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62-492: The literal meaning of the name is "Land of Curonians ". Situated in western Latvia , Courland roughly corresponds to the former Latvian districts of Kuldīga , Liepāja , Saldus , Talsi , Tukums and Ventspils . When combined with Semigallia and Selonia, Courland's northeastern boundary is the Daugava River, which separates it from the regions of Latgale and Vidzeme . To the north, Courland's coast lies along

124-627: A domestic industry. Iron and limestone were the chief minerals; a little amber was found on the coast. The only seaports were Liepāja, Ventspils and Palanga , there being none on the Courland coast of the Gulf of Riga. In 1870 the population was 619,154; in 1897 it was 674,437 (of whom 345,756 were women); in 1906 it was estimated at 714,200. Of the whole, 79% were Latvians , 8.4% Baltic Germans , about 8% Jews , 1.4% Russians , 1% Lithuanians , 1% Poles , and some Livonians . The chief towns of

186-466: A legendary king of Denmark and Sweden, fought against the invading Curonians and Kvens (Kvænir) in the southern part of what today is Sweden: Sigurd Ring (Sigurðr) was not there, since he had to defend his land, Sweden (Svíþjóð), since Curonians (Kúrir) and Kvænir were raiding there. Curonians are mentioned among other participants of the Battle of Brávellir . Grobin (Grobiņa) was the main centre of

248-411: A low and undulating character, with flat and marshy coastlands. The interior features wooded dunes, covered with pine , spruce , birch , and oak , with swamps and lakes, and fertile patches between. Courland's elevation never rises more than 213 metres (699 ft) above sea level. The Jelgava plain divides Courland into two parts, the western side, which is fertile and densely inhabited, except in

310-504: A low position in the social scale. Agriculture was the chief occupation, with the principal crops being rye , barley , oats , wheat , flax , and potatoes . The large estates conducted agriculture with skill and scientific knowledge. Fruit grew well. Excellent breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs were kept. Liepāja and Jelgava operated as the principal industrial centres, with ironworks , agricultural machinery works, tanneries , glass and soap works. Flax spinning took place mostly as

372-672: A new ethnic group, the so-called Curonised Livonians. The Curonians tightly resisted to the Livonian Crusade for a long time, contrary to the Latgallians who accepted Christianity with a light opposition. There are many sources that mention the Curonians in the 13th century when they were involved in the Northern Crusades . In 1210, the Curonians, with eight ships, were attacked by a German crusader fleet on

434-550: A peace treaty with the Germans, and the lands they inhabited thus became known as Vredecuronia or Peace Courland . The southern Curonians, however, continued to resist the invaders. The Curonians did not lay down their arms at that time. They used the famine as a pretext for claiming economical weakness and actually did not permit the monks to enter the country. Later, the Teutonic Order tried to use Curonian cavalry in

496-593: A population of 292,659 making it the least populous of the provinces. ( occupation ) 1940-1941 The Soviet Army occupied Latvia in conformity with the terms of 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 17 June 1940. On 5 August 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the region along with the rest of Latvia which was made a constituent republic of the USSR , the Latvian SSR . At the start of Operation Barbarossa in

558-459: A separate segment of an army. A heavily armed soldier could have a sword, a helmet, a shield and a wide blade axe. Heavily armed troops would make a cavalry platoon. It is still not known what type of ships Curonians used: there are only guesses that it was similar to drakar . During the late Iron Age , the Curonians started to move from southern Courland to the north, assimilating a Finnic people who lived in northern Courland. They then formed

620-604: Is a subsidence basin formed between the Caribbean and South American plates , and is bounded on the north by the coast ranges of Venezuela and the Northern Range of Trinidad, and bounded on the south by the Guayana Shield . This Guayana shield supplied fine-grained clastic sediments , which with the subsidence, formed a regional negative gravity anomaly and growth faults . Oil and gas discoveries from

682-464: Is diversified, based to a large extent on oil and natural gas . It is one of the leading gas-based export centers in the world, being one of the top five exporters of liquefied natural gas and the largest onshore natural gas well was recently discovered in southern Trinidad. This has allowed Trinidad to capitalize on the biggest mineral reserves within its territories. It is an oil-rich country and stable economically. The Venezuela Tertiary Basin

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744-690: Is marked by a fault extending from the El Pilar Fault System in Venezuela. South of this fault is the Northern Basin, or Caroni Syncline , consisting of Tertiary sedimentary rocks unconformably overlying Jurassic and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. South of this basin is the Central Range, consisting of Upper Tertiary sedimentary rocks lying unconformably atop Lower Eocene and Paleocene rocks. South of this range

806-587: Is the Naparima Plain , a thrust belt of Oligocene and Lower Tertiary beds. Hydrocarbon bearing anticlines include those associated with Pitch Lake , Forest Reserve, Point Fortin, Penal, Barrackpore, and Balata Fields. The Los Bajos Fault is a wrench fault , with Lower Pliocene displacement of 6.51 miles, bordered on the north by the Siparia syncline, and on the south by the Erin syncline. Finally,

868-604: Is the highest point in Trinidad. It is part of the Aripo Massif and is located in the Northern Range on the island, northeast of the town of Arima . As of the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, the population was 35.43% Indian , 34.22% African , 7.66% mixed African and East Indian, and 15.16% mixed race . Venezuela has also had a great impact on Trinidad's culture, such as introducing the music style parang to

930-521: Is the larger and more populous of the two major islands of Trinidad and Tobago . The island lies 11 km (6.8 mi) off the northeastern coast of Venezuela and sits on the continental shelf of South America. It is the southernmost island in the West Indies . With an area of 4,768 km (1,841 sq mi), it is also the fifth largest in the West Indies . The original name for

992-871: The Baltic Sea , they remained trapped in what became known as the Courland Pocket , blockaded by the Red Army and by the Red Baltic Fleet. Colonel-General Heinz Guderian , the Chief of the German General Staff , pleaded with Adolf Hitler to allow evacuation of the troops in Courland by sea for use in the defense of Germany. Hitler refused and ordered the Wehrmacht, Waffen-SS, Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine forces in Courland to continue

1054-484: The Courland (Kurzeme) Planning Region , with an area of 13,596 square kilometres (5,249 sq mi) and a population of 301,621 in 2008, includes much of the traditional region. The remainder of Courland is part of the planning regions of Riga and Semigallia (Zemgale) . Curonians The Curonians or Kurs ( Latvian : kurši ; Lithuanian : kuršiai ) were a medieval Baltic tribe living on

1116-563: The Curonians , a pagan tribe, inhabited Courland. The Brethren of the Sword , a German Catholic military order , subdued the Curonians and converted them to Christianity in the first quarter of the 13th century. Thus in 1230, the Curonian king Lammekinus  [ lt ] (Latvian: Lamekins) made peace directly with the papal legate . He accepted baptism , and became a vassal of

1178-553: The Gulf of Riga . On the west it is bordered by the Baltic Sea , and on the south by Lithuania . It lies between 55° 45′ and 57° 45′ North and 21° and 27° East. The name is also found in the Curonian Spit and Lithuanian Karšuvos giria - the Courland wood. The area comprises 27,286 square kilometres (10,535 sq mi), of which 262 square kilometres (101 sq mi) is made up of lakes. The landscape generally has

1240-644: The Livonian crusade , Curonians formed an alliance with the Semigallians , resulting in a joint attack against Riga in 1228. In the same time, according to the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle , Curonians and Samogitians were known as "bad neighbours". In the middle of the 13th century, the Curonian army included lightly armed soldiers who fought with spears, shields, fighting knives and axes, formed into an infantry platoon. Archers constituted

1302-532: The Pliocene Moruga Group include Teak (1968), Samaan (1971), Poui (1972) and Galeota. These fields are mainly faulted anticline traps producing from depths of 1.2 to 4.2 km (0.75 to 2.61 mi) subsea, with Teak possessing a hydrocarbon column almost 1 km (0.62 mi) thick. The Northern Range is an Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous range of metamorphic rocks striking east and dipping south. The range's southern boundary

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1364-547: The Prussian Crusade , but Curonians were reluctant in this forced cooperation and revolted as a result in several cases. In 1260, the Curonians were involved in the Battle of Durbe , one of the biggest battles in Livonia in the 13th century. They were forced to fight on the crusader side. When the battle started, the Curonians abandoned the knights because the knights did not agree to free any Curonians captured from

1426-887: The Southern Range consists of anticlinal folds, including the Rock Dome-Herrera anticline and the Moruga-West Field. East of this Rock Dome are en echelon folds containing the Lizard Springs Field. South of these folds is another fold trend containing the Moruga-East, Guayaguayare, Beach, and Galeota Fields. South of the Morne Diablo-Quinam Erin Field westward is a strongly folded anticline associated with shale diapirism , which extends west southwestward to

1488-618: The Temple in the Sea . The island of Trinidad has a rich biodiversity. The fauna is overwhelmingly of South American origin. There are about 100 species of mammals including the Guyanese red howler monkey, the collared peccary , the red brocket deer , the ocelot and about 70 species of bats . There are over 400 species of birds including the endemic Trinidad piping-guan . Reptiles are well represented, with about 92 recorded species including

1550-459: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 3 March 1918, the new Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic formally relinquished control of Courland to Germany. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was proclaimed on 8 March 1918 by a Baltic German Landesrat , who offered the crown of the duchy to German Kaiser Wilhelm II. Wilhelm recognised the duchy as a German vassal that same month. However, the duchy

1612-716: The Tsardom of Russia during the Livonian War . The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was a semi-independent duchy that existed from 1561 until 1795, encompassing the areas of Courland and Semigallia. Although nominally a vassal state of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , the dukes operated autonomously. In the 18th century, Russia acquired great influence over the Duchy; the future Empress Anna of Russia served as regent there from 1711 until her accession to

1674-536: The 16th century. Curonia, as reported, had its own language, different from the Latvian and Estonian, which is extirpated and prohibited, so that nobody has the right to talk it, and instead has to speak Latvian. Bishop Rimbert of Bremen (lived before 888 AD) in his life of St. Ansgar , Vita Ansgarii described the territory inhabited by the Curonians ( Cori ) and gave the names of the administrative districts or lands ( civitates ): Trinidad Trinidad

1736-636: The Baltic Sea, near the coast of Gotland . The Curonians were victorious and German sources claim that 30 crusaders were killed. Also in July 1210, the Curonians attacked Riga , the main crusader stronghold in Livonia . A huge Curonian fleet arrived in the mouth of the Daugava and besieged the city. However, after a day of fighting, the Curonians were unable to break through the city walls. They crossed to

1798-623: The Curonians are Rimbert's Vita Ansgarii , the Livonian Chronicle of Henry , the Livländische Reimchronik , Egils Saga , and Saxo Grammaticus 's Gesta Danorum . In c.  1075 Adam of Bremen described the Curonians in his Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum ( Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church ) as world-famous pagan diviners: ... gold is very plentiful there, the horses are of

1860-635: The Curonians during the Vendel Age . Chapter 46 of Egils Saga describes one Viking expedition by the Vikings Thorolf and Egill Skallagrímsson in Courland. Curonians established temporary settlements near Riga and in overseas regions including eastern Sweden and the islands of Gotland and Bornholm . Rimbert in his Vita Ansgari described early conflicts between the Curonians and vikings . In 854, Curonians rebelled and refused to pay tribute to Sweden. The rebellious Apuolė fortress

1922-547: The Curonians has been disputed in the past. Some researchers place the Curonians in the eastern Baltic group. Others hold that the Curonians were related to Old Prussians who belonged in the western Baltic group. The historical Curonians were described in contemporary sources as warriors, sailors and pirates. They are on the record having been involved in several wars and alliances with Swedish, Danish and Icelandic Vikings . In c.  750 , according to Norna-Gests þáttr saga from c.  1157 , Sigurd Ring ,

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1984-411: The Curonians paid a silver ransom for each man in the fortress, pledged their loyalty to Sweden, and gave 30 hostages to guarantee future payments. The Curonians had a strong warrior culture and are considered to be eastern Baltic by some researchers, while others believe they were related to Old Prussians who belonged in the western Baltic group. Some of the most important written sources about

2046-645: The Latvian SSR within the Soviet Union following World War II. Courland was no longer an administrative unit under the Soviets. Liepājas apgabals (1952-1953), one of three oblasts in Latvia, roughly corresponded to Courland. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Courland became part of independent Latvia once more and it remains so to this day. Although Courland is not an administrative entity today,

2108-458: The Latvian side during the Livonian War , the descendants of the Curonian nobility , although downgraded to peasant status, fought the Russians, as Johann Renner's chronicle reports: The Russians protected themselves boldly, and they knocked out a Curonian peasant Fenrich (who, although only a peasant, is called by them the Curonian king) from his horse. The Curonian language became extinct by

2170-647: The Russian throne in 1730. After the last of the ducal line into which she had married died in 1737, she arranged for the Duchy to be given to her lover, Ernst Johann von Biron instead. The Duchy was one of the smallest European nations to colonize overseas territories, establishing short-lived outposts on the Caribbean islands of Tobago and Trinidad and at the mouth of the Gambia River in Africa on what

2232-725: The Samogitian camp. Peter von Dusburg alleged that the Curonians even attacked the Knights from the rear. The Estonians and other local people soon followed the Curonians and abandoned the Knights and that allowed the Samogitians to gain victory over the Livonian Order . It was a heavy defeat for the Order and uprisings against the crusaders soon afterwards broke out in the Curonian and Prussian lands. Curonian resistance

2294-688: The aid of German forces pushed back and took back Courland by April. Throughout the Latvian War of Independence , much of Courland remained a German stronghold. Latvia eventually signed a cease-fire with Germany on 15 July 1920, and the Latvian–Soviet Peace Treaty of 11 August ended the war. After World War I, Courland became one of five provinces of the newly formed nation of Latvia . These provinces corresponded to Latvia's four traditional regions plus Riga. In 1935, Courland had an area of 13,210 square kilometres (5,099 sq mi) and

2356-441: The best. All the houses are full of pagan soothsayers, diviners, and necromancers, who are even arrayed in a monastic habit. Oracular responses are sought there from all parts of the world, especially by Spaniards and Greeks. It was common for the Curonians to carry out joint raids and campaigns together with Estonians ( Oeselians ). According to some opinions, they took part in attacking Sweden's main city Sigtuna in 1187. During

2418-466: The commander of the Leningrad Front (reinforced by elements of the 2nd Baltic Front ) on the Courland perimeter. At this time the group consisted of the remnants of some 31 divisions. After May 9, 1945, approximately 203,000 troops of Army Group Courland began to be moved to Soviet prison camps to the east. The majority of them never returned to Germany (Haupt, 1997). Courland remained part of

2480-667: The control of the Imperial German Army 's Ober Ost commander in the person of Paul von Hindenburg , a Prussian military hero. (The Russian authorities of the Courland Governorate were exiled to Tartu , never to return.) With large territories coming under the Ober Ost's administration as a result of military successes on the Eastern Front, General Erich Ludendorff was charged with managing

2542-546: The defense of the area. Germany’s naval capacity to evacuate these forces was restricted as it needed the majority of its transport ships to evacuate troops from East Prussia and maintain vital trade with Sweden. On January 15, 1945, Army Group Courland ( Heeresgruppe Kurland ) formed under Colonel-General Dr. Lothar Rendulic . The blockade by elements of the Leningrad Front remained until May 8, 1945, when Army Group Courland, then under its last commander, Colonel-General Carl Hilpert , surrendered to Marshal Leonid Govorov ,

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2604-617: The hills of the Northern , Central and Southern Ranges (Dinah ranges), the Caroni , Nariva and Oropouche Swamps, and the Caroni and Naparima Plains. Major river systems include the Caroni , North and South Oropouche and Ortoire Rivers . There are many other natural landforms such as beaches and waterfalls. Trinidad has two seasons per the calendar year: the rainy season and the dry season. El Cerro del Aripo , at 940 metres (3,084 ft),

2666-764: The island in the Arawaks' language was Iëre which meant "Land of the Hummingbird". Christopher Columbus renamed it La Isla de la Trinidad ('The Island of the Trinity '), fulfilling a vow he had made before setting out on his third voyage. This has since been shortened to Trinidad . Indo-Trinidadians called the island चीनीदत्त ( Devanagari script ) , 𑂒𑂲𑂢𑂲𑂠𑂞𑂹𑂞 ( Kaithi script ) , چینی دت ( Perso-Arabic script ) , Chinidat or Chinidad in Trinidadian Hindustani which translated to

2728-427: The island. Many groups overlap. For example, a " Dougla " is a person of African and East Indian descent who may identify as being part of either group. There are multiple festivals on Trinidad, featuring the music of the Caribbean and the steelpan (which originated on Trinidad and is the country's national instrument); These festivals include the multi-national, pre-Lenten Carnivál , J'ouvert , and Panorama ,

2790-679: The islands on his third voyage on 31 July 1498. The island remained Spanish until 1797, but it was settled mostly by French colonists from the French Caribbean , especially Martinique . In 1889 the two islands became a single British crown colony . Trinidad and Tobago was granted self-governance in 1958 and independence from the United Kingdom in August 1962, and it became a republic in September 1976. Major landforms include

2852-500: The land of sugar. The usage of the term goes back to the 19th century when recruiters from India would call the island Chinidat as a way of luring workers into indentureship. On Tuesday, 31 July, 1498 Columbus sent a sailor to climb up to the main top and sighted a cluster of three peaks, therefore Columbus named the island Trinidad from the three peaks and Columbus's special devotion to the Trinity. Caribs and Arawaks lived in Trinidad long before Christopher Columbus encountered

2914-454: The large area now under its jurisdiction. Courland District (which included parts of Semigallia) was made one of three districts of the region, which also came to be known as Ober Ost . As Russian rule in the rest of what is now Latvia began collapsing at the end of World War I, Baltic Germans began a process of forming provincial councils between September 1917 and March 1918, competing with ethnic Latvians ' moves toward independence. With

2976-415: The largest species of snake in the world, the green anaconda , the spectacled caiman , and one of the largest lizards in the Americas, the green iguana . Trinidad is also the largest leatherback turtle nesting site in the western hemisphere; they nest on Trinidad's eastern and northern beaches. There are 37 recorded frog species, including the tiny El Tucuche golden tree frog , Trinidad poison frog , and

3038-419: The more widespread huge cane toad . About 43 species of freshwater fish are known from Trinidad, including the well known guppy . It is estimated that there are at least 80,000 arthropods, and at least 600 species of butterflies . The William Beebe Tropical Research Station (founded by William Beebe ), also known as Simla, lies 8 kilometres (5 mi) north of Arima . The economy of Trinidad and Tobago

3100-618: The national steelpan competition. In addition to the traditional Christian holidays and official public days (such as Boxing Day , Christmas , Easter Sunday, Easter Monday , Emancipation Day , Good Friday , Independence Day , Labour Day , New Year's Day , and Republic Day ) in Trinidad, the island nation also celebrates a significant percentage of its population's Indian ancestry (of both Hindu and Muslim backgrounds), with officially-recognised holidays such as Divali , Eid al-Fitr and Indian Arrival Day . Sites of cultural or religious significance include Mount Saint Benedict and

3162-413: The north, and the eastern side, less fertile and thinly inhabited. Nearly one hundred rivers drain Courland, but only three of these rivers – the Daugava, the Lielupe and the Venta – are navigable. They all flow northwestward and discharge into the Baltic Sea . Owing to its numerous lakes and marshes, Courland has a damp, often foggy, and changeable climate; its winters are severe. In ancient times

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3224-478: The other bank of the Daugava to burn their dead and mourn for three days. Later they lifted the siege and returned to Courland. In 1228, the Curonians together with the Semigallians again attacked Riga. Although they were again unsuccessful in storming the city, they destroyed a monastery in Daugavgriva and killed all the monks there. In 1230, the Curonians in the northern part of Courland, under their ruler ( rex ) Lammekinus  [ lv ; lt ] , signed

3286-407: The pope. In 1237 the area passed into the rule of the Teutonic Order owing to the amalgamation of this order with that of the Brethren of the Sword. The Livonian Confederation was a loosely organized confederation formed by the German-led Livonian Order and various bishoprics that encompassed much of present-day Estonia and Latvia. It existed from 1228 to the 1560s, when it was dismembered by

3348-405: The prevailing denomination, Lutheranism ; the rest belonged to the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. There was a small but vigorous Jewish population. During World War I , Courland formed part of the Eastern Front theatre of operations that saw fighting primarily between forces of the Russian and German Empires . Following Russia's Great Retreat of 1915, Courland came under

3410-432: The shores of the Baltic Sea in the 5th–16th centuries, in what are now western parts of Latvia and Lithuania . They eventually merged with other Baltic tribes contributing to the ethnogenesis of present-day Latvians and Lithuanians . Curonians gave their name to the region of Courland ( Kurzeme ), Kuršėnai town, Curonian spit and many other localities. They spoke the Curonian language . The ethnic origin of

3472-500: The summer of 1941, the German Wehrmacht's Army Group North headed by Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb overran Courland, along with the rest of the Baltic littoral. During the German occupation Courland was administered as Liepāja County area ( Kreisgebiet Libau ). In 1944 the Red Army lifted the siege of Leningrad and re-conquered the Baltic countries along with much of Ukraine and Belarus . However, some 200,000 German troops held out in Courland. With their backs to

3534-413: The ten districts were Jelgava (Mitau), Courland's capital (pop. 35,011 in 1897); Liepāja (Libau) (pop. 64,500 in 1897); Bauska (6,543); Jaunjelgava (Friedrichstadt) (5,223); Kuldīga (Goldingen) (9,733); Grobiņa (1,489); Aizpute (Hasenpoth) (3,338); Ilūkste (Illuxt) (2,340); Talsi (Talsen) (6,215); Tukums (Tuckum) (7542); and Ventspils (Windau) (7,132). 75% of the population belonged to

3596-461: The time of the Northern Crusades in the early 13th century, most land was owned by nobles descended from the German invaders. In 1863, the Russian authorities issued laws to enable Latvians, who formed the bulk of the population, to acquire the farms which they held, and special banks were founded to help them. By this means, some occupants bought their farms, but the great mass of the population remained landless, and lived as hired labourers, occupying

3658-409: Was absorbed on 22 September 1918 by the United Baltic Duchy . On 18 November 1918, Latvia proclaimed its independence and on 7 December 1918, the German military handed over authority to the pro-German Latvian Provisional Government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis . By January 1919, much of Courland had been overrun by the Bolsheviks' Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic , but the provisional government with

3720-497: Was finally subdued in 1266 when the whole of Courland was partitioned between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga . Southern Curonians from Megowa, Pilsaten and Ceclis lands gradually assimilated and ceased to be known as a distinct ethnos by the 16th century. An intense period of Samogitian-Curonian bilingualism is posited because a Curonian linguistic substratum is evident in the Northern Samogitian dialect , an important part of Samogitian ethnic self-identification. On

3782-427: Was first attacked by the Danes, who were hoping to make the town pay tribute to Denmark. The locals were victorious and gained much war loot. After learning of Danish failure, King Olof of Sweden organized a large expedition into Curonian lands. Olof first attacked, captured, and burned Grobiņa before besieging Apuolė. According to Rimbert, 15,000 locals defended themselves for eight days but then agreed to surrender:

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3844-420: Was then known as James Island . In 1795, the last Duke, Peter von Biron , ceded the Duchy to the Russian Empire . The former Bishopric of Courland was directly incorporated into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as the District of Pilten of the Wenden and later Inflanty Voivodeship . After annexation by the Russian Empire , the territory of the former Duchy formed the Courland Governorate . From

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