The Kurtna Lake District is located in north-eastern Estonia . It consists of about 40 lakes within an area of 30 hectares . The lakes were formed while the area was glaciated.
135-611: The Kurtna Landscape Protection Area was established in (1987) 2005 to preserve region ecology. Total 2820 ha are under protection. The composition of the lake waters has changed due to the district's proximity to the oil shale industry in Estonia . This Ida-Viru County location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Oil shale in Estonia There are two kinds of oil shale in Estonia , both of which are sedimentary rocks laid down during
270-443: A salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 grams (1.2 oz) of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium ( Na ) and chloride ( Cl ) ions ). The average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 °C (39 °F)) because
405-487: A 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis , claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply. During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably France, in
540-467: A balance of minerals within their diet, but it also impacts the amount of iron that is regenerated back into the ocean. The whale's excretions also contain the absorbed iron which would allow iron to be reinserted into the ocean’s ecosystem. Overall, one mineral deficiency such as iron in the Southern Ocean can spark a significant chain of disturbances within the marine ecosystems which demonstrates
675-478: A chemical/ tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts . Climate change , rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere , excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry . Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in
810-580: A day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40% water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation could not be given. In his 1948 book The Kon-Tiki Expedition , Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in
945-480: A decade before the industry emerged in China, which, besides Estonia, is today the other leading oil shale-exploiting country. In 1916 a total of 640–690 tonnes of oil shale were sent to Saint Petersburg for testing. The tests proved that the oil shale was suitable for combustion as a solid fuel and for extraction of oil shale gas and shale oil. Based on these promising results, a plan for oil shale mining in Estonia
1080-524: A decrease in the consumption of electricity and thus a decrease in the need for the oil shale that was mined to produce it. Electricity and shale oil export to former Soviet markets largely ceased. Due to a decrease in demand, the Tammiku and Sompa mines closed in 1999 and those at Kohtla and Ahtme closed in 2001. In 1995, state-owned shale oil producers in Kohtla-Järve and Kiviõli were merged into
1215-474: A hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica. The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on
1350-594: A litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million." Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column , as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in
1485-534: A low-grade fuel. Its use in industry commenced in 1916. Production of shale oil began in 1921 and oil shale was first used to generate electrical power in 1924. Shortly thereafter, systematic research into oil shale and its products began, and in 1938 a department of mining was established at Tallinn Technical University . After World War II , Estonian oil shale gas was used in Saint Petersburg (then called Leningrad) and in northern cities in Estonia as
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#17327978098311620-443: A marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life . The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides , often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers. Pandoravirus salinus ,
1755-413: A more sustainable water supply from seawater. Although desalination also comes with environmental concerns, such as costs and resources, researchers are working closely to determine more sustainable practices, such as creating more productive water plants that can deal with larger water supplies in areas where these plans weren't always available. Although seawater extractions can benefit society greatly, it
1890-578: A new mining and shale oil extraction complex in Ahtme , but it never became operational. Prisoners of war and forced labour made up about two-thirds of the work force in these units. While Soviet troops were advancing into Estonia during 1944 , about 200 Estonian oil shale specialists were evacuated to Schömberg , Germany, to work at an oil shale industry there, codenamed Operation Desert ( Unternehmen Wüste ) . Shale oil extraction plants in Estonia were destroyed and mines were ignited or inundated by
2025-506: A permit to start oil-shale mining in Narva by using underground longwall mining technology. The third open-pit mine, operated by Kunda Nordic Tsement which belongs to German HeidelbergCement group, is located at Ubja. Enefit Power and VKG Oil plan to open jointly a new mine in Oandu . In 2020, 2,225 GWh or 40.3% of Estonia's electricity was generated from oil shale and 748 GWh or 13.6%
2160-405: A plan to build additional oil plant by 2023. At the same time, it cancelled a shale oil pre-refinery project developed jointly with Viru Keemia Grupp. In spring 2021, the government coalition of Estonian Reform Party and Estonian Centre Party put a political target in their coalition agreement to stop oil shale power generation by 2035 and using oil shale in the entire energy sector by 2040 at
2295-570: A result of these inquiries, the Society received information about a combustible mineral found at the Kohala Manor near Rakvere . According to the landlord of the Kohala estate, Baron Fabian Reinhold Ungern-Sternberg, the 'burning rock' was discovered at a depth of about ten meters when a spring was opened on the slope of a sandy hump, as it was during the digging of a well some years earlier on
2430-511: A salinity of 35 g/kg. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes , starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets . Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into
2565-531: A secret order stating that "development and utilisation of Estonian oil shale industry is the most important military-economic task in the territories of the former Baltic states". On 21 June 1943, Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler issued an order to send as many male Jews as possible to the oil shale mining. Baltische Öl consisted of five units (Kiviõli, Küttejõu, Kohtla-Järve, Sillamäe, and Kohtla), all of which were partially restored, previously existing industries. In addition, Baltische Öl started construction of
2700-663: A shale oil extraction plant that was abandoned in 1931 due to technical problems. The Swedish–Norwegian consortium Eestimaa Õlikonsortsium ( Swedish : Estländska Oljeskifferkonsortiet , English: Estonian Oil Consortium ), controlled by Marcus Wallenberg , was founded in Sillamäe in 1926. New Consolidated Gold Fields Ltd. of the United Kingdom built a shale oil extraction plant at Kohtla-Nõmme in 1931. This facility continued to operate until 1961. In 1934, Eesti Kiviõli and New Consolidated Gold Fields established
2835-473: A single trainload of oil shale had been mined and sent to Germany. After Estonia gained independence , the state owned oil shale enterprise, Riigi Põlevkivitööstus (English: Estonian State Oil Shale Industry ), was established as a department of the Ministry for Trade and Industry on 24 November 1918. The enterprise, later named Esimene Eesti Põlevkivitööstus (English: First Estonian Oil Shale Industry ),
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#17327978098312970-472: A solid residue of oil shale. In 1968, a branch of the Skochinsky Institute of Mining was established in Kohtla-Järve, and in 1984 the scientific-technical journal Oil Shale was founded in Estonia. In the 1990s, after Estonia regained independence, the country underwent a restructuring of the economy, causing the collapse of a large part of the heavy industry sector. This collapse led to
3105-489: A species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus , Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus , and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure. In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting
3240-463: A strategic energy resource in Estonia and the oil shale industry in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world. Historically, most of mined oil shale was used for electricity generation . Of all the oil shale fired power stations in the world, the two largest are in Estonia. Although its share decreased in the decade to 2022, direct and indirect use of oil shale still generates about half of Estonia's electricity . About half of mined oil shale
3375-618: A substitute for natural gas . Increased need for electricity in the north-west of the Soviet Union led to the construction of large oil shale-fired power stations . Oil shale extraction peaked in 1980. Subsequently, the launch of nuclear reactors in Russia, particularly the Leningrad Nuclear Power Station , reduced demand for electricity produced from oil shale, and, along with a post-Soviet restructuring of
3510-474: A substitute for natural gas in Saint Petersburg (then known as Leningrad) and in northern Estonian cities. It was the first time in history that synthetic gas from oil shale was used in households. To enable delivery of the gas, a 200-kilometre (120 mi) pipeline from Kohtla-Järve to Saint Peterburg was built, followed by a 150-kilometre (93 mi) pipeline from Kohtla-Järve to Tallinn. During
3645-435: Is a marine -type of black shale , belonging to the marinite -type of oil shales. Although the name dictyonema argillite is widely used instead of graptolitic argillite, it is now considered a misnomer as the graptolite fossils in the rock, earlier considered dictyonemids, were reclassified during the 1980s as members of the genus Rhabdinopora . Graptolitic argillite was formed some 480 million years ago during
3780-557: Is about 1000 mOsm/L. Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life . Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used,
3915-507: Is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia . Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed
4050-448: Is an indicator that krill is in whale diets. Antarctic krill had an average iron level of 174.3mg/kg dry weight, but the iron in the krill varied from 12 to 174 mg/kg dry weight. The average iron concentration of the muscular tissue of blue whales and fin whales was 173 mg/kg dry weight, which demonstrates that the large marine mammals are important to marine ecosystems such as they are to the Southern Ocean. In fact, to have more whales in
4185-534: Is as yet no economical and environmentally friendly technology to extract either the metals or the oil. Kukersite is a light-brown marine-type Late Ordovician oil shale formed some 460 million years ago. It was named kuckers by the Baltic German geologist Carl Friedrich Schmidt in the mid-19th century, and kukersite by the Russian paleobotanist Mikhail Zalessky in 1916. The name reflects
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4320-584: Is based on a misinterpretation of the German word Steinöhl (meaning: stone oil), which was used by Hupel but which most likely did not mean oil shale in the context of his publication. In the second half of the 18th century, the St. Petersburg Free Economic Society started to search for information about combustible minerals which as fuels would replace the decreasing stock of trees in the European part of Russia. As
4455-679: Is between 65 and 67%, and its Fischer Assay oil yield is 30 to 47%. The principal organic component of kukersite is telalginite , which originated from the fossil green alga Gloeocapsomorpha prisca , deposited in a shallow marine basin. Kukersite lies at depths of 7 to 170 metres (23 to 558 ft). The most significant kukersite deposits in Estonia ;– the Estonian and the Tapa ;– cover about 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometres (1,200 to 1,900 sq mi), and together with
4590-509: Is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography . There is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water,
4725-476: Is considered a superior taste. A restaurant run by Joaquín Baeza sources as much as 60,000 litres a month from supplier Mediterranea Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles , and seabirds , such as penguins and albatrosses , have adapted to living in a high-saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts . Minerals have been extracted from seawater since ancient times. Currently
4860-557: Is crucial to consider the environmental impact and to ensure that all extractions are conducted in a way that acknowledges and considers the associated risks to the sustainability of seawater ecosystems. ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater : ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation. The minerals found in seawater can also play an important role in
4995-421: Is not easily accessible. Although it is not typical to use salt water as a means to grow plants as the salt gathers and ruins the surrounding soil, it has been proven to be successful in sand and gravel soils. Large-scale desalination of seawater is another factor that would contribute to the success of agriculture farming in dry, desert environments. One of the most successful plants in salt water agriculture
5130-482: Is often reported that 18th-century naturalist and explorer Johann Anton Güldenstädt had mentioned a discovery of a "burning rock" near Jõhvi in 1725, but his published travel notes mention neither oil shale nor Estonia. It is also often reported that the earliest documented record of oil shale in Estonia, authored by the Baltic German publicist and linguist August Wilhelm Hupel , dates to 1777. However, this
5265-518: Is only 5–8 megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg; 1,200–1,900 kcal/kg) and its Fischer Assay oil yield is 3–5%. However, the graptolitic argillite resource in Estonia contains a potential 2.1 billion tonnes of oil. In addition, it contains 5.67 million tonnes of uranium – making it one of the main potential sources of uranium in Europe – 16.53 million tonnes of zinc , and 12.76 million tonnes of molybdenum . There
5400-523: Is the Red Sea , where high rates of evaporation , low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still – about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea . Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale
5535-399: Is the halophyte . The halophyte is a salt tolerant plant whose cells are resistant to the typically detrimental effects of salt in soil. The endodermis forces a higher level of salt filtration throughout the plant as it allows for the circulation of more water through the cells. The cultivation of halophytes irrigated with salt water were used to grow animal feed for livestock ; however,
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5670-593: Is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units. Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. monsoon ), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea
5805-440: Is used to produce shale oil , a type of synthetic oil extracted from oil shale by pyrolysis , which is sufficient to keep Estonia as the second largest shale oil producer in the world after China. In addition, oil shale and its products are used in Estonia for district heating and as a feedstock material for the cement industry. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Estonian oil shale was described by several scientists and used as
5940-453: The Age of Sail . Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson 's HMS Victory , were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys . The natural sea salt obtained by evaporating seawater can also be collected and sold as table salt , typically sold separately owing to its unique mineral make-up compared to rock salt or other sources. A number of regional cuisines across
6075-550: The Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor. Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half
6210-615: The Early Ordovician under a marine environment. In mainland Estonia, it occurs at the foot of the North Estonian Klint , ranging from the Pakri Peninsula to Narva in an area covering about 11,000 square kilometres (4,200 sq mi). When findings in the western Estonian islands are included, its extent increases to about 12,200 square kilometres (4,700 sq mi). The thickness of
6345-492: The International Energy Agency , Estonia should adopt the energy strategy in order to reduce the share of oil shale in the primary energy supply by improving the efficiency of shale-fired power stations and increasing the use of other energy sources such as renewable energy. Seawater Seawater , or sea water , is water from a sea or ocean . On average, seawater in the world's oceans has
6480-492: The Ordovician geologic period . Graptolitic argillite is the larger oil shale resource , but, because its organic matter content is relatively low, it is not used industrially. The other is kukersite , which has been mined for more than a hundred years. Kukersite deposits in Estonia account for 1% of global oil shale deposits . Oil shale ( Estonian : põlevkivi ; literally 'burning rock') has been defined as
6615-697: The Russian SFSR , particularly the Leningrad Nuclear Power Station . At the end of 1988, a fire broke out in the Estonia Mine. The largest underground fire in Estonia, it continued for 81 days and caused serious pollution of ground and surface waters. The shale oil industry at Kohtla-Järve and Kiviõli was redeveloped. In 1945, the first tunnel kiln was restored, and by the end of the 1940s four tunnel kilns located in Kiviõli and Kohtla-Nõmme had been restored. German prisoners of war contributed most of
6750-615: The Singing Revolution , met with strong local opposition and was never implemented. Between 1946 and 1952, uranium compounds were extracted from locally mined graptolitic argillite at the Sillamäe Processing Plant (now: Silmet ). More than 60 tonnes of uranium compounds (corresponding to 22.5 tonnes of elemental uranium) were produced. Some sources note that uranium produced in Sillamäe
6885-599: The Tallinn Power Station switched to oil shale. In 1933, it reached a capacity of 22 megawatts (MW). Other oil shale-fired power stations were built in Püssi (3.7 MW), Kohtla (3.7 MW), Kunda (2.3 MW), and Kiviõli (0.8 MW). At the beginning of World War II, the total capacity of oil shale-fired power stations was 32.5 MW. Only the Tallinn and Püssi power stations were connected to
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#17327978098317020-535: The grid . On 9 May 1922 the first international discussion of Estonian kukersite took place at the 64th meeting of the Institution of Petroleum Technologists. Systematic research into oil shale and its products began at Tartu University's Oil Shale Research Laboratory in 1925, initiated by professor Paul Kogerman . In 1937, the Geological Committee under the Ministry of Economic Affairs, and
7155-454: The oil and gas released from the operation of merchant ships decreases the air quality and causes more pollution both in the seawater and surrounding areas. Another human use of seawater that has been considered is the use of seawater for agricultural purposes. In areas with higher regions of sand dunes , such as Israel , the use of seawater for irrigation of plants would eliminate substantial costs associated with fresh water when it
7290-552: The percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium , sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity
7425-401: The room and pillar mining method. Oil shale mined at Ojamaa is transported to the processing plant by a unique 13-kilometre (8.1 mi) conveyor belt . Although there are similar conveyors in operation in other countries, the one at Ojamaa is an unusually challenging installation since its path contains many curves and sharp turns. The Narva open-pit mine is operated by Enefit Power, and
7560-540: The 1950s, unsuccessful tests of oil shale underground gasification were conducted at Kiviõli. In 1962 and 1963, the conversion of oil shale gas into ammonium was tested; however, for industrial production, oil shale gas was replaced with natural gas. Although this gas had become uneconomical by 1958, production continued and was even expanded. After peaking in 1976 at 597.4 million cubic metres (21.10 × 10 ^ cu ft), oil shale gas production ceased in 1987. In total, 276 generators were operated for
7695-484: The 1960s, but only a few grams of uranium were extracted in Japan in the late 1990s. The main issue is not one of technological feasibility but that current prices on the uranium market for uranium from other sources are about three to five times lower than the lowest price achieved by seawater extraction. Similar issues hamper the use of reprocessed uranium and are often brought forth against nuclear reprocessing and
7830-538: The 19th century. In the beginning of the 20th century, geologist and engineer Carl August von Mickwitz studied self-ignition of graptolitic argillite near Paldiski . At the University of Tartu oil shale geology and chemistry analyses were conducted during the 19th century by Georg Paul Alexander Petzholdt, Alexander Gustav von Schrenk, and Carl Ernst Heinrich Schmidt , among others. Analysis of Estonian oil shale resources and mining possibilities intensified during
7965-687: The 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries. Like any other type of raw or contaminated water , seawater can be evaporated or filtered to eliminate salt, germs, and other contaminants that would otherwise prevent it from being considered potable . Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator , or, more recently, reverse osmosis . These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during
8100-523: The Baltic German geologist Gregor von Helmersen published a detailed description of the deposits of kukersite in Vanamõisa and graptolitic argillite in Keila-Joa . In 1838 he made a thorough experiment to distil oil from the Vanamõisa oil shale deposit. During the 1850s, large-scale works were undertaken in Estonia to transform excessively wet land into land suitable for agriculture; this included
8235-594: The Estonian territory. This entity was subordinated to Kontinentale Öl , a company that had exclusive rights to oil production in German-occupied territories . The primary purpose of the industry was production of oil for the German Army . In 1943, after the German troops retreated from the Caspian oil region, Estonian oil shale became increasingly important. On 16 March 1943, Hermann Göring issued
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#17327978098318370-501: The German name for Kukruse Manor , where oil shale samples were obtained. Kukersite deposits in Estonia are the world's second highest-grade oil shale deposits after the Australian torbanite . Its organic content varies from 15% to 55%, averaging over 40%. Correspondingly, its mean calorific value is 15 MJ/kg (3,600 kcal/kg). The conversion ratio of its organic content into usable energy (shale oil and oil shale gas)
8505-661: The Government transferred its remained shares in Eesti Põlevkivi to a state-owned company Eesti Energia, a parent company of the Narva Power Stations, and Eesti Põlevkivi became a fully owned subsidiary of Eesti Energia. Oil shale production started to increase again in the beginning of the 21st century. In 2000, the open-pit mines at Viivikonna, Sirgala and Narva were merged into the single Narva open-pit mine. Since 2003, several new mines were opened:
8640-521: The Institute of Natural Resources, an independent academic institution, were established. A department of mining was established at Tallinn Technical University in 1938. Estonian oil shale industries conducted tests of oil shale samples from Australia , Bulgaria , Germany and South Africa . Soon after the Soviet occupation in 1940, the entire oil shale industry was nationalised and subordinated to
8775-528: The Kohtla-Järve shale oil combinate ( Russian : Сланцехим , now Viru Keemia Grupp) under the General Directorate of Synthetic Liquid Fuel and Gas of the USSR ( Glavgaztopprom ). Both organisations were directed from Moscow. New mines were opened in Ahtme (1948), Jõhvi (No. 2, 1949), Sompa (1949), Tammiku (1951), and in the area between Käva and Sompa (No. 4, 1953). The Küttejõu open-pit mine
8910-590: The Kukruse area, concluded it made sense to use oil shale for the production of gas and as a solid fuel. However, he considered shale oil production unprofitable. During the remainder of the 19th century oil shale was used locally as a low-grade fuel only. For example, in the 1870s, Robert von Toll, landlord of the Kukruse Manor, started to use oil shale as a fuel for the manor's distillery. There were failed attempts to use graptolitic argillite as fertilizer in
9045-635: The Leningrad deposit (an extension of the Estonian) form the Baltic Oil Shale Basin . The Estonian deposit, which covers about 2,000 square kilometres (770 sq mi), is used industrially. It consists of 23 exploration and mining fields. The Tapa deposit is not accounted as a reserve due to its lower calorific value, which makes its extraction economically inexpedient. In northern Estonia there are 50 layers of kukersite;
9180-534: The Mining Office and later to the General Directorate of Mining and Fuel Industry of the Peoples' Commissariat for Light Industry. Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 and the industry's infrastructure was largely destroyed by retreating Soviet forces. During the subsequent German occupation , the industry was merged into a company named Baltische Öl GmbH. Baltische Öl became the largest industry in
9315-412: The Narva Power Stations, the largest consumer of oil shale in Estonia. As a part of the deal, 51% of the government-owned shares in the oil shale mining company Eesti Põlevkivi was transferred to the Narva Power Stations. The proposed deal with NRG Energy met a strong public and political opposition and was cancelled after NRG Energy failed the deadline to secure financing for the project. Consequently,
9450-684: The Narva Power Stations. Construction of the Auvere Power Station, located next to the existing Eesti Power Station, began in 2012. In the end of 2012, the Ahtme Power Station was closed. In 2008, Eesti Energia established a joint venture, Enefit Outotec Technology, with the Finnish technology company Outotec . The venture sought to develop and commercialise a modified Galoter process–the Enefit process–that would enhance
9585-671: The Põhja-Kiviõli open-pit mine in 2003, the Ubja open-pit mine in 2005, and the Ojamaa underground mine in 2010. By 2006, after 90 years of major mining in Estonia, the total amount of mined oil shale reached one billion tonnes. The exhausted Aidu open-pit mine was closed in 2012, followed a year later by the Viru underground mine. In 2004, two power units with circulating fluidised bed combustion boilers were put into operation at
9720-433: The Põhja-Kiviõli open-pit mine is operated by privately owned Kiviõli Keemiatööstus. Both mines use highly selective extraction in three layers of seams. The Narva mine uses a technology that involves breaking up both the overburden and the targeted deposits by blasting and then stripping the rock with relatively large-bucket (10–35 cubic metres or 350–1,240 cubic feet) excavators . The company has applied and received
9855-468: The Russian geologist Nikolay Pogrebov oversaw mining of the first tonnes of oil shale at Pavandu and delivered it to Saint Petersburg (then Petrograd) Polytechnic Institute for large-scale experiments. These events marking the beginning of the Estonian oil shale industry took place more than half a century after an oil shale industry had emerged in Scotland, the leading oil shale industry in 1916, and
9990-432: The amount of iron that can be recycled and stored in seawater. A positive feedback loop is created, increasing the overall productivity of marine life in the Southern Ocean. Organisms of all sizes play a significant role in the balance of marine ecosystems with both the largest and smallest inhabitants contributing equally to recycling nutrients in seawater. Prioritizing the recovery of whale populations because they boost
10125-415: The animals that were fed these plants consumed more water than those that did not. Although agriculture from use of saltwater is still not recognized and used on a large scale, initial research has shown that there could be an opportunity to provide more crops in regions where agricultural farming is not usually feasible. Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if
10260-537: The assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material. While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli , Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera , hepatitis A , hepatitis E and polio , along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis . These pathogens are routinely present in
10395-404: The ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas the speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 101.3 kPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and
10530-424: The condition of the sea post-extraction, and constant monitoring. The use of technology, such as underwater drones , can facilitate sustainable extractions. The use of low-carbon infrastructure would also allow for more sustainable extraction processes while reducing the carbon footprint from mineral extractions. Another practice that is being considered closely is the process of desalination in order to achieve
10665-404: The contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. The salinity of Baltic surface water, however, is never 2%. It is 0.9% or less, and thus never higher than that of bodily fluids. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration
10800-433: The density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m . Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m . The pH value at
10935-422: The digging of drainage ditches. In the process, previously unknown layers of oil shale were discovered in several locations. In the years 1850–1857, the territory of Estonia was explored by the Baltic German geologist Carl Friedrich Schmidt who studied these findings of oil shale. Russian chemist Aleksandr Shamarin, who at the end of the 1860s had studied the composition and properties of oil shale originating from
11070-495: The direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline , but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli -like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by
11205-419: The dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C (28 °F). The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier : the measured temperature was −2.6 °C (27.3 °F). Seawater pH
11340-487: The early 20th century while Estonia was part of the Russian Empire . Industrial development was under way in Saint Petersburg (known as Petrograd in 1914–24), but regional fuel resources were in short supply. A large shale oil extraction plant for processing Estonian oil shale was proposed in 1910. The outbreak of World War I , coupled with a fuel supply crisis, accelerated the pace of the research. In June 1916,
11475-505: The evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere. Some bacteria interact with diatoms , and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis , plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulfide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in
11610-718: The existing technology by using circulating fluidised beds . In 2013, Enefit Outotec Technology opened an Enefit testing plant in Frankfurt . Kiviõli Keemiatööstus began to test two Galoter-type retorts in 2006. Eesti Energia opened a new generation Galoter-type plant using Enefit 280 technology in 2012. VKG Oil opened three new Galoter-type oil plants called Petroter correspondingly in December 2009, in October 2014, and in November 2015. In 2020, Eesti Energia announced
11745-554: The former between 1959 and 1971 and the latter between 1969 and 1973. The stations, collectively known as the Narva Power Stations , are the world's two largest oil shale-fired power stations. In 1988 Moscow-based authorities planned a third oil shale-fired power station in Narva with a capacity of 2,500 MW, together with a new mine at Kuremäe . The plan, disclosed at the time of the Phosphorite War and
11880-530: The four most concentrated metals – Na , Mg , Ca and K – are commercially extracted from seawater. During 2015 in the US 63% of magnesium production came from seawater and brines. Bromine is also produced from seawater in China and Japan. Lithium extraction from seawater was tried in the 1970s, but the tests were soon abandoned. The idea of extracting uranium from seawater has been considered at least from
12015-578: The gas production. In 1949, the 48 MW Kohtla-Järve Power Station – the first power station in the world to use pulverised oil shale at an industrial scale – was commissioned, followed by the 72.5 MW Ahtme Power Station in 1951. To ensure sufficient electricity supply in Estonia, Latvia and north-west Russia, the Balti Power Station (1,430 MW) and the Eesti Power Station (1,610 MW) were built,
12150-528: The historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity , reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources. One of
12285-579: The impact of the oil shale industry transition. The oil shale industry in Estonia is one of the most developed in the world. The National Development Plan for the Utilisation of Oil Shale 2016–2030 describes oil shale as a strategic resource. Estonia is the only country in the world that uses oil shale as its primary energy source. In 2018, oil shale accounted for 72% of Estonia's total domestic energy production and supplied 73% of Estonia's total primary energy . About 7,300 people (over 1% of
12420-458: The important role that seawater plays in the food chain . Upon further analysis of the dynamic relationship between diatoms, krill, and baleen whales, fecal samples of baleen whales were examined in Antarctic seawater. The findings included that iron concentrations were 10 million times higher than those found in Antarctic seawater, and krill was found consistently throughout their feces which
12555-764: The industry in the 1990s, led to a decrease in oil shale mining. After decreasing for two decades, oil shale mining started to increase again at the beginning of the 21st century. Most oil-shale fuelled electricity generation is planned to be phased out by 2030. The industry continues to have a serious impact on the environment producing ordinary and hazardous waste and greenhouse gas emissions , lowering groundwater levels, altering water circulation , and spoiling water quality. Leachates from waste heaps pollute surface and groundwater. Former and current oil shale mines cover about one percent of Estonia's territory. Estonian graptolitic argillite (also known as dictyonema argillite, dictyonema oil shale, dictyonema shale or alum shale)
12690-655: The labour. Between 1946 and 1963, 13 Kiviter-type retorts were built in Kohtla-Järve and eight in Kiviõli. In 1947, a pilot Galoter retort was built at the Ilmarine engineering plant in Tallinn. This unit, in operation until 1956, was capable of processing 2.5 tonnes of oil shale per day and was used for modelling the next generation of commercial-scale retorts. The first Galoter-type commercial-scale pilot retorts were built at Kiviõli in 1953 and 1963 with capacities of 200 and 500 tonnes of oil shale per day, respectively. The first of these retorts closed in 1963 and
12825-408: The largest oil shale mine in the world. Because of the success of oil shale-based power generation, Estonian oil shale mining peaked in 1980 at 31.35 million tonnes, and in the same year power generation peaked at 18.9 TWh. The industry declined during the subsequent two decades. Demand for electric power generated from oil shale decreased following construction of nuclear power stations in
12960-571: The latest. Shortly after, Eesti Energia announced it will stop burning oil shale for electricity generation by 2025 and burning oil shale gas by 2030. It will close older type shale oil plants by 2040 while in newer generation shale oil plants oil shale will be replaced with waste plastics. Estonia is negotiating with the European Commission to receive €340 million support from the Just Transition Fund to mitigate
13095-615: The layer varies from less than 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) to a maximum of 8 metres (26 ft) in western Estonia, and its depth below the surface varies from 10 to 90 metres (33 to 295 ft). Resources of graptolitic argillite in Estonia have been estimated at 60–70 billion tonnes. Although resources of graptolitic argillite exceed that of kukersite, attempts to use it as an energy source have been unsuccessful due to its low calorific value and high sulfur content. Its organic content ranges from 10 to 20% and its sulfur content from 2 to 4%. Correspondingly, its calorific value
13230-453: The levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by mass). In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to
13365-539: The main types of phytoplankton are diatoms which is the primary food source of Antarctic krill . As the cycle continues, various larger sea animals feed off of Antarctic krill, but since there is a shortage of iron from the initial phytoplankton/diatoms, then these larger species also lack iron. The larger sea animals include Baleen Whales such as the Blue Whale and Fin Whale . These whales not only rely on iron for
13500-431: The manufacturing of MOX fuel as economically unviable. In order for seawater mineral and element extractions to take place while taking close consideration of sustainable practices, it is necessary for monitored management systems to be put in place. This requires management of ocean areas and their conditions, environmental planning , structured guidelines to ensure that extractions are controlled, regular assessments of
13635-547: The method developed by Julius Pintsch AG that would later evolve into the current Kiviter processing technology. Along with the shale oil extraction plant, an oil shale research laboratory was founded in 1921. Following the experimental retorts, the first commercial shale oil plant was put into operation on 24 December 1924. The German-owned company Eesti Kiviõli ( German : Estländische Steinöl , English: Estonian Stone Oil , predecessor of Kiviõli Keemiatööstus), affiliated with G. Scheel & Co. and Mendelssohn & Co. ,
13770-401: The most striking features of this is ocean acidification , resulting from increased CO 2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO 2 and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs , mollusks , echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching ). Seawater is a means of transportation throughout the world. Every day plenty of ships cross
13905-639: The negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated. The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner : Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink. Although humans cannot survive on seawater in place of normal drinking water, some people claim that up to two cups
14040-462: The ocean and its ecosystem's food cycle. For example, the Southern Ocean contributes greatly to the environmental carbon cycle . Given that this body of water does not contain high levels of iron , the deficiency impacts the marine life living in its waters. As a result, this ocean is not able to produce as much phytoplankton which hinders the first source of the marine food chain. One of
14175-496: The ocean could heighten the amount of iron in seawater through their excretions which would promote a better ecosystem. Krill and baleen whales act as large iron reservoirs in seawater in the Southern Ocean. Krill can retain up to 24% of iron found on surface waters within its range. The process of krill feeding on diatoms releases iron into seawater, highlighting them as an important part of the ocean's iron cycle . The advantageous relationship between krill and baleen whales increases
14310-415: The ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid ) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents . The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt. Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of
14445-459: The ocean to deliver goods to various locations around the world. Seawater is a tool for countries to efficiently participate in international commercial trade and transportation, but each ship exhausts emissions that can harm marine life, air quality of coastal areas. Seawater transportation is one of the fastest growing human generated greenhouse gas emissions. The emissions released from ships pose significant risks to human health in nearing areas as
14580-416: The ocean's biomass , clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane , an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have
14715-481: The oil shale basin in northeast Estonia was occupied by German troops . During this occupation, mining activities were carried out at Pavandu by the German company Internationales Baukonsortium (English: International Construction Consortium ), including sending oil shale to Germany for research and experimentation. This work used a retort constructed by Julius Pintsch AG , known as a Pintsch generator. In late 1918, German forces left Estonia, by which time no more than
14850-876: The overall productivity in marine ecosystems as well as increasing iron levels in seawater would allow for a balanced and productive system for the ocean. However, a more in depth study is required to understand the benefits of whale feces as a fertilizer and to provide further insight in iron recycling in the Southern Ocean. Projects on the management of ecosystems and conservation are vital for advancing knowledge of marine ecology. Like any mineral extraction practices, there are environmental advantages and disadvantages. Cobalt and Lithium are two key metals that can be used for aiding with more environmentally friendly technologies above ground, such as powering batteries that energize electric vehicles or creating wind power . An environmentally friendly approach to mining that allows for more sustainability would be to extract these metals from
14985-427: The price of oil shale-based gasoline was at least triple that of global gasoline prices, high production and bilateral agreements with Germany facilitated its export. In 1939, Estonia produced 181,000 tonnes of shale oil, including 22,500 tonnes of oil that were suitable gasoline equivalents. The mining and oil industry employed 6,150 persons. The oil shale-fired electrical power industry started in 1924 when
15120-411: The ratio of underground mining to open-pit mining has been approximately even, but usable deposits close to the surface has become scarcer. The Estonia underground mine at Väike-Pungerja , operated by Enefit Power, a subsidiary of Eesti Energia, is the largest oil shale mine in the world. The other underground mine, operated by privately owned Viru Keemia Grupp, is located at Ojamaa . Both mines use
15255-404: The retreating Germans. Existing oil shale-fired power stations were also destroyed. In 1945–1946 the mining industry was merged into Eesti Põlevkivi ( Russian : Эстонсланец , literally: Estonian Oil Shale; now part of Enefit Power ) under the General Directorate of Oil Shale Industry of the USSR ( Glavslanets ). Shale oil extraction, except the Kiviõli and Kohtla-Nõmme plants, was merged into
15390-681: The same slope. This discovery was briefly mentioned in a paper prepared by the German chemist Johann Gottlieb Georgi and presented by the Actual State Councillor Anton-Johann Engelhardt at the meeting of the Society in 1789. The first scientific research into the rock's oil yield, using samples from the village of Vanamõisa of the Kohala Manor, was published by Georgi at the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1791. In 1838 and 1839,
15525-508: The sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle ). Halley noted that most lakes that do not have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea , see endorheic basin ), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering". Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of
15660-421: The seafloor. Lithium mining from the seafloor at mass quantities could provide a substantial amount of renewable metals to promote more environmentally friendly practices in society to reduce humans' carbon footprint . Lithium mining from the seafloor could be successful, but its success would be dependent on more productive recycling practices above ground. There are also risks that come with extracting from
15795-409: The seafloor. Many biodiverse species have long lifespans on the seafloor, which means that their reproduction takes more time. Similarly to fish harvesting from the seafloor, the extraction of minerals in large amounts, too quickly, without proper protocols, can result in a disruption of the underwater ecosystems. Contrarily, this would have the opposite effect and prevent mineral extractions from being
15930-411: The seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine ) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater. The renal system actively regulates
16065-474: The second in 1981. The Narva Oil Plant , annexed to the Eesti Power Station and operating two Galoter-type 3,000-tonnes-per day retorts, was commissioned in 1980. Started as a pilot plant, the process of converting it to a commercial-scale plant took about 20 years. In 1948 an oil shale gas plant in Kohtla-Järve became operational, and for several decades the oil shale gas was used as
16200-653: The service station chain Trustivapaa Bensiini (now: Teboil ) in Finland , which in 1940 sold more shale-oil-derived gasoline in Finland than did the entire conventional gasoline market in Estonia. Since 1935, Estonian shale oil has been supplied to the German Kriegsmarine as a ship fuel. In 1938, 45% of Estonian shale oil was exported, accounting for 8% of Estonia's total exports. Although
16335-400: The single company named RAS Kiviter. In 1997, Kiviter was privatized and a year later it declared insolvency. Its factories in Kohtla-Järve and Kiviõli were sold separately and new oil producers – Viru Keemia Grupp and Kiviõli Keemiatööstus – emerged. In 1995, the Government of Estonia started negotiations with American company NRG Energy to create a joint venture on the basis of
16470-917: The six lowest of these form a 2.5-to-3-metre (8 ft 2 in to 9 ft 10 in) thick mineable bed . In this area kukersite lies near the surface. To the south and west it lies deeper and its thickness and quality decrease. According to the International Energy Agency , Estonia's kukersite represents about 1.1% of global and 17% of European oil shale resources. The total kukersite resources in Estonia are estimated to be about 4.8 billion tonnes, including 1.3 billion tonnes of economically proven and probable reserves. Economically proven and probable reserves consist of mineable deposits with energy ratings of at least 35 gigajoules per square metre and calorific values of at least 8 MJ/kg, located in areas without environmental restrictions. Up to 650 million tonnes of economically proven and probable reserves are designated as recoverable. It
16605-475: The summer of 1917. After the October Revolution , financing ceased and construction stopped. Two private Saint Petersburg firms, established specially for oil shale mining, Böckel & Co. and Mutschnik & Co., which in the fall of 1916 had begun surface mining at Kukruse and Järve, respectively, also terminated their mining activities in 1917. In February 1918, the area surrounding
16740-562: The surface of oceans in pre-industrial time (before 1850) was around 8.2. Since then, it has been decreasing due to a human-caused process called ocean acidification that is related to carbon dioxide emissions : Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05. The pH value of seawater is naturally as low as 7.8 in deep ocean waters as a result of degradation of organic matter in these waters. It can be as high as 8.4 in surface waters in areas of high biological productivity . Measurement of pH
16875-694: The total workforce in Estonia) were employed in the oil shale industry. The state revenue from oil shale production was about €122 million. Estonia has adopted a national development plan that limits the annual mining of oil shale to 20 million tonnes. If mined at this rate, mineable reserves will last for 25–30 years. In 2019, 12.127 million tonnes of oil shale were mined. As of 2021, five oil shale mines are in operation; three are open-pit mines and two are underground mines. The mines are owned by four companies. Several mining companies have applied for permits for opening new mines. Historically,
17010-455: The two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA , enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that
17145-470: The world traditionally incorporate seawater directly as an ingredient, cooking other ingredients in a diluted solution of filtered seawater as a substitute for conventional dry seasonings . Proponents include world-renowned chefs Ferran Adrià and Quique Dacosta , whose home country of Spain has six different companies sourcing filtered seawater for culinary use. The water is marketed as la sal perfecta , "the perfect salt", containing less sodium with what
17280-858: Was closed in 1927 and Vanamõisa mine was closed in 1931. While in 1918 only 16 tonnes and in 1919 only 9,631 tonnes of oil shale were mined, in 1937 the annual output exceeded one million tonnes. In 1940, the annual output reached 1,891,674 tonnes. Initially, oil shale was used primarily in the cement industry, but also for firing locomotive furnaces and as a household fuel. The first major industrial consumers of oil shale were cement factories in Kunda and Aseri . By 1925, all locomotives in Estonia were powered by oil shale. Shale oil production started in Estonia in 1921 when Riigi Põlevkivitööstus built 14 experimental oil shale processing retorts in Kohtla-Järve . These vertical retorts used
17415-650: Was closed in 1947 and the Küttejõu underground mine was merged with the Kiviõli mine in 1951. The Ubja mine was closed in 1959. After construction of large oil shale-fired power stations, demand for oil shale increased and consequently new larger mines were constructed: the underground mines Viru (1965) and Estonia (1972) along with the open-pit mines Sirgala (1963), Narva (1970) and Oktoobri (1974; later named Aidu). Correspondingly, several exhausted smaller mines like Kukruse (1967), Käva (1972), No. 2 (1973), No. 4 (1975), and Kiviõli (1987) were closed. The Estonia Mine became
17550-527: Was established in 1922. By the end of the 1930s, it had become the largest shale oil producer in Estonia. Around the company's mine and oil plant, the Kiviõli settlement (now town) was formed in the same way as the Küttejõu settlement (now district of Kiviõli) formed around the mine owned by Eesti Küttejõud. In 1924, the British investor-owned Estonian Oil Development Syndicate Ltd. (later Vanamõisa Oilfields Ltd.) purchased an open-pit mine in Vanamõisa and opened
17685-504: Was generated from oil shale gas, which is a by-product of the shale oil generation. The share of oil shale in Estonia's electricity generation has decreased significantly over the last decade, and it is set to decrease even more due to the European Union's climate policy as well as the country's recognition of the environmental impact of oil shale-fired power stations and need to diversify the national energy balance. According to
17820-797: Was presented to the Emperor Nicholas II on 3 January 1917. On 13 February 1917, the Council of Ministers of Russia allocated 1.2 million roubles to purchase land and start mining activities. After the February Revolution , the Russian Provisional Government appointed a special commissioner for oil shale purchasing and stockpiling who began preliminary work for the digging of an oil shale mine at Pavandu, with full-scale construction carried out by about 500 workers, including war prisoners, in
17955-425: Was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg". The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m , depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, the salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure,
18090-454: Was the predecessor of Viru Keemia Grupp , one of the current shale oil producers in Estonia. It took over the existing Pavandu open-pit mine, and opened new mines at Vanamõisa (1919), Kukruse (1920), and Käva (1924). Also, several private investors, including investors from abroad, initiated oil shale industries in Estonia by opening mines at Kiviõli (1922), Küttejõu (1925), Ubja (1926), Viivikonna (1936), and Kohtla (1937). Pavandu mine
18225-773: Was used for construction of the first Soviet atomic bomb ; however, this information is not confirmed by the archive materials. An oil shale research institute (now a department within Tallinn University of Technology ) was founded at Kohtla-Järve in 1958. Preliminary research into oil shale-based chemical production began the same year, exploring the potential for the use of oil shale in bitumen , synthetic construction materials, detergents , synthetic leathers , synthetic fibres , plastics , paints , soaps , glues , and pesticides . Between 1959 and 1985, 5.275 billion cubic metres (186.3 × 10 ^ cu ft) of mineral wool were produced from oil shale coke ,
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