Stalemate between China and Xinjiang clique
169-723: [REDACTED] Muhammad Amin Bughra [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Khoja Niyas (Uncertain when he entered in the First East Turkestan Republic forces ) [REDACTED] Osman Batur [REDACTED] Abdullah Bughra † [REDACTED] Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra † [REDACTED] Osman Ali [REDACTED] Tawfiq Bey [REDACTED] Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Mustafa Ali Bay First Sino-Uyghur Conflicts Warlords Wars Second Sino-Uyghur Conflicts Sino-Soviet Conflict in Xinjiang The Kumul Rebellion ( Chinese : 哈密暴動 ; pinyin : Hāmì bàodòng ; lit. ' Hami Uprising')
338-780: A puppet state in Xinjiang with the Ottoman Prince as Sultan. Mustafa Ali was the Turkish advisor to the Uyghurs in the First East Turkestan Republic . Muhsin Çapanoğlu was also an advisor, and they both had Pan- Turanist views. Mahmud Nedim Bey, another of their colleagues, was also an advisor to the Uyghur separatists. The Turkish government under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk reacted angrily at this plot and
507-553: A Bolshevik plan to destroy religion. A minor battle on February-may , 1933, in which Chinese Muslim troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Ismail Beg kilometres (40 miles) north of the mountains. On 25 February rebel forces entered Aksu Old City, shot all the Chinese residents and seized their property. when they rose up in revolt. Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack
676-407: A Russian girl and her mother were gassed and one Russian man was cut in two and preserved with formaldehyde. Some children grew up inside the walls of Unit 731, infected with syphilis. A Youth Corps member deployed to train at Unit 731 recalled viewing a batch of subjects that would undergo syphilis testing: "One was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and
845-756: A Russian? You know how the Tungans hate the Russians", Vasel told him to pretend to be German. The Chinese Muslim forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang 's forces in Kashgar , allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934, to Yengi Hissar , south of the city. The Hui army crushed
1014-827: A Soviet armored car column at the Battle of Dawan Cheng . Western traveler Peter Fleming speculated that the Soviet Union was not in Xinjiang to keep out the Japanese but to create their own sphere of influence. Unfortunately for the White Russian emigres, the Soviet Red Army stationed NKVD units to purge the White Russians on the basis that they might be threats to Sheng Shicai. Ma's retreating forces began advancing down to southern Xinjiang to destroy
1183-528: A Uyghur girl from a village Hsiao-Pu outside Hami. Uyghur accounts usually claim that the girl was raped or the family coerced, but as Islamic law forbids Muslim girls to marry non-Muslim men it was clearly offensive to the Uyghur community. Rebellion broke out on the night of 4 April 1931, with a massacre of Chang and his 32 soldiers at the wedding ceremony; 100 Han Chinese families of refugees from Gansu also were killed, altogether with Chinese garrisons in outposts at villages Tu-lu-Hu and Lao-mao-hu near Kumul. It
1352-520: A White Sun banners in his army and Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun armbands. He himself wore a Kuomintang armband and a New 36th Division uniform to show that he was the legitimate representative of the Chinese government. Due to his severe abuse and brutality, both the Turkic (Uyghurs) and Han Chinese hated the Hui officer who was in charge of Barkul, Ma Ying-piao, whom Ma Zhongying appointed. Kumul
1521-499: A column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers from Yarkand New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslims and Chinese civilians. A minor battle in which Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang attacked and defeated Uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 Uighur and Kirghiz were killed. Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay , attempted to take
1690-604: A delegation of the Republic. White emigre White Russian émigrés were Russians who emigrated from the territory of the former Russian Empire in the wake of the Russian Revolution (1917) and Russian Civil War (1917–1923), and who were in opposition to the revolutionary Bolshevik communist Russian political climate. Many White Russian émigrés participated in the White movement or supported it. The term
1859-442: A hermitage built near it together with transplanted fir trees and a Russian style farm to make it look like home. to build community consensus around the war memorials, the design of the memorials were deliberately kept simple with no sculpture which could be given a symbolic meaning, thereby ensuring that no particular interpretation of the war could be put forward other than grief over the war dead. The design of Orthodox churches at
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#17327659271332028-484: A mere sixty five had straggled back to Kashgar by 27 April. Later the joint Uyghur and Hui force surrounding Kashgar split again, as Ma Zhancang allied with the local provincial authority representative, a fellow Hui named Ma Shaowu , and attacked the Uyghur forces, killing Timur Beg. A Kirghiz rebellion had earlier broken out in Xinjiang in 1932, led by the Kirghiz leader Id Mirab . Ma Shaowu had crushed and defeated
2197-413: A multiethnic republic, as reflected in the choice of the "East Turkestan" name used in its founding constitution, the first coins of the new government were initially minted under the name "Republic of Uyghurstan" ( Uyghurstan Jumhuriyiti ). In some sources, it is known as the "East Turkestan Islamic Republic", suggesting a greater role for Islam in its founding character. The extent of Islam's influence in
2366-453: A native of Kumul and a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Kuomintang government, soon arrived in Urumqi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. He turned out to be correct, since the Kuomintang secretly ordered Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan to attack Sheng's regime in Urumqi. As a result, he executed three leaders of
2535-692: A pidgin language combining aspects of Russian and Mandarin Chinese which developed in the 19th century when Chinese went to work in Siberia was considered essential by the Chinese merchants of Harbin. White émigrés fought with the Soviet Red Army during the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang and the Xinjiang War of 1937 . During World War II , many white émigrés took part in the Russian Liberation Movement . The main reason that pushed
2704-540: A position of being "unpredetermined" ("nepredreshentsi"), believing that Russia's political structure should be determined by popular plebiscite . Many white émigrés believed that their mission was to preserve the pre-revolutionary Russian culture and way of life while living abroad, in order to return this influence to Russian culture after the fall of the USSR . Many symbols of the White émigrés were reintroduced as symbols of
2873-868: A religious procession were attacked by Muslim Uyghurs. In 1896 two Uyghur Turkis attacked a Hindu merchant and the British consul Macartney demanded the Uyghurs be punished by flogging. Antagonism against the Hindus ran high among the Muslim Turkic Uyghur rebels in Xinjiang's southern area. Muslims plundered the possessions in Karghalik of Rai Sahib Dip Chand, who was the aksakal of Britain, and his fellow Hindus on March 24, 1933, and in Keryia they slaughtered Indian Hindus. These Hindu diaspora communities originated from Sindh's Shikarpur district. The slaughter of
3042-746: A secret treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1931 that quickly led to suppression of the Kumul Rebellion and the deblockading of Kumul by provincial troops on November 30, 1931. Jin Shuren received large gold credits from the Soviet government for acquiring arms and weapons from the Soviet army and opening Soviet trade agencies in eight provincial towns: Ghulja , Chuguchak , Altai , Urumqi , Karashahr , Kucha , Aksu , Kashgar , Yarkand , Khotan . The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed since he had signed
3211-515: A separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. The various groups of rebels were not united (some even fought each other). The main part of the war was waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government. He was supported by Chiang Kai-shek , the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang. Governor Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after
3380-558: A shortage of foreign women, and Chinese men. A League of Nations survey in Shanghai in 1935 found that 22% of Russian women between 16 and 45 years of age were engaging in prostitution to some extent. The White Russian women mostly worked in the "Badlands" area adjoining the Beijing Legation Quarter on the east, centered on the alley of Chuanban Hutong. The American explorer Roy Chapman Andrews said he frequented
3549-666: A speech opening it: "The Russians bore great sacrifices on our account wishing to defend Serbs at a time when powerful enemies attacked tiny Serbia from all sides. And the great Slavic soul of the Russians did not allow it to be looked upon with indifference that a fraternal Slavic people should perish". Karel Kramář , a wealthy conservative Czechoslovak politician and a Russophile worked together with Russian émigrés to build an Orthodox church in Prague which Kramář called in his opening speech "a monument of Slavic connection" and to "remind Russians not only of their former sufferings but also about
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#17327659271333718-425: A time. Some died during the experimentation. When survivors were determined to no longer be useful for experimentation and were complaining of illness, staff told them they would receive a shot of medicine, but instead executed them with potassium cyanide injections. Executions were also carried out by gunshots. Approximately 150,000 White Russians, including princes, princesses, generals and senior officers, fled to
3887-411: A tool in the hands of Russians to subdue our country". Upon hearing this decision, Niyaz marched from Erkeshtam to Yarkand, where he arrived in mid-April. He proceeded to collect all the gold he could find and withdrew, taking Sabit as his prisoner, going through Merket and Maral Bashi towards Aksu. Despite attempts to capture him by Tungan forces, Niyaz safely arrived in Aksu, where he turned over Sabit to
4056-833: A treaty with the Soviet Union without central government approval. A separate Uyghur uprising at Khotan in southern Xinjiang broke out. It is suggested that the British may have encouraged this rebellion to curb Soviet influence. These Uyghurs, unlike the Kumul Uyghurs, who only wanted the Kumul Khanate restored and Jin Shuren to be overthrown, wanted total independence and hated both the Han Chinese and Chinese Muslims . They were led by Muhammad Amin Bughra and his brothers Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra . Their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki , called for
4225-577: Is estimated that around 50,000 to 70,000 soldiers were killed. In some battles entire companies and brigades were wiped out. When IRET was dismantled in 1934 the army was dismantled also (except for 6th Uyghur Division personally commanded by Mahmut Muhiti). In the north, aid came to Sheng Shicai's forces on 24 January 1934, in the form of two Soviet brigades, the Altaiskaya and Tarbaghataiskaya , disguised as " White Russian Cossack Altai Volunteer Army" and led by Red Army General Pavel Rybalko in
4394-657: Is most commonly used in France, the United States, and the United Kingdom. A term preferred by the émigrés themselves was first-wave émigré ( эмигрантъ первой волны , Russian : эмигрант первой волны , emigrant pervoy volny ), "Russian émigrés" ( русская эмиграція , русская эмиграция , russkaya emigratsiya ) or "Russian military émigrés" ( русская военная эмиграція , русская военная эмиграция , russkaya voyennaya emigratsiya ) if they participated in
4563-416: Is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers.... From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages, etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colors yellow and black are foul.... They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down
4732-507: Is often broadly applied to anyone who may have left the country due to the change in regimes. Some Russian émigrés, like Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries , were opposed to the Bolsheviks but had not directly supported the White Russian movement; some were apolitical. The term is also applied to the descendants of those who left and who still retain a Russian Orthodox Christian identity while living abroad. The term " émigré "
4901-587: Is the best atmosphere to unite France forever with a Russia national and worthy". The fact that the crosses of the Russians buried in France were painted white-the color of the French war dead and allies-while the crosses of the German war dead were painted black was widely noticed within the Russian community in France as a sign that the French regarded them as allies. In Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, war memorials to
5070-509: The Battle of Tutung . Kamal Kaya Efendi , a former Ottoman Turkish military officer who was Ma Zhongying's chief of staff, was captured by Soviet agents in Kumul in 1934, but instead of being executed he was made Commissar for Road Construction in Xinjiang, possibly because he was a Soviet agent himself. In January 1934 Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area in
5239-466: The Ili river valley region. The main fighting initially centered around Ürümqi , which Hui forces laid under siege until Sheng Shicai's troops were reinforced by White Russian and Manchurian soldiers who had previously fled the Japanese invasion of northeast China. In April 1933, Jin was deposed by a combination of these forces and succeeded by Sheng, who enjoyed Soviet support. Newly bolstered, Sheng split
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5408-763: The Inner Line ). Tens of White Army veterans (numbers vary from 72 to 180) served as volunteers supporting Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War . Some white émigrés, labeled "Soviet patriots," adopted pro-Soviet sympathies. These people formed organizations such as the Mladorossi , the Evraziitsi , and the Smenovekhovtsy . After 1933, there were attempts to copy the NSDAP and cozy up to
5577-530: The Kumul Khanate , a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The Kumul Khans were Chagataids, and hence the last ruling descendants of Genghis Khan. According to British missionaries Mildred Cable and Francesca French , who knew the last Khan Maqsud Shah, the existence of the Khanate of Kumul was important to the Uyghurs, who tolerated Chinese rule so long as their own government
5746-556: The Kuomintang -led nationalist government in Nanjing , the TIRET was effectively destroyed. Its example, however, served to some extent as inspiration for the founding of the Second East Turkestan Republic a decade later in north of the Xinjiang and continues to influence modern Uyghur nationalist support for the creation of an independent East Turkestan . The beginnings of Uyghur independence during
5915-697: The Ottoman Empire in the wake of the Revolution. Istanbul , which had a population of around 900,000 at that time, opened its doors to approximately 150 thousand White Russians. The parties to the war migration in 1917 were neither Crimean Turks nor Caucasian Muslims. This time, those who took refuge in Istanbul were the 'nobles' and soldiers of Tsarist Russia, who had fought the Ottomans for centuries. The immigration, which started with small groups at
6084-538: The Red Army across Siberia and the Russian Far East moved together with their families to Harbin (see Harbin Russians ), to Shanghai (see Shanghai Russians ) and to other cities of China, Central Asia, and Western China. After the withdrawal of American and Japanese troops from Siberia , some émigrés traveled to Japan. During and after World War II , many Russian émigrés moved to the United Kingdom,
6253-536: The Russian Civil War and the withdrawal of the Entente and Japanese armies from Siberia . Having lost their livelihoods, and with most of them widowed, Doihara forced the women into prostitution, using them to create a network of brothels throughout China where they worked under inhuman conditions. The use of heroin and opium was promoted to them as a way to tolerate their miserable fate. Once addicted,
6422-531: The Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34) . Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. Sheng Shicai commanded Manchurian and White Russian troops commanded by Colonel Pappengut. Ma and Zhang's Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim forces were on the verge of defeating Sheng when he requested help from the Soviet Union. This led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang and Ma Zhongying 's retreat after
6591-604: The Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1946). It emerged from the Kumul Rebellion following the abolition of the semi-autonomous Kumul Khanate by Xinjiang Governor Jin Shuren . Lasting from 12 November 1933 to 16 April 1934, it was primarily the product of a pan-Turkic independence movement in the region, which consisted of Turkic , mostly Uyghur , intellectuals. With the sacking of Kashgar in 1934 by Hui warlords nominally allied with
6760-401: The Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang . Zhang Peiyuan's forces were defeated and he committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Zhongying's troops were forced to retreat from the Soviet military machine's aerial bombing and were pushed back from Urumqi during the Battle of Tutung . Soviet assistance resulted in a rare White Russian and Soviet temporary military alliance against Ma. Ma wiped out
6929-529: The Soviet Union ( Tashkent , Moscow), Afghanistan , Iran , Turkey and the British Raj , though these efforts ultimately failed, with the countries refusing to recognize the envoys as representatives of an independent country. British Consul-General in Kashgar J.W. Thomson-Glover was initially enthusiastic in his response to Sabit and Amirs and reported to New Delhi that "should any lasting unity between
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7098-542: The Soviet Union and its legacy to be representative of Russia but rather of an occupying force. They consider the period of 1917 to 1991 to have been a period of anti-Christian occupation by the Soviet regime. They used the pre-revolutionary tricolor (white-blue-red) as their flag, for example, and some organizations used the ensign of the Imperial Russian Navy . A significant percentage of white émigrés may be described as monarchists, although many adopted
7267-855: The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang . The Japanese annexation of Manchuria and rumored support for Ma Zhongying 's Hui forces were one cause for concern troubling Joseph Stalin , another was the prospect that rebellion in Xinjiang might spread to the Soviet Republics in Central Asia and offer a haven to Turkic Muslim Basmachi rebels. Trade ties between Xinjiang and the Soviet Union also gave the Soviets reason for supporting Sheng. Newly appointed Soviet Consul-General in Ürümqi Garegin Apresov openly said to Sheng Shicai in May 1933 : You can develop
7436-517: The Turkish flag but with a blue background instead of red. The old flag, a white field with a blue crescent and star and Shahada , became an alternate flag. Nevertheless, the TIRET proved to be short-lived. The Hui forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang's forces in Kashgar allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing, and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla, and
7605-728: The hajj and bringing in Han Chinese officials to replace local leaders. The situation came to a head in March 1930, when Maqsud Shah , the Khan of Kumul Khanate in eastern Xinjiang, died, leading Jin to abolish its autonomy and permit waves of Han migration from the neighboring Gansu. Jin then proceeded to impose direct taxes on the Turkic population, expropriated their farmland, and distributed it among Han newcomers from Gansu, sometimes compensating Uyghurs on poorer-quality land. Additionally, Han were made exempt from taxation for two years, with one year's amount of tax being levied retroactively for
7774-499: The "Civil Governor for Life" of Xinjiang province in exchange. In the city of Yengi Hissar on 1 March 1934, TIRET cabinet and Sabit Damolla received notice that Niyaz and the Soviets reached an agreement; on 2 March, the cabinet held a special meeting, rejecting the agreement and condemning the President as a "national traitor ". Damolla said on the meeting that "Hoja Niyaz is not a Champion of Islam any more, he turned himself into
7943-487: The "cafes of somewhat dubious reputation" with the explorer Sven Hedin and scientist Davidson Black to "have scrambled eggs and dance with the Russian girls." Some did find professional work, teaching music or French. Other women took work as dressmakers, shop assistants and hairdressers. Many men became career soldiers of the Shanghai Russian Regiment, the only professional/standing unit within
8112-1257: The 1920s and 1930s, or were expelled by the Soviet government (such as, for example, Pitirim Sorokin and Ivan Ilyin ). They spanned all classes and included military soldiers and officers, Cossacks , intellectuals of various professions, dispossessed businessmen and landowners, as well as officials of the Russian Imperial government and of various anti-Bolshevik governments of the Russian Civil War period. Not all of them were ethnic Russians; other ethnic groups were included. Most émigrés initially fled from Southern Russia and Ukraine to Turkey and then moved to other Slavic countries in Europe (the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , and Poland ). A large number also fled to Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Iran, Germany and France . Some émigrés also fled to Portugal , Spain , Romania , Belgium , Sweden , Switzerland , and Italy . Berlin and Paris developed thriving émigré communities. Many military and civil officers living, stationed, or fighting
8281-407: The Amirs and Khoja Niyas Hajji emerge, then with nominal allegiance to Nanking it might be possible for a friendly power to extend practical sympathy and help to the new and struggling Republic". However, the British Government in India replied to Thomson-Glover, reminding him that the British authorities recognized the Nanjing government as the sole authority in Xinjiang and that all moves to counter
8450-465: The British Consul-General. Russian refugees, missionaries, and Indian Hindu merchants and usurers were potential targets of gangs of Kashgaris so the Consulate-General of Britain was a potential shelter. Killings of 2 Hindus at the hands of Uighurs took place in Shamba Bazaar. They broke their feet, hands, teeth, stabbed their eyes, cut their tongues and ears. Plundering of the valuables of slaughtered Indian Hindus happened in Posgam on 25 March and on
8619-577: The British Indian Government to send troops to the assistance of the Chinese at Kashgar despite an official request made to the British Consul-General at Kashgar N.Fitzmaurice ( was in office from May 1922 to July 1922 and again from September 1931 to November 1933) by Ma Shaowu on 25 February 1933. It was all too apparent that no help would be forthcoming from Ürümqi, after the cutting of telegraph links between Kashgar and Ürümqi at Aksu. Brigadier Yang troops were attacked by Hui and Uyghur rebels on march and of his original force, estimated well over 1,000 troops,
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#17327659271338788-401: The British interceded to free Khan, he was instead forced to leave his land and in November 1933 he came to Peshawar. The Swedish Mission Society had previously run a printing operation. The Bughra-led government then used the Swedish Mission Press to print and distribute media from Life of East Turkestan , the state-run media of the rebels. The forced removal of the Swedes was accompanied by
8957-400: The British interceding in their favor. There were beheadings and executions of Christians who had converted from Islam to Christianity at the hands of the Amir's followers. The missionaries faced hostility from Muhammad Amin Bughra. There were several hundred Uyghur Muslims converted to Christianity by the Swedes. The Swedish Mission Society ran a printing operation. Life of East Turkestan
9126-435: The Chinese residents and seized their property; it seemed probable that this was the work of Temur's men, as the Hui ( Tungan ) forces of Ma Zhancang are reported to have peacefully occupied Aksu New City, where they took possession of both the Arsenal and the Treasury, their contents were reportedly sent to Tungan Headquarters at Kara Shar . Later Ma Zhancang at the head of approximately 300 well-armed Tungan troops and Temur at
9295-548: The Czechoslovak Legions was a way of asserting that the Russians had helped to make Czechoslovakia possible. In Germany, right-wing émigrés found much to their own frustration that right-wing German veterans shunned their offers to participate in Totensonntag ("Day of the Dead") as German conservatives did not wish to honor the sacrifices of those who had fought against Germany, and it was left-wing German veterans, usually associated with Social Democratic Party, who welcomed having Russians participate in Totensonntag to illustrate
9464-411: The East Turkestan Republic. Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union accused Ma Zhongying, a Muslim and ardently anti-Soviet, of being used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with Manchukuo . Sheng claimed that he captured two Japanese officers on Ma's staff. However, not a single claim of Sheng's could be proven, and he did not provide any evidence for his allegations that Ma
9633-422: The First East Turkestan Republic. He sent out an advance guard under Ma Fuyuan to attack the Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz at Kashgar. At this point Chiang Kai-shek was ready to send Huang Shaohong and his expeditionary force of 15,000 troops to assist Ma Zhongying against Sheng, but when Chiang heard about the Soviet invasion he decided to withdraw to avoid an international incident if his troops directly engaged
9802-416: The French and British representations, commissions, or alongside them in civil service, translator, or even military or security units in Istanbul. The Philippines welcomed 800 Russians fleeing the dangers of the Socialist Revolution of 1917. Many later migrated elsewhere, while some settled in Manila or other areas in the country, with 250 went to Mindanao to work in abaca plantations. From 1949 to 1951,
9971-419: The German National Socialists, thus the short-lived parties such as the ROND (Russian Popular Liberation Movement) came into existence in Germany. One of the most notable forms of activities by Russian émigrés was building monuments to Russian war dead of World War I , which stood in marked contrast to the Soviet Union, which did not build any monuments to the 2 million Russians killed between 1914 and 1917, as
10140-433: The German retreat as an opportunity to either flee from the Soviet Union, or were in Germany and Austria as POWs and forced labor , and preferred to stay in the West, often referred to as the second wave of émigrés (often also called DPs – displaced persons, see Displaced persons camp ). This smaller second wave fairly quickly began to assimilate into the white émigré community. After the war, active anti-Soviet combat
10309-420: The Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans as well. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since the Tungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There
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#173276592713310478-430: The Hui armies in the north, led by Ma Zhongying . Another Hui faction in Southern Xinjiang under command of Ma Zhancang , meanwhile, had struck an alliance with Uyghur forces located around Kucha under the leadership of Timur Beg , occupied Kucha without hostilities and proceeded to march towards Aksu , capturing the small town of Baicheng en route . On 25 February 1933 rebel forces entered Aksu Old City, shot all
10647-520: The Indian Hindus became known as the "Karghalik Outrage", in which Muslims killed nine of them. The killing of two Hindus at the hands of Uighurs took place in Shamba Bazaar. The Uighurs plundered the valuables of slaughtered Indian Hindus in Posgam on March 25 as on the previous day in Karghalik. Killings of Hindus also took place in Khotan at the hands of the Bughra Amirs. The Japanese invited an Ottoman prince, Abdulkerim , and several anti-Atatürk Young Turk exiles from Turkey to assist them in setting up
10816-478: The Islamic Republic East Turkestan Republic was formed on 12 November 1933, and originally consisted of two divisions (around 22,000 troops), the Kashgar infantry division (stationed in the capital, Kashgar), and the Khotan Infantry Division (stationed in Khotan). The National Army was poorly armed and trained in the beginning of the Revolution, so a military academy was set up in Atush (Artush) to train cadets. All Turkic ethnic groups were called to take up arms and join
10985-447: The Kirghiz rebels. The Soviet Union had been involved in also fighting against the rebels, who had spilled over to the Soviet side. In March 1932, large number of Kirghiz were driven across the Xinjiang frontier by pursuing Soviet forces. A series of guerrilla counter-attacks against the Soviets were mounted from Chinese territory and in raids on Koksu and two other Soviet posts a total of thirty seven Soviet troops were killed. While this
11154-416: The Kuomintang government of China. The Turkic populace called Ma Hushan their padishah (king). Meanwhile, in nearby Kashgar, the representatives of Sheng Shicai including Chinese nationalist Christian Liu Bin and Turfan merchant Mahmud Shizhang took over control. Sheng had the Xinjiang provincial official previously in charge, Ma Shaowu, summoned to Urumqi. When Ma Shaowu, sensing a trap, refused to go, he
11323-402: The National Army. The military was headed by the Defense Minister Mahmut Muhiti (a Uyghur revolutionary from Turpan). Although the true size of the National Army is not known, it is estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 according to official Soviet sources. During the war an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Turki civilians were killed. Although it is not certain how many soldiers the IRET lost in the war, it
11492-602: The New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang . They were defeated. Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler who held the title Sayyid (descendant of prophet Muhammed ) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque . Han Chinese troops commanded by Brig. Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang 's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing
11661-486: The Russian war dead were presented in Pan-Slavic terms, as a symbol of how Russians had fought together with the Czechs and Serbs in the war. Serbian King Alexander of Yugoslavia was a Russophile who welcomed Russian émigrés to his kingdom, and after France, Yugoslavia had the largest Russian émigré community, leading to Yugoslavia to have almost as many war memorials to the Russian war dead as France. War memorials in Yugoslavia usually also honored both Serbian war dead and
11830-411: The Russians in Harbin often surprised foreign visitors who assumed that they should be poor, leading one visitor in 1923 to comment that Russian "ladies as well gowned as at the Paris races [who] strolled with men faultlessly garbed by European standards", leading him to wonder how they achieved this "deceptive appearance". The extent of Russian economic dominance of Harbin could be seen that "Moya-tvoya",
11999-521: The SPD did not sit well with right-wing Russian émigrés found themselves rather out of place at these ceremonies. The city of Harbin in China was founded by the Russians in 1896, becoming known the "Moscow of the Orient" due to its Russian appearance, and after the Revolution its Russian population was further reinforced by émigrés, through the majority of the Russians living in Harbin were people who had come before World War I. About 127,000 people living in Harbin in 1920 came from Russia, making it one of
12168-515: The Shanghai Volunteer Corps. By slow degrees, and despite the many difficulties, the community not only retained a good deal of cohesion but did begin to flourish, both economically and culturally. By the mid-1930s there were two Russian schools, as well as a variety of cultural and sporting clubs. There were Russian-language newspapers and a radio station. An important part was also played by the local Russian Orthodox Church under
12337-553: The Soviet Union in the province should be based on a policy to support the Chinese authorities. The TIRET envoys who reached New Delhi in February 1934 were also rebuffed, with The Times commenting that Delhi recognized Xinjiang as a province of China. In January 1934 in Kabul , representatives met the newly proclaimed King of Afghanistan Mohammad Zahir Shah , who viewed the rebellion with sympathy and had sent congratulations on
12506-438: The Soviet Union, where he was blamed by the Soviets for accepting from Sabit Damolla the position of first leader of TIRET (President), but was promised a military aid and "great prospects for the future" if he would help Sheng Shicai and the Soviets "to dissolve TIRET". Reportedly. Niyaz signed an agreement with the Soviets to dissolve the TIRET and place its authorities under the disposal of the provincial authorities. Niyaz became
12675-519: The Soviets. Georg Vasel, a German hired by the Central Government to build airstrips along the former Silk Road, recounted the massacres of the war. On one occasion, the road between Hami and Urumqi he was driving on was so strewn with corpses that he could not avoid them without causing the truck to overturn, and he had to drive directly over the corpses. When his White Russian driver, when meeting Ma Zhongying, asked "Must I tell him that I am
12844-470: The TIRET Government, accepting the offer of Prime Minister Sabit Damolla. Sabit Damolla freed for Khoja Niyaz his own Palace in the old city of Kashgar, that was established in the former Yamen or residence of the head of Chinese administration of Southern Xinjiang, and asked to form a new Government. In his letter to Nanjing government Government, Khoja Niyaz explained his decision by emphasizing
13013-408: The TIRET. Interviews with Turkestani veterans in exile suggest that Sheng Shicai and the Soviets collaborated to crush the Republic. Russia had a two-sided policy in relation to the region of East Turkestan; often promising aid (in 1933 and 1944) but placing its own political and economic interests above everything else. The Soviet Union did not offer any military equipment despite being paid for it by
13182-662: The Treasury and Arsenal were captured by rebels, delivering to their hands several thousands of rifles and almost a ton of gold. The Khotan Emirate dispatched one of the three brothers, Shahmansur, known also as Emir Abdullah, and a former publisher named Sabit Damolla to Kashgar, where they established the Kashgar Affairs Office of the Khotan Government , led by Muhammad Amin Bughra , in July 1933. By
13351-464: The Tungan capture of Kashgar, the remainders of the TIRET leadership including Prime Minister Sabit Damolla and Nur Ahmadjan retreated to Yengi Hissar to reorganize. Mahmut Muhiti retreated with remainder of Army to Yarkand and Hotan , while Khoja Niyaz fled through Artush to Erkeshtam on the Soviet border, with Tungan troops on his heels, which chased him as far as the border. Niyaz took refuge in
13520-656: The Tungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers...From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages, etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colours yellow and black are foul...They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down
13689-765: The Turkish embassy in Japan denounced the Japanese plan to create a puppet state, labeling it a "Muslim Manchukuo ". TASS claimed the Uyghur Sabit Damulla invited "Turkish emigrants in India and Japan, with their anti-Kemalist organizations, to organize his military forces." Mass defections occurred on all three sides during the rebellion. Ma Zhancang and his Chinese Muslim army were originally allied to Timur Beg and his Uyghur army while marching on Kashgar. Zhancang and his army, however, defected to Muslim commander Ma Shaowu and his Han army and fought against Timur Beg and
13858-743: The Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934) , Battle of Yarkand and Battle of Yangi Hissar . In the aftermath of the Islamic Republic, the Hui Chinese Muslims under Ma Zhongying's brother-in-law General Ma Hushan governed southern Xinjiang as an autonomous satrapy over the Turkic-speaking Muslims, sometimes called Tunganistan , in the name of
14027-527: The United States, Canada, Peru, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, South Africa, Taiwan and Australia – where many of their communities still exist in the 21st century. Many, estimated as being between the hundred thousands and a million, also served Germany in the Wehrmacht or in the Waffen-SS , often as interpreters. White émigrés were, generally speaking, anti-communist and did not consider
14196-480: The Uyghurs. The Kyrgyz levies under Osman Ali were originally allied to Chinese Muslim commander Ma Shaowu and his Han army, but they defected to Timur Beg's Uyghurs at the same time Ma Zhancang defected to Ma Shaowu. Han General Zhang Peiyuan and his Han Chinese Ili army originally fought for the provincial government under Jin Shuren against Ma Zhongying. However, Zhang Peiyuan and his Han army defected to Ma Zhongying and his Muslim army in 1933 and joined him in fighting
14365-562: The Vice Chairman of the Xinjiang Government. His forces received 15,000 rifles and ammunitions from the Soviet Union, but each rifle, each bullet, and each bomb, that was dropped on Tungan troops from Soviet airplanes, had been bought in gold from the Soviet Union by Khoja Niyaz. By the end of 1934, Sheng Shicai, with Soviet backing, was firmly in control of Xinjiang. With Soviet mediation, Khoja Niyaz agreed to serve as
14534-723: The White Russian movement. In the Soviet Union , white émigré ( бѣлоэмигрантъ , белоэмигрант , byeloemigrant ) generally had negative connotations. Since the end of the 1980s, the term "first-wave émigré" has become more common in Russia. In East Asia , White Russian ( Chinese : 白俄 , bái'è ; Japanese : 白系ロシア人 , Hakkeiroshiajin or 白系露人 , Hakkeirojin ) is the term most commonly used for such Russian émigrés, although some have been of Ukrainian and other ethnicities, and were not culturally Russians. Most white émigrés left Russia from 1917 to 1920 (estimates vary between 900,000 and 2 million). Some managed to leave during
14703-488: The Whites to support the German power with action was the concept of a "spring offensive", an armed intervention against the USSR that must be exploited in order to continue the civil war. The latter was perceived by many Russian officers as an ongoing case that was never finished since the day of their exile. During the war, the white émigrés came into contact with former Soviet citizens from German-occupied territories who used
14872-557: The Xinjiang Muslims to fight Jin alone. The Kumul Uyghur commanders Yulbars and Khoja Niyaz had also been gaining aid from the Outer Mongolian Mongolian People's Republic , who themselves broke from China a few years prior with Soviet assistance. Ma Zhongying had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang, China's central government: if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang. Ma
15041-450: The assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) Governor Yang Zengxin (Yang Tseng-sin) in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of Turkic peoples and openly antagonized them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin had also Chinese (Hui) Muslims in his provincial army like Ma Shaowu . In 1930 Jin annexed
15210-466: The assassination of Yang Zengxin in 1928 and the rise to power of his deputy, Jin Shuren , who declared himself governor after arresting and executing Yang's assassin, a rival official named Fan Yaonan (樊耀南) who had planned to assume the position for himself. Autocratic, corrupt, and ineffective at managing the province's development, Jin further antagonized the populace by reinstituting Sinicization policies, increasing taxes, prohibiting participation in
15379-543: The city in the first weeks of attack, nevertheless its fall was imminent and just a matter of time without intervention of Soviet troops. The battle for Ürümqi was decisive for the whole Ma Zhongying's campaign in Xinjiang and its taking by his forces would lead to recognision of him The absolute ruler of Xinjiang by Nanjing Government of China, as was previously secretly promised to him. The Soviet brigades, with air support, scattered Ma Zhongying's troops surrounding Ürümqi and forced them to retreat southward. On 16 February 1934,
15548-553: The city, having declared the Khotan Emirate and independence from China on 16 March 1933. Leader of Karakash gold miners Ismail Khan Khoja sent message to Governor Jin Shuren: "Foolish infidels like you are not fit to rule.... You infidels think that because you have rifles, guns... and money, you can depend on them, but we depend of God in whose hands are our lives." Local provincial authorities and troops were annihilated by
15717-473: The city. The Kirghiz were not amused at how their rebellion was crushed the previous year by Ma Shaowu, and now he wanted them to defend the city. They defected en masse to the enemy. However, Ma Zhancang also entered into secret negotiations with Ma Shaowu; he and his troops soon defected to the Han Chinese garrison in the city. During the Battle of Kashgar (1933) the city changed hands multiple times as
15886-719: The confused factions battled each other. The Kirghiz began to murder any Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, and fighting broke out in the streets. Timur Beg became sympathetic to the pro-independence rebels of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki , while Ma Zhancang proclaimed his allegiance to the Chinese Kuomintang government and notified everyone that all former Chinese officials would keep their posts. Ma Zhancang arranged for Timur Beg to be killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque . Afghan King Mohammad Zahir Shah provided weapons and support to
16055-437: The dead: memory. We in a foreign land do not have a tomb of an 'unknown soldier', but we do have thousands of suffering people. They are our honor and our justification ( opravdanie ) before the world. Their wounds and suffering are for Russia. They remain true to honor and obligation. That is our Russian passport". This was especially the case in France, the home of the largest overseas Russian community, where services honoring
16224-449: The dedication of a memorial to the REF in 1930: "We lost everything - family, economic situation, personal happiness, the homeland...Are our sufferings good to anyone? In truth-we have nothing, we have lost everything. Weep, weep". Such monuments were also a way of commanding respect from the host communities with an émigré newspaper saying in 1930: "Peoples honor heroes. To the living: care, to
16393-682: The early 1920s. Most of the Russians went to Manchuria (especially in Harbin , which at the time had the largest population of Russians of any city outside Russia ) and treaty ports such as Shanghai, but a few ended up in Beijing. In 1924, the Chinese government recognized the government of the Soviet Union and the majority of White Russians in China who refused to become Soviet citizens were rendered stateless, thus subject to Chinese law unlike other Europeans, Americans, and Japanese living in China who enjoyed
16562-591: The early 20th century were greatly influenced by the Turkish jadidist movement, which spread as wealthier Uyghurs, inspired by notions of Pan-Turkism , traveled abroad to Turkey, Russia, and Europe, and returned home determined to modernize and develop the educational system in Xinjiang . The first major school founded on the new model was located outside of Kashgar and, unlike the traditional curricula, focused on more technical areas of study such as science, mathematics, history, and language studies. Jadidism emphasized
16731-518: The end of 1917, grew with the loss of Crimea to the Bolsheviks in 1920. Tens of thousands of people who left their titles, money and palaces in Russia and came to Istanbul tried to hold on to life by dispersing all over the city. Some sold books, some handcrafted souvenirs and some flowers. The place, formerly known as Hristaki Passage, became known as Çiçek Pasajı after the Russian flower girls took up residence. Those who arrived in 1919 were better off economically. The first arrivals found some jobs in
16900-597: The establishment of a united friendly family of those who did not let down their hands in the fight for her liberation The émigrés formed various organizations for the purpose of combating the Soviet regime such as the Russian All-Military Union , the Brotherhood of Russian Truth , and the NTS . This made the white émigrés a target for infiltration by the Soviet secret police (e.g. operation TREST and
17069-502: The establishment of the TIRET in November 1933, and Prime Minister Mohammad Hashim Khan , asking for aid and a supply of arms. However, the Soviet Union, which viewed the TIRET with distaste due to its anti-communism, put pressure on Afghanistan to not send aid. In Turkey the reports of developments in Xinjiang were initially greeted by the press with support; however, no material support was ever announced. Hostility to Christianity
17238-544: The events of World War I were a major part of French life after 1918, and where by honoring the Russian war dead allowed the Russian émigrés in France to take part in the ceremonials, letting the émigrés feel like a part of the wider French community. In 1927, the Orthodox Metropolitan Evlogii spoke at the war monument in Valenciennes: "Blood spilled on the soil of beautiful and glorious France
17407-479: The expulsion of Chinese Muslims (Tungans) in a proclamation: The Tungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans also. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since
17576-427: The fact that the respected commander was engaged in fighting in northern Xinjiang and had actually allied his forces with those of Sheng Shicai. Original proclamation was extremely anti-Tungan and anti-Han and contained such words: The Tungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear
17745-591: The fact, that he accepted the decision made by the Congress of People of Eastern Turkestan in accordance with its free will and choice and that Constitution of Chinese Republic of 1912 reserves the "right of five races of China to self-determination ". He listed five principles of the self-ruling of the Republic: Khoja Niyaz introduced a new flag for the republic, the Kök Bayraq , which resembled
17914-460: The fall of that year, the office had shed many of its links to the Khotan government and reformed itself into the multi-ethnic, quasi-nationalist East Turkestan Independence Association , which drew heavily on ideas of Islamic reformism, nationalism and jadidism. On 12 November 1933, Sabit Damolla declared the establishment of the East Turkestan Republic with Khoja Niyaz as its president — despite
18083-463: The foundation of the TIRET is disputed; while the constitution endorses sharia as the guiding law, the jadidist modernizing tradition places much greater emphases on reform and development, which is reflected in subsequent passages of the constitution that focus on health, education, and economic reforms. The Turkestan Declaration of Independence put political platform of the self-proclaimed Republic based on nine main principles: The Republic included
18252-457: The green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the New 36th Division; presumably they had converted to Islam. First East Turkestan Republic The Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan ( TIRET ) was an independent republic centered on the city of Kashgar , located in the far west of Xinjiang Province . It is often described as the First East Turkestan Republic to differentiate it from
18421-524: The guidance of St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco. Japanese general Kenji Doihara forced White Russian women into prostitution and drug addiction to spy and spread drugs to their male Chinese clients. He initially gave food and shelter to tens of thousands Russian White émigré women who had taken refuge in the Far East after the defeat of the White Russian anti-Bolshevik movement during
18590-601: The hands of the Amir's followers. Several hundred Uighur Muslims had converted to Christianity due to the missionary work of the Swedes, many of whom would suffer imprisonment and execution. For instance, after refusing to give up his Christian religion, the convert Uighur Habil was executed in 1933. The East Turkestan Republic also subjected former Muslim Christian converts like Joseph Johannes Khan to jail, torture and abuse after he refused to give up Christianity in favor of Islam. After
18759-528: The head of an estimated 4,700 ill-armed Uyghur irregulars resumed their advance on Maral Bashi and Kashgar. On 13 April 1933 Ma Shaowu (馬紹武), the Head of Chinese administration in Southern Xinjiang, ordered Chinese Brigadier Yang to leave Maral Bashi front and return to Kashgar with troops because of rapidly deteriorating of the situation in Southern Xinjiang, that was not improved by the refusal of
18928-547: The independent republic. On noon cannon fired 41 times and crowd proceeded to the Old City of Kashgar, waving blue banners of Independence, where rally continued on the square in front of Id Gah Mosque and more speeches were delivered from Mosque's front, where Sabit Damulla appeared as a main speaker. Established distinct from the Khotan Emirate , the TIRET claimed authority over territory stretching from Aksu along
19097-541: The largest Russian-speaking cites in East Asia . Many of the Russians in Harbin were wealthy, and the city was a center of Russian culture as the Russian community in Harbin made it their mission to preserve the pre-war Russian culture in a city on the plains of Manchuria with for instance Harbin having two opera companies and numerous theaters performing the traditional classics of the Russian stage. The economic success of
19266-463: The last was a White Russian woman with a boy of about six or seven." The children of these women were tested in ways similar to their parents, with specific emphasis on determining how longer infection periods affected the effectiveness of treatments. Senior Sgt. Kazuo Mitomo described some of Unit 100's human experiments: On some of the prisoners I experimented 5–6 times, testing the action of Korean bindweed , bactal and castor oil seeds. One of
19435-648: The light of Orthodoxy, so that other peoples, seeing their good deeds, might glorify our Father Who is in Heaven, and thus obtain salvation for themselves. Many white émigrés also believed it was their duty to remain active in combat against the Soviet Union, with the hopes of liberating Russia. This ideology was largely inspired by General Pyotr Wrangel , who said upon the White army's defeat "The battle for Russia has not ceased, it has merely taken on new forms". White army veteran Captain Vasili Orekhov, publisher of
19604-503: The local Muslim population. The new garrison stationed in Hami proved even more antagonizing, and by 1931, scattered revolts, mobs, and resistance movements were emerging throughout the area. According to British missionaries Mildred Cable and Francesca French , who were resident in the Kumul area during and shortly after Jin's annexation of the Kumul Khanate , a rising against Jin Shuren
19773-529: The local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province. Yulbars Khan , advisor at the Kumul court, appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Hui Muslim warlord in Gansu Province, to overthrow Jin and restore the Khanate. Some scholars describe a Han officer forcing a Uyghur woman to submit to marrying him as the event that triggered the rebellion. Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to government forces there. Although he
19942-475: The magazine Sentry ( Chasovoy ), encapsulated this idea of responsibility with the following words: There will be an hour – believe it – there will be, when the liberated Russia will ask each of us: "What have you done to accelerate my rebirth." Let us earn the right not to blush, but be proud of our existence abroad. As being temporarily deprived of our Motherland let us save in our ranks not only faith in her, but an unbending desire towards feats, sacrifice, and
20111-619: The members of the Czechoslovak Legions who died in the war, giving them a decidedly pan-Slavic feel. A planned Orthodox church to honor the Russian prisoners who died in an Austrian POW camp outside Osijek would have featured busts of the Emperor Nicholas II, King Peter I and King Alexander to emphasis how the Houses of Romanov and Karađorđević had been allied in the war, linking the Russian and Serbian experiences of
20280-455: The miners throughout Khotan vilayet , rare Chinese population in most cases saved their lives and property, but was forced to accept Islam under the threat of execution. Old City of Khotan fell to rebels on 28 February 1933 with minimal resistance, the same day when rebels entered the city, while Khotan New City came under siege before surrendering on 16 March 266 Han soldiers of its garrison were spared and reportedly converted to Islam, while both
20449-467: The northern rim of the Tarim Basin to Khotan in the south. Actually, Khoja Niyaz didn't join Republic in November 1933 and kept a separate administration in Aksu, that was involved in negotiations with USSR. In fact, the government in Kashgar was strapped for resources, plagued by rapid inflation, and surrounded by hostile powers — including the Hui forces under Ma Zhancang. Although established as
20618-450: The opposing forces around Ürümqi by offering several Uyghur commanders (led by Khoja Niyaz Hajji , an advisor to the newly elected Kumul Khan Nazir (聶滋爾), the second son of recently deceased Kumul Khan Maqsud Shah , and to Nazir's eldest son and his designated heir Bashir (伯錫爾) with whom he studied together in religious school " Khanliq " in Kumul in their childhood) positions of power in Southern Xinjiang if they would agree to turn against
20787-775: The participation of Mahmut Muhiti , Yunus Beg and Maqsud Muhiti, a Jadidist. Shams al-Din Damulla was the Waqf affairs Minister while Agriculture Minister was Abuhasan, and Sabit Damolla was Prime Minister. Muhammad Amin Bughra , Shemsiddin Damolla, Abdukerimhan Mehsum, Sabit Damolla, and Abdulqadir Damolla were all Jadists who took part in the First East Turkestan Republic. After declaring independence, TIRET tried to receive international recognition, dispatching of numerous envoys by Prime Minister Sabit Damolla to
20956-593: The post-Soviet Russia, such as the Byzantine eagle and the Russian tricolor . A religious mission to the outside world was another concept promoted by people such as Bishop John of Shanghai and San Francisco (canonized as a saint of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad ) who said at the 1938 All-Diaspora Council: To the Russians abroad it has been granted to shine in the whole world with
21125-410: The power of education as a tool for personal and national self-advancement, a development sure to disturb the traditional status quo in Xinjiang. The ruler of Xinjiang, Governor Yang Zengxin , responded by closing down or interfering with the operations of several of the new schools. The birth of the Soviet Union influenced the Uyghurs, increasing the popularity of nationalist independence movements and
21294-583: The previous day in Karghalik at the hands of Uighurs. Killings of Hindus took place in Khotan at the hands of the Bughra Amirs. Antagonism against the Hindus ran high among the Muslim Turki Uyghur rebels in Xinjiang's southern area. Muslims plundered the possessions in Karghalik of Rai Sahib Dip Chand, who was the aksakal of Britain, and his fellow Hindus on 24 March 1933, and in Keryia they slaughtered Indian Hindus. Sind's Shikarpur district
21463-460: The principles of extraterritoriality . Nor were White Russians born in China eligible to be Chinese citizens. Although some of the White Russians arrived with their fortunes intact, most were penniless and due to ethnic prejudices and their inability to speak Chinese, were unable to find jobs. To support themselves and their families, some of the younger women became prostitutes or taxi dancers . They were popular with both foreign men, there being
21632-417: The prisoners of Russian nationality became so exhausted from the experiments that no more could be performed on him, and Matsui ordered me to kill that Russian by giving him an injection of potassium cyanide . After the injection, the man died at once. Bodies were buried in the unit's cattle cemetery. Unit 100 staff poisoned and drugged Russians with heroin, castor oil, tobacco and other substances for weeks at
21801-623: The province and improve living conditions of the people of different nationalities, develop their culture. But if you let them ( muslim rebels ) to create an Independent State in the South of the province, converting it into the Second Manchuria at the back door of the USSR, we will not be just a side watchers, we will start to act . First request from Sheng Shicai of military support from USSR came in October 1933. In December 1933 Sheng Shicai arrested White Russian Colonel Pavel Pappengut , who
21970-405: The provincial authorities. Other TIRET officials fled to India and Afghanistan. The Kuomintang-allied Hui forces under Ma Zhongying were defeated, and Sheng consolidated his rule over northern Xinjiang with Soviet backing. The seat of Khoja Niyaz Southern Xinjiang Autonomous Government was initially located in Aksu, but later he was urged by Sheng Shicai to move to Ürümqi to assume the position of
22139-443: The provincial government under Sheng Shicai and the Soviets and White Russians. Khoja Niyaz and his Kumulik Uyghur army defected from Ma Zhongying's side to the provincial government and the Soviets and received weapons from the Soviets. Ma Zhongying returned to Xinjiang in 1933 to continue the war. Ma Zhongying had an ambition to create an empire covering the whole of Soviet and Chinese Central Asia. Ma used Kuomintang Blue Sky with
22308-462: The provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang. Chiang Kai-shek sent Luo Wen'gan to Xinjiang, and Luo met with Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan, urging them to destroy Sheng. Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan then began a joint attack on Sheng's Manchurian and White Russian force during
22477-714: The rebels included Tevfik Pasha, a Pan-Islamist former Minister of the Saudi King Ibn Saud and formed cooperative ties with the Japanese ambassador to Afghanistan Kitada Masamoto, who was also closely monitoring the rebellion. This rebellion became entangled with the Kumul rebellion, when a Chinese Muslim and Uyghur army under Ma Zhancang and Timur Beg marched on Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu and his garrison of Han Chinese troops. Ma Shaowu began to panic and started raising Kirghiz levies under Osman Ali to defend
22646-566: The recognition on the side of the Slavs". A service at the Russian war memorial in Terezin in 1930 turned into "a Russian-Czech political demonstration in a manifestation of Slavic mutuality" with the theme that the Russians had died so that the Czechs might be free. Prague had a large community of Russian émigrés, and by constantly linking the Russian experience of World War I to the experiences of
22815-428: The region now ardently hoped for Ma's expulsion by Sheng Shicai and an end to the seesaw military campaigns by both sides. Ma also forcibly conscripted Uyghurs into his army, turning them into infantry while only Chinese Muslims were allowed to be officers. This led to outrage among the Uyghurs at Kumul. Meanwhile, the Han Chinese commander of Ili , Zhang Peiyuan , entered into secret negotiations with Ma Zhongying, and
22984-503: The rest of the government to flee on 6 February 1934, to Yengi Hissar south of the city. The conquering Hui army killed many of those who remained, and a rapid procession of betrayals among the survivors, following their expulsion from Kashgar, spelled the effective end of the TIRET. The Hui army crushed the Uyghur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at the battle of Kashgar , battle of Yarkand , and battle of Yangi Hissar . Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed TIRET. Following
23153-465: The road between Tacheng and Ürümqi, but decided to return to Ghulja after receiving of message of capturing the city by Russian "Altai Volunteer Army", actually Soviet troops entered the city. Upon approaching Ghulja he was surrounded on mountain road, his troops were partly annihilated, partly fled to Muzart Pass on Tian Shan Mountains and through it to Southern Xinjiang near Aksu . Zhang Peiyuan himself committed suicide. Ma Zhongying attacked Ürümqi as
23322-598: The siege of Ürümqi was lifted, freeing Sheng, his Manchurian and the White Guard Russian Cossack troops, which had been trapped in the city by Ma forces since 13 January 1934. Khoja Niyaz had by this time arrived at Kashgar with 1,500 troops on the same day of 13 January 1934, to assume the presidency of the TIRET, going against his previous deal with Sheng. With him arrived another prominent Uyghur leader Mahmut Muhiti from eastern Xinjiang ( Turpan , Kumul ) who had agreed to become Minister of Defense in
23491-922: The slaughter of Hindus in Khotan by the Islamic Turkic rebels. The Emirs of Khotan killed the Hindus while they forced the Swedes out and declared Shariah in Khotan on March 16, 1933. Hostility towards Hindus predated the establishment of the Islamic republic. Han Chinese men, Hindu men, Armenian men, Jewish men and Russian men married Uyghur Muslim women who could not find husbands . Uyghur merchants would harass Hindu money lenders by shouting at them if they ate beef or hanging cow skins on their quarters. Uyghur men also rioted and attacked Hindus for marrying Uyghur women in 1907 in Poskam and Yarkand like Ditta Ram calling for their beheading and stoning as they engaged in anti-Hindu violence. Hindu Indian money lenders engaging in
23660-812: The spiritual and cultural center of the Russian Orthodox community abroad. On 17 May 2007, the Act of Canonical Communion with the Moscow Patriarchate reestablished canonical ties between the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad and the Russian Church of the Moscow Patriarchate , after more than 80 years of separation. White émigrés, called "White Russians" in East Asia, flooded into China after World War I and into
23829-467: The spread of the communist message. A local Communist revolutionary organization was established in Xinjiang in 1921 (Revolutionary Uyghur Union, member of Comintern ), the area also served as a refuge for many intellectuals fleeing the advent of Soviet Communism in Central Asia, which formed a division within the Xinjiang Turkic independence movement. The situation in Xinjiang deteriorated with
23998-695: The theme that all peoples in the nations involved in the First World war were victims. In Germany, November 11 was not a holiday as no one wanted to honor the day that the Reich lost the war, and Totensonntag played the same role in Germany that November 11 played in the Allied nations, as the time to honor the war dead. The anti-war and internationalist message at the Totensonntag ceremonies organized by
24167-503: The two joined their armies together against Jin Shuren and the Russians. At this point in April 1933, Jin Shuren's White Russian Cossack troops in Urumqi mutinied and overthrew him, installing his subordinate Sheng Shicai to take his place. Under Soviet and Han Chinese communist advice, Sheng implemented a system of ethnocultural autonomy, including appointing the former Kumul rebel Khoja Niyaz as deputy governor of Xinjiang. Huang Mu-sung ,
24336-538: The vice chairman of the Xinjiang Government led by Sheng. Sheng appointed Mahmut Muhiti as the deputy military commander of the Kashgar region, and permitted Yulbars Khan , one of the Hami rebel leaders, to serve as the head of Hami County. Ma Zhongying was persuaded to study in the Soviet Union, where he disappeared. His subordinate forces in southern Xinjiang were eventually absorbed by Sheng Shicai. Muhammad Amin Bughra fled to Afghanistan where he sought Japanese support for
24505-429: The war dead reflected not only sadness over the war dead, but also a way to bring together the often badly divided émigré communities shattered across Europe, Asia and North America. Monuments for the war dead were often a way to symbolically recreate Russia abroad with example at the monument for those Russians killed while serving in the Russian Expeditionary Force (REF) in France at village of Mourmelon-le-Grand having
24674-483: The war had been condemned by Lenin as an "imperialist war". Besides for the war dead, other monuments were put up. In Brussels, Seattle, and Harbin, monuments were built to honor the executed Emperor Nicholas II while a monument was put up in Shanghai to honor Alexander Pushkin, Russia's national poet. In fact, a monument to Pushkin would have been built in Paris had not a dispute arisen with the Ministry of Fine Arts over its precise location. The popularity of monuments for
24843-495: The war memorials was done in the style of medieval Orthodox churches in Novgorod and Pskov as this architectural style was seen as politically neutral and hence able to bring the communities together better. Both left-wing and right-wing émigrés who otherwise passionately disagreed came together to honor the war dead of World War I, which was virtually the only occasions when overseas Russian communities could all come together, explaining why such memorial services were so important to
25012-416: The war. Between 1934 and 1936, an ossuary containing the bones of Russian soldiers killed all over the world was built in the Novo Groblje cemetery in Belgrade, which used to illustrate the theme of Serbian-Russian friendship, and which King Alexander contributed 5,000 dinars to meet the construction costs. When the memorial was opened in 1936, the Patriarch Varnava of the Serbian Orthodox Church declared in
25181-531: The withdrawal of the Swedish missionaries came with the enactment of Shariah on March 16, 1933. In the name of Islam, Uyghur leader Amir Abdullah Bughra violently assaulted the Yarkand-based Swedish missionaries and sought to execute them; however, they were ultimately banished due to the British who interceded in their favor. The East Turkestan Republic, having banished the Swedish missionaries, tortured and jailed Christian converts, mainly Kirghiz and Uighurs. Muslims who had converted to Christianity were beheaded at
25350-415: The women were used to further spread the use of opium among the Chinese population by earning one free opium pipe for every six they were selling to Chinese customers. Japanese scientists conducted human experiments on White Russian men, women and children by gassing, injecting and vivisecting them in Unit 731 and Unit 100. There were multiple Russian victims of Unit 731 and testimonies and records show that
25519-409: The yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan! The Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz formed an independent regime. On February 20, 1933, the Committee for National Revolution set up a provisional Khotan government with Sabit as prime minister and Muhammad Amin Bughra as head of the armed forces. It favored the establishment of an Islamic theocracy. Foreign volunteers who arrived to help
25688-527: The yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan! On 12 November 1933, an independent republic, the Turkic Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan (TIRET; or Republic of Uyghurstan, both names were used at the same time) was proclaimed. This event was organized on Sunday morning in a mass rally on the shore of Tuman River outside of Kashgar with the participation of about 7,000 troops and 13,000 civilians, including teachers and students of schools, who delivered speeches along with appointed "Ministers" of
25857-410: The émigré communities. The neo-classical style which typically adorned war memorials in Imperial Russia was consciously avoided as building a war memorial in that style was viewed as expressing support for restoring the monarchy. The sense of loss was not only for those the war monuments honored, but due to the sense of loss caused by defeat with a columnist in an émigré newspaper in Paris writing about
26026-563: Was a rebellion of Kumulik Uyghurs from 1931 to 1934 who conspired with Hui Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying to overthrow Jin Shuren , governor of Xinjiang. The Kumul Uyghurs were loyalists of the Kumul Khanate and wanted to restore the heir to the Khanate and overthrow Jin. The Kuomintang wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large-scale fighting as Khotanlik Uyghur rebels in southern Xinjiang started
26195-455: Was almost exclusively continued by NTS: other organizations either dissolved, or began concentrating exclusively on self-preservation and/or educating the youth. Various youth organizations, such as the Scouts-in-Exile became functional in raising children with a background in pre-Soviet Russian culture and heritage. The white émigrés formed the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad in 1924. The church continues its existence to this day, acting as both
26364-437: Was being systematically planned by prominent Kumulliks. Camels and mules were requisitioned to transport weapons, ammunition and stocks of food over little-known tracks to two former summer Khan's palaces in Aratam on the foot of Karlik Tagh Mountains and one at the natural fortress of Bardash set high in Karlik Tagh. The final straw was in April 1931 when an ethnic Chinese officer and tax collector named Chang Mu wished to marry
26533-456: Was colluding with the Japanese. Ma Zhongying publicly declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang at Nanjing. Ma himself was given permission by the Kuomintang to invade Xinjiang. The explicitly Islamic East Turkestan Republic forcibly ejected the Swedish missionaries and was openly hostile to Christianity while espousing a Muslim Turkic ideology. The Bughras implemented Shariah law and ejected the Khotan-based Swedish missionaries . Their demand for
26702-479: Was easily taken, as were other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces retreated to Urumqi. Ground was alternately gained and lost by both sides. During this time Ma's forces became notorious for their cruelty to both Turkic and Chinese inhabitants, destroying the economy and engaging in wholesale looting and burning of villages. Once seen as a liberator by the Turkic population, which had suffered greatly under Jin Shuren, many Turkic inhabitants of
26871-457: Was espoused by the Committee for National Revolution . The Bughras applied Shari'a while ejecting the Khotan-based Swedish missionaries. They demanded the withdrawal of the Swedish missionaries while enacting Shariah on 16 March 1933. In the name of Islam, the Uyghur leader Amir Abdullah Bughra violently physically assaulted the Yarkand-based Swedish missionaries and would have executed them all, but they ended up only being banished thanks to
27040-465: Was established at Hami under the proud title of King of the Gobi. Jin Shuren, pressed for funding and swamped with Han refugees fleeing the warlordism elsewhere , decided to annex the Khanate to seize its revenues and use its lands to take in refugees. The newly subjected Kumulliks' land was expropriated by the Provincial government and given to Han Chinese settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931, and many Han Chinese were massacred by
27209-414: Was not confined to the ethnic Uyghur population alone; Kazakhs , Kyrgyz , Han and Hui commanders all joined in revolt against Jin's rule, though they would occasionally break to fight one another. The Soviet government further complicated the situation by dispatching troops to come to the aid of Jin and his military commander Sheng Shicai , as did White Russian refugees from the Soviet Union living in
27378-423: Was officially appointed commanding officer of the New 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed. Jin bought two biplanes from the Soviet Union in September 1931 at 40,000 Mexican silver dollars each. They were equipped with machine guns and bombs and flown by Russian pilots. He signed
27547-417: Was planned, taking Sheng completely by surprise, hiddenly approaching the city from the hills on the west and first capturing the telegraph station and aerodrome, then started besieging the city, completely isolating it from suburbs. But the fact, that in the crucial moment of besieging of Ürümqi Ma Zhongying didn't receive the promised help from Zhang Peiyuan's Ili Army, was the reason of Ma's failure to capture
27716-443: Was staunchy anti-Soviet, and executed by demand of Apresov, replacing him by "neutral" General Bekteyev as Commander-in chief of three White Russian Regiments of Xinjiang Provincial Army, thus paving the way for a Soviet invasion. Zhang Peiyuan, a Han Chinese General, who commanded Han Chinese troops in Ili , conducted negotiations with Ma Zhongying and planned to join him on the attack on Ürümqi in January 1934. Initially Zhang seized
27885-506: Was subject to an assassination attempt which forced him to seek medical care in the Soviet Union. Conflict began brewing when Liu Bin, unaware of Muslim sensitivities, put up a picture of republican China's founder Sun Yat-sen in the Id-gar mosque of Old Kashgar, while pro-Soviet Kyrgyz under Uyghur communist Qadir Beg took over local policing. They implemented a reformed education curriculum based on importing teachers from Soviet Central Asia. Local Uyghurs began disenchanted, seeing these moves as
28054-416: Was the origin of the Hindu diaspora there. The slaughter of the Hindus from India was called the "Karghalik Outrage". The Muslims had killed 9 of them. The forced removal of the Swedes was accompanied by slaughter of the Hindus in Khotan by the Islamic Turkic rebels. The Emirs of Khotan slaughtered the Hindus as they forced the Swedes out and declared Shariah in Khotan on 16 March 1933. The National Army of
28223-415: Was the state run media of the East Turkestan Republic. The Abdulbaqi lead government used the Swedish Mission Press to print and distribute the media. The Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkestan's constitution mandated Islam as the official religion of the Republic, while guaranteeing religious freedom for all people. The safety of the usurers and merchants of Hindu background from India were guaranteed by
28392-407: Was transpiring, in the nearby southern Tarim Basin city of Khotan , three brothers of rich Bughra family, Muhammad Amin Bughra , Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmadjan Bughra , educated in the jadidist tradition, in February 1933 had led a rebellion of gold miners who worked in Surghak mines near Keriya city, also in Yurunkash and Karakash mountain rivers, and established themselves as emirs of
28561-494: Was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October in a battle in which Jin's force included 250 White Russian troops whom he had recruited from the Ili valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War ), Ma withdrew his forces to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French , whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave
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