the mountain. Accompanying it is a roughly eleven-foot-tall wooden gate topped by metal spikes that bears

768-657: The Kansai region , Honshū , Japan. The temple Ōminesanji , located at the top of the mountain, is the headquarters of the Shugendō sect of Japanese Buddhism and the entire mountain is part of a pilgrimage and training ground for the Yamabushi (山伏, one who prostrates oneself on the mountain). The monastery at Mount Ōmine was founded in the 8th century by En no Gyōja , as a home for his new religion of Shugendō. Shugendo literally means "the path of training and testing," and

816-796: The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. Under the World Heritage Committee, signatory countries are required to produce and submit periodic data reporting providing the committee with an overview of each participating nation's implementation of the World Heritage Convention and a "snapshot" of current conditions at World Heritage properties. Based on the draft convention that UNESCO had initiated,

864-707: The Great Barrier Reef on the endangered list, as global climate change had caused a further negative state of the corals and water quality. Again, the Australian government campaigned against this, and in July 2021, the World Heritage Committee , made up of diplomatic representatives of 21 countries, ignored UNESCO's assessment, based on studies of scientists, "that the reef was clearly in danger from climate change and so should be placed on

912-1038: The List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List. Only three sites have ever been delisted : the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, the Dresden Elbe Valley in Germany, and the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City in the United Kingdom. The Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted in 2007, instead of first being put on the danger list, after the Omani government decided to reduce

960-609: The World Heritage Committee for new designations. The Committee meets once a year to determine which nominated properties to add to the World Heritage List; sometimes it defers its decision or requests more information from the country that nominated the site. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one to be included on the list. Until 2004, there were six sets of criteria for cultural heritage and four for natural heritage. In 2005, UNESCO modified these and now has one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of "outstanding universal value" and must meet at least one of

1008-998: The World Heritage Fund to facilitate its conservation under certain conditions. UNESCO reckons the restorations of the following four sites among its success stories: Angkor in Cambodia, the Old City of Dubrovnik in Croatia, the Wieliczka Salt Mine near Kraków in Poland, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Additionally, the local population around a site may benefit from significantly increased tourism revenue. When there are significant interactions between people and

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1056-501: The awards, because World Heritage listing can significantly increase tourism returns. Site listing bids are often lengthy and costly, putting poorer countries at a disadvantage. Eritrea 's efforts to promote Asmara are one example. In 2016, the Australian government was reported to have successfully lobbied for the World Heritage Site Great Barrier Reef conservation efforts to be removed from

1104-457: The ban has an unbroken, 1,300-year tradition. Mount Ōmine's designation as a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 2004 was seen by critics of the ban to have given the gender ban a stamp of approval. Mount Athos in Greece, an Orthodox Christian site, maintains a similar female taboo which extends to women as well as female animals. There are three shugyō on Mount Ōmine, each said to strengthen

1152-504: The commitment of countries and local population to World Heritage conservation in various ways, providing emergency assistance for sites in danger, offering technical assistance and professional training, and supporting States Parties' public awareness-building activities. Being listed as a World Heritage Site can positively affect the site, its environment, and interactions between them. A listed site gains international recognition and legal protection, and can obtain funds from, among others,

1200-454: The committee. A site may be added to the List of World Heritage in Danger if conditions threaten the characteristics for which the landmark or area was inscribed on the World Heritage List. Such problems may involve armed conflict and war, natural disasters, pollution, poaching, or uncontrolled urbanisation or human development. This danger list is intended to increase international awareness of

1248-417: The common culture and heritage of humankind. The programme began with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage , which was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. Since then, 196 states have ratified the convention, making it one of the most widely recognised international agreements and the world's most popular cultural programme. In 1954,

1296-412: The convention. By assigning places as World Heritage Sites, UNESCO wants to help preserve them for future generations. Its motivation is that "heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today" and that both cultural and natural heritage are "irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration". UNESCO's mission with respect to World Heritage consists of eight sub targets. These include encouraging

1344-650: The endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia . This resulted in the excavation and recording of hundreds of sites, the recovery of thousands of objects, as well as the salvage and relocation to higher ground of several important temples. The most famous of these are the temple complexes of Abu Simbel and Philae . The campaign ended in 1980 and

1392-538: The government of Egypt decided to build the new Aswan High Dam , whose resulting future reservoir would eventually inundate a large stretch of the Nile valley containing cultural treasures of ancient Egypt and ancient Nubia . In 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to assist them to protect and rescue

1440-992: The last two decades. These activities endanger Natural World Heritage Sites and could compromise their unique values. Of the Natural World Heritage Sites that contain forest, 91% experienced some loss since 2000. Many of them are more threatened than previously thought and require immediate conservation action. The destruction of cultural assets and identity-establishing sites is one of the primary goals of modern asymmetrical warfare. Terrorists, rebels, and mercenary armies deliberately smash archaeological sites, sacred and secular monuments and loot libraries, archives and museums. The UN, United Nations peacekeeping and UNESCO in cooperation with Blue Shield International are active in preventing such acts. "No strike lists" are also created to protect cultural assets from air strikes. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with

1488-517: The list." According to environmental protection groups, this "decision was a victory for cynical lobbying and [...] Australia, as custodians of the world's biggest coral reef, was now on probation." Several listed locations, such as Casco Viejo in Panama and Hội An in Vietnam , have struggled to strike a balance between the economic benefits of catering to greatly increased visitor numbers after

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1536-836: The local level which can result in the site being damaged. Rock art under world heritage protection at the Tadrart Acacus in Libya have occasionally been intentionally destroyed. Chalcraft links this destruction to Libyan national authorities prioritizing World Heritage status over local sensibilities by limiting access to the sites without consulting with the local population. UNESCO has also been criticized for alleged geographic bias, racism , and colourism in world heritage inscription. A major chunk of all world heritage inscriptions are located in regions whose populations generally have lighter skin, including Europe, East Asia, and North America. The World Heritage Committee has divided

1584-730: The natural environment, these can be recognised as "cultural landscapes". A country must first identify its significant cultural and natural sites in a document known as the Tentative List. Next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File, which is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and the World Conservation Union . A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on its Tentative List. The two international bodies make recommendations to

1632-562: The protected area's size by 90%. The Dresden Elbe Valley was first placed on the danger list in 2006 when the World Heritage Committee decided that plans to construct the Waldschlösschen Bridge would significantly alter the valley's landscape. In response, the Dresden City Council attempted to stop the bridge's construction. However, after several court decisions allowed the building of the bridge to proceed,

1680-538: The putative pure spaces inhabited by male devotees and the divinities strengthened the association between women and the impure or polluted. Scholars debate the precise pathways through which temporary avoidances gave way to permanent bans, but they share a broad consensus that the phenomenon of women's exclusion derives at least in part—and in no small part—from Buddhist- and kami -related views of women's physiology as innately polluted. Author Edwin Bernbaum, who holds

1728-467: The recognition and preserving the original culture and local communities. Another criticism is that there is a homogeneity to these sites, which contain similar styles, visitor centres , etc., meaning that a lot of the individuality of these sites has been removed to become more attractive to tourists. Anthropologist Jasper Chalcraft said that World Heritage recognition often ignores contemporary local usage of certain sites. This leads to conflicts on

1776-531: The rituals of Mount Ōmine. During this time the mountain was closed, and any Shugendo practices were carried on in secret. However, in 1945 the Japanese Culture Act repealed these edicts, and the mountain was opened again. Shugendō practicers were quick to reclaim the mountain and restore the traditions. In 1964, Mountaineer / author Kyūya Fukada selected Mount Ōmine as number 91 of his 100 famous mountains in Japan . Fukuda's three criteria for

1824-508: The selection of 100 celebrated mountains was their physical grandeur, historical and spiritual significance to Japan, and its individuality, meaning it must have a unique shape, phenomenon or event associated with it. In 1980 an area of 36,000 ha in the region of Mount Ōmine and Mount Ōdaigahara was designated a UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Reserve . In 2004, it was designated as an UNESCO World Heritage Site , as part of

1872-479: The spiritual power of the challenger. Climbers not wishing to take the tests can easily walk around them. World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity". To be selected,

1920-481: The ten criteria. A country may request to extend or reduce the boundaries, modify the official name, or change the selection criteria of one of its already listed sites. Any proposal for a significant boundary change or to modify the site's selection criteria must be submitted as if it were a new nomination, including first placing it on the Tentative List and then onto the Nomination File. A request for

1968-405: The threats and to encourage counteractive measures. Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site. The state of conservation for each site on the danger list is reviewed yearly; after this, the Committee may request additional measures, delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both

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2016-622: The valley was removed from the World Heritage List in 2009. Liverpool 's World Heritage status was revoked in July 2021, following developments ( Liverpool Waters and Bramley-Moore Dock Stadium ) on the northern docks of the World Heritage site leading to the "irreversible loss of attributes" on the site. The first global assessment to quantitatively measure threats to Natural World Heritage Sites found that 63% of sites have been damaged by increasing human pressures including encroaching roads, agriculture infrastructure and settlements over

2064-551: The words "Zone restricted to women gate" (女人結界門). Before both gate and stone pillar, a signboard roughly six feet tall and three feet wide has been erected, stating in English and Japanese, "'No Woman Admitted': Regulation of this holly [sic] mountain Ominesan prohibits any woman from climbing farther through this gate according to the religious tradition." These inscriptions demonstrate the practice of religion-based female taboos,

2112-436: The words: "Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible". The UNESCO-administered project has attracted criticism. This was caused by perceived under-representation of heritage sites outside Europe, disputed decisions on site selection and adverse impact of mass tourism on sites unable to manage rapid growth in visitor numbers. A large lobbying industry has grown around

2160-526: The work of the World Heritage Committee was developed over a seven-year period (1965–1972). The United States initiated the idea of safeguarding places of high cultural or natural importance. A White House conference in 1965 called for a "World Heritage Trust" to preserve "the world's superb natural and scenic areas and historic sites for the present and the future of the entire world citizenry". The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, which were presented in 1972 at

2208-744: The world into five geographic regions: Africa, Arab states, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Russia and the Caucasus states are classified as European, while Mexico and the Caribbean are classified as belonging to the Latin America and the Caribbean region. The UNESCO geographic regions also give greater emphasis on administrative, rather than geographic associations. Hence, Gough Island , located in

2256-693: Was collected from 50 countries. The project's success led to other safeguarding campaigns, such as saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. Together with the International Council on Monuments and Sites , UNESCO then initiated a draft convention to protect cultural heritage. The convention (the signed document of international agreement ) guiding

2304-973: Was considered a success. To thank countries which especially contributed to the campaign's success, Egypt donated four temples; the Temple of Dendur was moved to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City , the Temple of Debod to the Parque del Oeste in Madrid , the Temple of Taffeh to the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden , and the Temple of Ellesyia to Museo Egizio in Turin . The project cost US$ 80 million (equivalent to $ 295.83 million in 2023), about $ 40 million of which

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