Kuskusky , also known as the Kuskuskies Towns , Kuskuskie Towns , or Kuskuskies' Indian Town , with a wide variety of other spellings, were several Native American communities inhabited near New Castle , Mahoning , and Edinburg, Pennsylvania , and Youngstown, Ohio , during the mid-18th century. It was not one town, but three or four contiguous towns of the Mingoes , Lenape , and Seneca , located along the Beaver River , at and above the junction of its east and west branches, the Mahoning River and the Shenango River . It is usually referred to in the plural.
132-609: Several different origins have been proposed for the name "Kuskusky." In the 1826 captivity narrative of Hugh Gibson, captured by Lenape in July, 1756, he states that he lived in the spring and fall of 1757 at "Kuskuskin, or Hog Town" on the Mahoning ( kwësh-kwëshelxus means "hog" in the Unami dialect)." The word may also have come from the Seneca koskohsh-ehtoh , meaning "at the falls, by
264-406: A Moravian mission established by David Zeisberger . The missionaries generated controversy, however, as they banned the consumption of alcohol and discouraged many traditional ceremonies. After Custaloga's death in 1775, the community broke up and many people returned to Ohio. Kuskusky maintained a small population of Delawares during the 1770s. In early February 1778, General Edward Hand launched
396-706: A Rocky Cave (1787), Narrative of the Remarkable Occurrences, in the Life of John Blatchford of Cape-Ann (1788), and A Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Mr. Ebenezer Fletcher, of Newipswich, Who Was ... Taken Prisoner by the British (1798) provided American reading audiences with new narratives. In some accounts, British soldiers were the primary antagonists. Seven captivity narratives are known that were written following capture of colonists by
528-538: A blockhouse built out of logs felled along Redstone Creek. Trent was a soldier of fortune during the various local Indian wars in Pennsylvania and present-day Maryland and West Virginia, and the French and Indian War. He commanded the militia at Fort Pitt during Pontiac's Rebellion . During the siege of Fort Pitt , Trent recorded in his journal that blankets from the fort's smallpox hospital had been given to
660-557: A campaign against the Seneca-Cayuga people who had reportedly received guns and powder from the British with which to defend themselves against invading American settlers. Hand led a force of five hundred militia in search of Indian war parties, but failed to find any. On returning to Fort Pitt, the men discovered a small group of Lenape Indians at Kuskusky, and attacked, unaware that the Lenape were currently neutral and at peace with
792-665: A different way of life than the secular majority, but that way of life may have merits within its own context. Spiritual beliefs, rituals, and customs are not necessarily inferior simply because they differ from the secular mainstream. Anti-cult captivity narratives which attempt to equate difference with abuse, or to invoke a victim paradigm, may sometimes be criticized as unfair by scholars who believe that research into religious movements should be context-based and value-free. Beliefs, rituals, and customs which we assumed were merely "primitive" or "strange" may turn out to have profound meaning when examined in their own context. Just as Where
924-633: A five-year interval. However, the book has been extensively debunked, and is now considered most notable for its role in contributing to the Satanic Ritual Abuse scare of the 1980s, which culminated in the McMartin preschool trial . Captivity narratives, in addition to appealing to adults, have been attracting today's children as well. The narratives' exciting nature and their resilient young protagonists make for very educational and entertaining children's novels that have for goal to convey
1056-565: A great deal of Goods from the French; and that the French cloath the Indians every Year, Men Women, and Children, and give them as much Powder and Lead as they want. Post assured Tamaqua and the other Delaware leaders that the English wanted peace. Post then left Kuskusky for a few days to visit Saucunk and Logstown, and to address a group of Indians in front of Fort Duquesne, with French officers watching. He then returned to Kuskusky to discuss
1188-421: A large French military expedition of 600 soldiers, led by Sieur de Contrecoeur , surrounded the English colonists. They forced Trent to surrender and return with his men to Virginia. The French force included engineers. After demolishing Fort St. George, they began building the larger, more complex Fort Duquesne in present-day Pittsburgh . The English later captured Fort Duquesne during the war. The officers of
1320-450: A message on 1 September 1748: " Andrew Montour came back from Coscosky with a message from the Indians there to desire of me that the ensuing Council might be held at their town." Tanacharisson insisted that "the Indians at Coscosky were no more Chiefs than themselves, and that last spring they had nothing to eat, & expecting that they shou'd have nothing to eat at our arrival." In any case, Weiser's instructions bound him to negotiate with
1452-491: A neighbor were killed by the Indians, and he was brought to Kittanning, where he was adopted by Shingas' brother Pisquetomen , a Delaware chief (who Gibson refers to as "Bisquittam"). Gibson was living in Kittanning when it was attacked by Colonel John Armstrong 's forces on 8 September, 1756. After the attack, he was taken to "Kuskuskin [Hog-Town] on the Mahoning." While there, Gibson one day remarked that "he had heard that
SECTION 10
#17327872527241584-460: A new royal colony on their land claims , they were unable to secure reparations. After several years of continuous efforts to regain his former fortune, in 1783 Trent's health began to fail him. That summer of 1783, Trent and fellow business partner, Samuel Wharton found that forgotten bonds and mortgages were soon to be overdue. Since the French and Indian War, Trent was never able to acquire lost lands or seem to get ahead of his debt collectors. Trent
1716-406: A person claims to have developed a new awareness of previously unreported ritual abuse as a result of some form of therapy which purports to recover repressed memories , often using suggestive techniques. Michelle Remembers represents the cult survivor tale at its most extreme. In it, Michelle Smith recounts horrific tales of sexual and physical abuse at the hands of the " Church of Satan " over
1848-508: A polemical term in connection with the so-called " culture war ". Not all anti-cult captivity narratives describe physical capture. Sometimes the capture is a metaphor, as is the escape or rescue. The "captive" may be someone who claims to have been "seduced" or "recruited" into a religious lifestyle which he/she retrospectively describes as one of slavery. The term "captive" may nonetheless be used figuratively. Some captivity narratives are partly or even wholly fictional, but are meant to impart
1980-698: A professional military force. Shawnee and Delaware warriors launched dozens of raids against English settlements, killing and capturing hundreds of people and destroying communities across western and central Pennsylvania. The Kuskuskies were used as a holding site where prisoners were brought immediately after a raid. Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger , both age 12, were captured during the Penn's Creek massacre on 16 October, 1755. They were taken to Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania , then to Kittanning, where they lived until Armstrong's attack in September 1756. After Kittanning
2112-790: A resident of North America was that of Abraham Browne (1655). The most popular was that of Captain James Riley , entitled An Authentic Narrative of the Loss of the Brig Commerce (1817). Jonathan Dickinson 's Journal, God's Protecting Providence ... (1699), is an account by a Quaker of shipwreck survivors captured by Indians in Florida. He says they survived by placing their trust in God to protect them. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature describes it as, "in many respects
2244-579: A revival of interest in the 1780s. Other popular captivity narratives from the late 17th century include Cotton Mather 's "A Notable Exploit: Dux Faemina Facti, " on the captivity of Hannah Duston , as well as his account of Hannah Swarton 's captivity (1697), both well-known accounts of the capture of women during King William's War , and Jonathan Dickinson 's God's Protecting Providence (1699). American captivity narratives were usually based on true events, but they frequently contained fictional elements as well. Some were entirely fictional, created because
2376-490: A separate event John Witherspoon was captured at Annapolis Royal during the French and Indian War and wrote about his experience. During the war Gamaliel Smethurst was captured; he published an account in 1774. Lt. Simon Stephens, of John Stark's ranger company, and Captain Robert Stobo escaped together from Quebec along the coast of Acadia, finally reaching British-controlled Louisbourg and wrote accounts. During
2508-581: A short distance farther up the river than the other...In the vicinity have been picked up gun-flints, oxidized bullets, flattened and battered, old gun-locks and gun-barrels, bayonets, etc....Many bones have also been found. Near the Town was a burial ground, containing, among other relics, an interesting mound, originally some fifty feet in circumference, and about six feet high. This mound was examined some years since, and found to contain several layers of human skeletons; flag-stones were placed in regular order around
2640-591: A silver ornament with an engraved deer, and a fire striker set consisting of an English flint and iron striker, all collected at the Kuskuskies Town site in Lawrence County, during a 1960 archaeological investigation. Charles A. Hanna (1911) describes the archaeology of the Kuskusky region: It is at least certain there was a village where Edinburg stands, which was divided into two parts, one
2772-600: A speak to their Chiefs and come and tell us what they said, they returned and said they would hold fast of the Chain of friendship. Out of our regard to them we gave them two Blankets and a Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect. They then told us that Ligonier had been attacked, but that the Enemy were beat of". After the end of the war, Levy, Trent and Company , of which Trent
SECTION 20
#17327872527242904-401: A strong moral lesson, such as the purported dangers of conversion to a minority faith. Perhaps the most notorious work in this subgenre is The Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk , a fictional work circulated during the 19th century and beyond, and used to stoke anti-Catholic sentiment in the U.S. (see main article: Maria Monk ). She claimed to have been born into a Protestant family, but
3036-502: A trade item was particularly high, leading to some violence. On October 20, 1748, William Trent wrote to Secretary Richard Peters , describing a murder which took place at Kuskusky: Last night came here from Allegheny one John Hays, who informs us that the night before he left it, the Indians killed one of Mr. [Hugh] Parker's [a factor of the Ohio Company ] hands...Mr. Parker had a large quantity of liquor up with him, which he
3168-528: A week later. However, on his return to Canada, Céloron reported that "the nations of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, and are entirely devoted to the English." This led to the destruction of Pickawillany in June, 1752 and the killing of Memeskia , one of Orontony's allies, and to the decision by the Governor-General of New France to send a sizeable French military force under
3300-551: Is extremely rare in Western nations for religious or spiritual groups to hold anyone physically captive. Like captivity narratives in general, anti-cult captivity narratives also raise contextual concerns. Ethnohistoric Native American culture differs markedly from Western European culture. Each may have its merits within its own context. Modern theorists question the fairness of pitting one culture against another and making broad value judgments. Similarly, spiritual groups may adopt
3432-700: Is generally regarded as a continuation of the Great Shamokin Path that connected Native settlements at Shamokin (present-day Sunbury, Pennsylvania ) on the Susquehanna River with Kittanning along the banks of the Allegheny River . It eventually became a paved road leading from New Castle to Pittsburgh. At the beginning of the French and Indian War , the defeat of General Edward Braddock in July, 1755 left Pennsylvania without
3564-514: The Krishna temple in Potomac, Maryland. She subsequently filed a lawsuit claiming that her freedom of religion had been violated by the deprogramming attempt, and that she had been denied due process as a member of a hated class. Among anti-cult captivity narratives, a subgenre is the Satanic Ritual Abuse story, the best-known example being Michelle Remembers . In this type of narrative,
3696-597: The Mi'kmaq and Maliseet tribes in Nova Scotia and Acadia (two other prisoners were future Governor Michael Francklin (taken 1754) and Lt John Hamilton (taken 1749) at the Siege of Grand Pre . Whether their captivity experiences were documented is unknown). The most well-known became that by John Gyles , who wrote Memoirs of odd adventures, strange deliverances, &c. in the captivity of John Gyles, Esq; commander of
3828-520: The Narrative 's tale of misfortune but on the youthful optimism of Susanna Johnson's largely imagined younger sister, Miriam. This article references captivity narratives drawn from literature, history, sociology, religious studies, and modern media. Scholars point to certain unifying factors. Of early Puritan captivity narratives, David L. Minter writes: First they became instruments of propaganda against Indian "devils" and French "Papists." Later, ...
3960-594: The Petitcodiac River Campaign , the Acadian militia took prisoner William Caesar McCormick of William Stark 's rangers and his detachment of three rangers and two light infantry privates from the 35th. The Acadian militia took the prisoners to Miramachi and then Restogouch. (They were kept by Pierre du Calvet who later released them to Halifax.) In August 1758, William Merritt was taken captive close to St. Georges (Thomaston, Maine), and taken to
4092-698: The Raid on Lunenburg (1756) by the First Nations (Maliseet/Wolastoqiyik) in the French and Indian War . On route to Quebec, John and his siblings were adopted by the First Nations in present-day New Brunswick but were reunited with their mother in Quebec about seven months later. In the spring of 1760, after the British victory at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759, the family sailed back to Nova Scotia. In
Kuskusky - Misplaced Pages Continue
4224-648: The Six Nations and confirmed its neutrality during King George's War , which had earlier been decided at the Onondaga Council . In April, 1748 Orontony and 119 Wyandot warriors, together with Miami Indian warriors led by Memeskia , attacked and burned the French Fort St. Philippe ( Fort Miami ). Orontony then abandoned his community of Junundat and set off for the Ohio valley. About 70 of
4356-526: The Treaty of Easton with the Delaware leaders. On 6 September he was presented to the two captives, Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger, but they did not speak. Post left Kuskusky on 8 September and continued down the Ohio to address other Delawares and their Shawnee and Mingo allies. In October, 1758 the Treaty of Easton was signed between British colonials and representatives of 13 Indian nations, including
4488-673: The Unami language of the Lenape (Delaware) and the Mohawk language of one of the Iroquois tribes. He was also involved in land speculation, usually holding property for a short period of time. Trent on the other hand proved to be a financial resource because he had access to his merchant father's wealth. Therefore, Croghan and Trent's fur trading business was established in the Ohio Country using Trent's capital and connections. Much of
4620-554: The "American characteristics of resourcefulness, hopefulness, pluck and purity". Elizabeth George Speare published Calico Captive (1957), a historical fiction children's novel inspired by the captivity narrative of Susannah Willard Johnson . In Rewriting the Captivity Narrative for Contemporary Children: Speare, Bruchac, and the French and Indian War (2011), Sara L. Schwebel writes: Johnson's Narrative vividly describes Susanna Johnson's forty-eight-month ordeal –
4752-542: The 18th century, there was a revival of interest in captivity narratives. Accounts such as A Narrative of the Capture and Treatment of John Dodge, by the English at Detroit (1779), A Surprising Account, of the Captivity and Escape of Philip M'Donald, and Alexander M'Leod, of Virginia, from the Chickkemogga Indians (1786), Abraham Panther's A Very Surprising Narrative of a Young Woman, Who Was Discovered in
4884-592: The Americans. Among those killed were the mother and brother of Chief Hopocan, known as Captain Pipe . The troops also killed several women and a child they found in a nearby Munsee village. The exploit became known as " The Squaw Campaign " because of this. George Morgan , the Patriot Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Middle District, later apologized to the Lenape. The site was permanently abandoned by
5016-631: The British outpost of Fort Ligonier , and the population of the Kuskusky towns fled, taking the girls to Muskingum in Ohio. They escaped with Hugh Gibson in March 1759. At the end of their captivity narrative , Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger listed by name twenty-one others then held at the Kuskuskies. Hugh Gibson , 14, was captured in July, 1756 by Lenape Indians, outside Robinson's Fort , near present-day Southwest Madison Township, Pennsylvania , north of Carlisle, Pennsylvania . His mother and
5148-604: The Delawares after 1778. Following the American Revolutionary War, settlers moved into the area. In 1798, John Carlyle Stewart traveled to western Pennsylvania to resurvey the "donation lands," which had been reserved for veterans. He claimed approximately 50 acres (20 ha) at the confluence of the Shenango River and Neshannock Creek , at that time a part of Allegheny County , and the site of
5280-401: The Delawares trusted him. He was instructed by Deputy Governor Denny to offer amnesty to all Delawares who had participated in frontier raids against Pennsylvania if they would now support the British. Post and Pisquetomen , his brothers Shingas and Tamaqua , met at the Kuskuskies on 12 August 1758. Post described "Kushkushkee" as "a large Spot of Land about three Miles long," saying that it
5412-509: The Delawares wanted to move in order to avoid any fighting between the French and the British, stating, "The Six Nations and you desire that I would sit down and smoke my pipe at Kuskusky. I tell you this that you may think no ill of my removing from Saucunk to Kuskusky, for it is at the great desire of my brothers, the English, and my uncles, the Six Nations, and there I shall always hear your words." Mercer reportedly replied, "Your Brothers,
Kuskusky - Misplaced Pages Continue
5544-430: The English, but Orontony was anxious to get assurances from Philadelphia that the English would offer military support as well as abundant trade goods, on which the Indians were growing increasingly dependent. As Tanacharisson 's influence in negotiating terms with Pennsylvania grew, Orontony and other Iroquois leaders in Kuskusky wanted to get the attention of Philadelphia. Soon after Weiser arrived at Logstown, he received
5676-742: The English, desire to see you live in Peace and Happiness, either at Saucunk, Kuskusky, or wherever you think proper, and by no means intend to Limit you to one Place or another." In the spring of 1759, the Delawares moved from Saucunk and Kuskuskee to communities on the Muskingum River and the Scioto River in Ohio. In 1769 Custaloga brought a small group of Munsees from the Cuyahoga River Valley to settle at Kuskusky in order to be near English trading posts and Friedenstadt,
5808-513: The French and Indian War broke out, Captain Trent along with George Croghan and several other distinguished military men were present for the treaty signing at Winchester, Virginia , in September of 1753. The Indian Winchester Conference established that weapons and ammunition would be given to the Miami and Delaware tribes. Andrew Montour, Christopher Gist, and William Trent were tasked with delivering
5940-521: The French and Indian War, they were seeking land grants. During this time, Trent's longtime friend and previous business partner, George Croghan, decided to embark on a journey to London and present the Indian Company's case. While Croghan was in England asking for reparations on behalf of the Indian Company, Trent immediately began concerning himself with new business endeavors in hopes to regain
6072-410: The French camp "and made the accustomed salute. They may have numbered about fifty men." The Jesuit priest Joseph Pierre de Bonnecamps , who accompanied Céloron, wrote that "the savages, seeing our bold front and our superior number, quietly withdrew and saluted us very politely in passing before our camp." Although the French expedition was never attacked, the potential for violence remained throughout
6204-655: The French: Fort Prince George , begun February 17, 1754 and Fort Hanger. The first was built after Washington returned from his diplomatic mission warning the French to leave the Ohio Country . Trent and his forces built Fort Hanger (Hangard) later that year on Redstone Creek. It was at its confluence with the Monongahela River and near the Ford of the river by Nemacolin's Trail . Trent and his men had not completed Fort Prince George when
6336-776: The Indians at Logstown, and he replied to the request, saying that "the Shawonese and Twightwees would be offended if the Council was to be held at Coscosky." On 15 September Orontony and five other Wyandot chiefs arrived in Logstown and met with Weiser, presenting him with a gift of seven beaver skins. Weiser wrote that they "behav’d like People of good Sense & Sincerity; the most of them are grey-headed." Another chief from Kuskusky, Canajachrera or Oniadagarehra (Broken Kettle or Big Kettle), met Weiser on 19 September. In 1750, after Orontony's sudden death from smallpox, Canajachrera became
6468-476: The Maria Monk work has been exposed as a hoax , it typifies those captivity narratives which depict a minority religion as not just theologically incorrect, but fundamentally abusive. In Rape-Revenge Films: A Critical Study , Alexandra Heller-Nicholas writes: The basic structure of the captivity narrative concerns the rescue of "helpless" maidens who have been kidnapped by "natives"[.] [They are] rescued at
6600-716: The North American and Caribbean colonies, and England. His father had interests in 40 ships. His father served in the provincial governments in both Pennsylvania and New Jersey. In 1752, William Trent married Sarah Wilkins. Together they had six children. From 1750 to 1754, Trent and George Croghan were fur trading business partners. Croghan was more of the hands-on partner as he speculated that setting up trading post within Native American villages would generate more revenue as opposed to placing trading post alongside major crossroads. In addition, Croghan learned
6732-623: The North American narratives useful in analyzing how the colonists or settlers constructed the "other". They also assess these works for what the narratives reveal about the settlers' sense of themselves and their culture, and the experience of crossing the line to another. Colley has studied the long history of English captivity among other cultures, both the Barbary pirate captives who preceded those in North America, and British captives in cultures such as India or East Asia, which began after
SECTION 50
#17327872527246864-543: The Ohio Country. On 7 February 1759, Colonel Hugh Mercer received a report from a Mohican scout that he had observed "at the Salt Spring above Kaskaskias [Kuskuskies] a large number of [French] troops." Mercer then held an important council with the Delawares at Fort Pitt . At that time, Tamaqua was living at Saucunk (near present-day Rochester, Pennsylvania ). At this council on February 24, he announced that
6996-531: The Ohio also facilitated commerce and communication with Louisiana. As the prospect of war between Britain and France grew increasingly imminent, Native American inhabitants of the Ohio River Valley were attempting to maintain their autonomy while extracting valuable trade goods from the Europeans. In November, 1747 Scarouady and other Iroquois leaders visited Philadelphia to sign the "Treaty Between
7128-790: The President and Council of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Ohio Indians," promising a military alliance against the French in exchange for supplies and trade goods. The Council obtained £200 worth of goods and sent Croghan to Logstown in April, 1748 to cement the terms of the treaty and secure the tribes' loyalty to the British. Conrad Weiser was to follow in August with more gifts. After destroying Fort St. Philippe, Orontony and other Wyandot leaders had no choice but to seek an alliance with
7260-675: The Saint John River and later to Quebec . North America was not the only region to produce captivity narratives. North African slave narratives were written by white Europeans and Americans who were captured, often as a result of shipwrecks, and enslaved in North Africa in the 18th and early 19th centuries. If the Europeans converted to Islam and adopted North Africa as their home, they could often end their slavery status, but such actions disqualified them from being ransomed to freedom by European consuls in Africa, who were qualified only to free captives who had remained Christians. About 20,000 British and Irish captives were held in North Africa from
7392-501: The Spirit Lives may be viewed as a "reverse" captivity narrative concerning Native peoples, the story of Donna Seidenberg Bavis (as recounted in The Washington Post ) may be viewed as a "reverse" captivity narrative concerning new religious movements . The typical contemporary anti-cult captivity narrative is one in which a purported "victim" of " cult mind control " is "rescued" from a life of "slavery" by some form of deprogramming or exit counseling . However, Donna Seidenberg Bavis
7524-466: The Sufferings (1750), Indian barbarities are blamed on the teachings of Roman Catholic priests. During Queen Anne's War , French and Abenaki warriors made the Raid on Deerfield in 1704, killing many settlers and taking more than 100 persons captive. They were taken on a several hundred-mile overland trek to Montreal. Many were held there in Canada for an extended period, with some captives adopted by First Nations families and others held for ransom. In
7656-420: The Virginia Regiment decided to continue their campaign to secure the trans-Allegheny region for the Ohio Country . Their strategy was to build a wagon road to Redstone Creek , the nearest point of descent for larger traffic to the Monongahela River . After gaining reinforcements, they would attack and recapture the Forks of the Ohio. The Virginia Regiment began building a road from Wills Creek, intended to cross
7788-413: The acting leader at Kuskusky. In late 1748 the Pennsylvania Council sent the Indians at Kuskusky (Gas-Cagh-Sa-Gey) 12 barrels of gunpowder as a gift and a peace-offering after having rejected their request to hold the council at their town. By 1748, English traders set up trading posts at each of the Kuskuskies towns, drawing some of the fur trade away from French traders to the north. The demand for rum as
7920-433: The area particularly the beginnings of a fort at the Forks of the Ohio. Their mission was to construct a road to Redstone Creek in present day Brownsville, Pennsylvania and await sizable reinforcements. Then the army will go by water to take the Fort Duquesne at the Forks of the Ohio River from the French. Trent's command made minimal improvements. He reached Redstone Old Forts , where he had his men build Fort Hangard ,
8052-401: The arrival of new groups, under pressure to resettle. Two Seneca villages with the same name were established before 1742, one at the mouth of the Shenango River and the other at the mouth of Neshannock Creek . English traders, looking for new sources of skins and furs, established trading posts that, in turn, attracted Natives seeking sources of European trade goods, particularly liquor, which
SECTION 60
#17327872527248184-438: The beginning of the 17th century to the middle of the 18th, and roughly 700 Americans were held captive as North African slaves between 1785 and 1815. The British captives produced 15 full biographical accounts of their experiences, and the American captives produced more than 100 editions of 40 full-length narratives. In his book Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit Against the Wilderness (1980), Frederick W. Turner discusses
8316-456: The besieging Indians during a parley. Trent wrote, "Out of our regard for them, we gave them two Blankets and an Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect." The full passage from the journal is: "The Turtles Heart a principal Warrior of the Delawares and Mamaltee a Chief came within a small distance of the Fort Mr. McKee went out to them and they made a Speech letting us know that all our [posts] as Ligonier
8448-421: The best of all the captivity tracts." Ann Eliza Bleecker 's epistolary novel , The History of Maria Kittle (1793), is considered the first known captivity novel. It set the form for subsequent Indian capture novels. American Indian captivity narratives, accounts of men and women of European descent who were captured by Native Americans , were popular in both America and Europe from the 17th century until
8580-445: The bodies, and the whole covered with earth. Nearby were quite a large number of bodies, buried separately. Large numbers of flint chips and arrow-heads have been picked up in the vicinity. A plaque commemorating the 1758 peace treaty that was confirmed with the help of Christian Frederick Post and King Beaver (Tamaqua), was erected in 1925 at Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania , by the Historical Society of Slippery Rock. The plaque refers to
8712-418: The capture of European-American settlers or explorers by Native American Indians, but the captivity narrative is so inherently powerful that the story proves highly adaptable to new contents from terrorist kidnappings to UFO abductions. The Oxford Companion to United States History indicates that the wave of Catholic immigration after 1820: William Trent William Trent (February 13, 1715 – 1787)
8844-412: The chiefs of the Iroquois, the eastern and western Lenape and the Shawnee. Negotiations over more than a week were concluded on October 26, 1758, at a ceremony held in Easton, Pennsylvania , between the British colonial governors of the provinces of Pennsylvania and New Jersey and tribal leaders. The treaty shifted the balance of power in favor of the British by removing several important Native tribes from
8976-446: The close of the United States frontier late in the 19th century. Mary Rowlandson 's memoir, A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson , (1682) is a classic example of the genre. According to Nancy Armstrong and Leonard Tennenhouse, Rowlandson's captivity narrative was "one of the most popular captivity narratives on both sides of the Atlantic." Although the text temporarily fell out of print after 1720, it had
9108-402: The colonies, ransoms were raised by families or communities; there was no higher government program to do so. The minister John Williams was among those captured and ransomed. His account, The Redeemed Captive (1707), was widely distributed in the 18th and 19th centuries, and continues to be published today. Due to his account, as well as the high number of captives, this raid, unlike others of
9240-416: The command of Paul Marin de la Malgue to build a road and construct Fort Presque Isle , Fort Le Boeuf , and Fort Machault in 1753 and 1754. Following the construction of Fort Duquesne in 1754, the Kuskusky Path, a trail leading from Kuskusky to the fort, was used by hunters, traders, warriors, militia, and diplomats throughout the 1700s. The Kuskusky Path (sometimes called the Kuskusky-Kittanning Path)
9372-467: The cult survivor meme has become a popular one. A recent American sitcom , Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt , is premised on the notion of "cult survivor" as a social identity. It is not unusual for anyone who grew up in a religious and culturally conservative household – and who later adopted secular mainstream values – to describe themselves as a "cult survivor", notwithstanding the absence of any abuse or violence. In this sense, "cult survivor" may be used as
9504-455: The decades-long struggle between whites and Plains Indians in the mid-19th century, hundreds of women and children were captured. Many narratives included a theme of redemption by faith in the face of the threats and temptations of an alien way of life. Barbary captivity narratives, accounts of English people captured and held by Barbary pirates , were popular in England in the 16th and 17th centuries. The first Barbary captivity narrative by
9636-647: The early North American experience. Certain North American captivity narratives related to being held among Native peoples were published from the 18th through the 19th centuries. They reflected an already well-established genre in English literature, which some colonists would likely have been familiar with. There had already been numerous English accounts of captivity by Barbary pirates. Other types of captivity narratives, such as those recounted by apostates from religious movements (i.e. "cult survivor" tales), have remained an enduring topic in modern media. They have been published in books and periodicals, in addition to being
9768-464: The easternmost of the Kuskuskies towns. For a short time the town was named "New Kuskusky." The town of New Castle was named after New Castle, Delaware , and became a borough in Lawrence County by 1825, with a population of 300. Archaeological work in the area has uncovered evidence of habitation as old as 16,500 years. The State Museum of Pennsylvania has several strings of glass beads,
9900-708: The effect of those accounts in which white captives came to prefer and eventually adopt a Native American way of life; they challenged European-American assumptions about the superiority of their culture. During some occasions of prisoner exchanges, the white captives had to be forced to return to their original cultures. Children who had assimilated to new families found it extremely painful to be torn from them after several years' captivity. Numerous adult and young captives who had assimilated chose to stay with Native Americans and never returned to live in Anglo-American or European communities. The story of Mary Jemison , who
10032-500: The falls or rapids," referring to Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania . There was very likely a settlement of some kind in the vicinity as early as 1720, initially established by Lenape , Seneca and Shawnee Indians moving west after being displaced from the Susquehanna Valley by growing European settlements and the increasing scarcity of game due to overhunting. A smallpox epidemic in 1733 and a drought in 1741 may have led to
10164-530: The fighting, and was one of several factors leading to the surrender of Fort Duquesne in late November. Christian Frederick Post returned to Kuskusky in November to celebrate with Delaware leaders who had helped him bring the Delawares to the treaty, but some warriors were angry with Post over a letter he had written which had been captured by the French, the contents of which had been misrepresented in order to discredit Post. Post writes: These three Days past
10296-407: The fighting. Fearing that the ever-advancing European settlers would permanently take control of their lands, Delaware chiefs hoped to bargain for a binding treaty that would grant them protected space. Pennsylvania Deputy Governor William Denny asked Christian Frederick Post to act as negotiator at Kuskusky. Post was an experienced frontiersman and had two Delaware wives, spoke the language well, and
10428-708: The first three involving no more than four hundred acres of land each. In 1744, Trent purchased vast lands in the Ohio Country west of the Appalachian Mountains . From then through the 1780s, he was a key figure in encouraging westward expansion by Anglo-American settlers past the Appalachian barrier , as he wanted to sell his land in parcels for development. Trent was born to William Trent (Trenton) and his second wife Mary Coddington on February 13, 1715 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania . His father
10560-432: The form of captivity narratives. This in turn provides justification for anti-cult groups to target religious movements for social control measures like deprogramming . In The Politics of Religious Apostasy , Bromley writes: [T]here is considerable pressure on individuals exiting Subversive organizations to negotiate a narrative with the oppositional coalition that offers an acceptable explanation for participation in
10692-479: The former organization are vigorously resisted and are taken as evidence of untrustworthiness. Emphasis on the irresistibility of subversive techniques is vital to apostates and their allies as a means of locating responsibility for participation on the organization rather than on the former member. "Cult survivor" tales have become a familiar genre. They employ the devices of the captivity narrative in dramatic fashion, typically pitting mainstream secular values against
10824-402: The fortune he lost during the French and Indian War. In December of 1763, Trent began a partnership with John Baynton and Samuel Wharton. Samuel, Baynton, and Wharton were all equally interested in land speculation of 1,700 acres of Cumberland County land. Despite Croghan's and William Trent's multiple efforts to attain restitution for the Indian Company's members, including efforts to establish
10956-595: The garrison on St. George's River (1736). He was captured in the Siege of Pemaquid (1689) . He wrote about his torture by the Natives at Meductic village during King William's War . His memoirs are regarded as a precursor to the frontier romances of James Fenimore Cooper , William Gilmore Simms , and Robert Montgomery Bird . Merchant William Pote was captured during the siege of Annapolis Royal during King George's War and wrote about his captivity. Pote also wrote about being tortured. Ritual torture of war captives
11088-490: The genre with suspicion because of its ideological underpinnings. As a result of new scholarly approaches since the late 20th century, historians with a more certain grasp of Native American cultures are distinguishing between plausible statements of fact and value-laden judgments in order to study the narratives as rare sources from "inside" Native societies. In addition, modern historians such as Linda Colley and anthropologists such as Pauline Turner Strong have also found
11220-710: The ill-treatment he gave them; and accordingly took Parker prisoner and tyed him, and determined to scalp him. But the rest of the whites who were in the town rescued him. He immediately went off...to the Logs Town . The Indians imagined that he was gone into his house. One of them laid wait for him at the door, with his gun. At last, one Brown, one of Mr. Parker's hands, came out...which the Indian took for Parker...and shot him down. This happened at Coscoske. In spite of this event, Parker maintained his trading post at Kuskusky and in 1749 employed Barnaby Curran to manage it after Brown
11352-490: The indigenous peoples of North America. These narratives have had an enduring place in literature, history, ethnography, and the study of Native peoples. They were preceded, among English-speaking peoples, by publication of captivity narratives related to English people taken captive and held by Barbary pirates , or sold for ransom or slavery. Others were taken captive in the Middle East. These accounts established some of
11484-415: The journey, and Céloron was conscious that his mostly inexperienced troops would probably not have performed well. On the other hand, the Indians chose not to attack, as they did not want to risk bringing a stronger French military force into the Ohio country, which likely would have been the response. They therefore confined themselves to shooting holes in the French flag when Céloron visited Lower Shawneetown
11616-587: The last possible moment by a "hero." Commonly, this "hero" is rewarded through marriage. For James R. Lewis , the nineteenth century captivity narrative was intended to either entertain or titillate audiences, or to function as propaganda. Like James R. Lewis , David G. Bromley is a scholar of religion who draws parallels between the propaganda function of 19th century captivity narratives concerning Native peoples, and contemporary captivity narratives concerning new religious movements . Bromley notes that apostates from such movements frequently cast their accounts in
11748-426: The loss of eight soldiers, Trent was able to rally his troops and continue fighting until reinforcements came to their aid. M. de St. Luc had no choice but to withdraw his troops and retreat. In addition to losing eight troops at the battle of Fort Saratoga, nine more of Captain Trent's men were wounded and an additional six were taken as prisoners. Shortly after, Captain Trent returned to his home of Pennsylvania and
11880-695: The major elements of the form, often putting it within a religious framework, and crediting God or Providence for gaining freedom or salvation. Following the North American experience, additional accounts were written after British people were captured during exploration and settlement in India and East Asia. Since the late 20th century, captivity narratives have also been studied as accounts of persons leaving, or held in contemporary religious cults or movements, thanks to scholars of religion like David G. Bromley and James R. Lewis . Traditionally, historians have made limited use of many captivity narratives. They regarded
12012-575: The mid-1970s, represents a special case. She was initially captured by a domestic U.S. terror group called the Symbionese Liberation Army in February, 1974. About a year later, she was photographed wielding a machine gun, helping them rob a bank. Was she an "assimilated captive" or was she only cooperating as a matter of survival? Was she " brainwashed " or fully conscious, acting with free will? These questions were hotly debated at
12144-443: The mill was burned. The prisoners were taken to Fort Duquesne , but on the way Thomas Potter, one of the children and another man were killed, and Richard Bard escaped. Catharine Bard was taken to Kuskusky where she was forced to watch the torture and death of another male prisoner. After a few days she was taken to Shomoken, a Lenape village near Crosswicks, New Jersey , where she lived until her husband returned to ransom her. After
12276-517: The mountains to Redstone Creek. Captain Trent was sent ahead with an advance party and supplies carried by pack animals , while Lt. Col. Washington oversaw the main column improving the road through the Cumberland Narrows Pass over the divide. Wednesday May 1 George Washington's Regiment sets off from Wills Creek , now Cumberland, Maryland . Washington and his officers decide to press on regardless of recent French advances in
12408-465: The narratives played an important role in encouraging government protection of frontier settlements. Still later they became pulp thrillers, always gory and sensational, frequently plagiaristic and preposterous. In its "Terms & Themes" summary of captivity narratives, the University of Houston at Clear Lake suggests that: In American literature, captivity narratives often relate particularly to
12540-460: The number of captives taken from the 15th through the 19th centuries are imprecise and unreliable, since record-keeping was not consistent and the fate of hostages who disappeared or died was often not known. Yet conservative estimates run into the thousands, and a more realistic figure may well be higher. Between King Philip's War (1675) and the last of the French and Indian Wars (1763), approximately 1,641 New Englanders were taken hostage. During
12672-513: The only surviving children of his family. Trent senior founded Trenton, New Jersey by buying a large tract of land in 1714 below the falls of the Delaware River and developing his country house there. Moving to the new site in 1721 with his family, Trent also platted the town around his house. The young Trent grew up with his father's wealth, gained from trading and shipping in furs, dry goods and slaves , with merchants and interests in
12804-474: The organization and for now once again reversing loyalties. In the limiting case, exiting members without any personal grievance against the organization may find that re-entry into conventional social networks is contingent on at least nominally affirming such opposition coalition claims. The archetypal account that is negotiated is a "captivity narrative" in which apostates assert that they were innocently or naïvely operating in what they had every reason to believe
12936-564: The outbreak of the war. As pay was low, there was high turnover in the lower ranks. Trent was commissioned as a captain and commanded a company, then likely 25–40 men. The young Washington was promoted from Lt. Col. to Colonel to command the Regiment. When the Regiment moved across the Appalachian divide along Nemacolin's Trail , Trent was assigned to take the advance company. He established two forts that were later taken and destroyed by
13068-423: The raid on Kittanning in 1756, those of the population who were neutral or sympathetic to the English moved to Kuskusky, while those with pro-French sympathies resettled near Fort Duquesne and Logstown. The English realized that without Native American support, the French would be unable to continue the war, therefore they initiated a series of negotiations with Delaware leaders in an attempt to make them withdraw from
13200-457: The stories were popular. One spurious captivity narrative was The Remarkable Adventures of Jackson Johonnet , of Massachusetts (Boston, 1793). Another is that of Nelson Lee . Captivity in another culture brought into question many aspects of the captives' lives. Reflecting their religious beliefs, the Puritans tended to write narratives that negatively characterized Indians. They portrayed
13332-578: The subjects of film and television programs, both fiction and non-fiction. Because of the competition between New France and New England in North America, raiding between the colonies was frequent. Colonists in New England were frequently taken captive by Canadiens and their Indian allies (similarly, the New Englanders and their Indian allies took Canadiens and Indian prisoners captive). According to Kathryn Derounian-Stodola, statistics on
13464-423: The territory for New France . After stopping at the abandoned village of Kittanning , Céloron arrived at Logstown on August 8, 1749. That night, the French were warned that "80 warriors starting from Kaskaské were on the point of arriving; that they came intending to aid their brothers, and to deal us a blow." Céloron ordered his men to prepare for battle, but there was no attack, and instead the warriors appeared at
13596-516: The terror of being taken captive, childbirth during the forced march, prolonged separation from her three young children, degradation and neglect in a French prison, the loss of a newborn, a battle with smallpox, separation from her husband, and finally, widowhood as her spouse fell in yet another battle in the years-long French and Indian war. Spear borrowed heavily from Johnson's text, lifting both details and dialogue to construct her story. In pitching her tale to young readers, however, she focused not on
13728-534: The time, was remembered and became an element in the American frontier story. During Father Rale's War , Indians raided Dover, New Hampshire . Elizabeth Hanson wrote a captivity narrative after gaining return to her people. Susannah Willard Johnson of New Hampshire wrote about her captivity during the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War ). In the final 30 years of
13860-595: The time. Out of thousands of religious groups, a handful have become associated with acts of violence. This includes the Peoples Temple founded by Jim Jones in 1955, which ended in a murder/suicide claiming the lives of 918 people in November, 1978 in Guyana (see main article: Peoples Temple ). Members of the Peoples Temple who did not die in the murder/suicide are examples of "cult survivors", and
13992-595: The treaty, mandating the retreat of Lenape Indians from Fort Duquesne, as "the most important treaty ever concluded with the North American Indians [which] made possible the winning of the French and Indian War." Captivity narrative Captivity narratives are usually stories of people captured by enemies whom they consider uncivilized, or whose beliefs and customs they oppose. The best-known captivity narratives in North America are those concerning Europeans and Americans taken as captives and held by
14124-647: The trial of events as a warning from God concerning the state of the Puritans' souls, and concluded that God was the only hope for redemption. Such a religious cast had also been part of the framework of earlier English accounts of captivity by Barbary pirates. The numerous conflicts between Anglo-American colonists and the French and Native Americans led to the emphasis of Indians' cruelty in English-language captivity narratives, which served to inspire hatred for their enemies. In William Flemming's Narrative of
14256-529: The upper Ohio Valley had been conquered by the Iroquois nations, based in New York and northern Pennsylvania, and they kept it open by right of conquest as their hunting ground. They had needed new grounds after exhausting some of the fur game to the east. In 1744, Trent made large land purchases from Native Americans in the Ohio Country along the Ohio River , west of the Appalachian Mountains . Trent
14388-400: The values held by some spiritual minority (which may be caricatured). As is true of the broader category, anti-cult captivity narratives are sometimes regarded with suspicion due to their ideological underpinnings, their formulaic character, and their utility in justifying social control measures. In addition, critics of the genre tend to reject the " mind control " thesis, and to observe that it
14520-500: The warriors and their families settled at Conchake (present-day Coshocton, Ohio ). The remainder went farther east to build a new town at Kuskusky. At this time, the rival colonies of Pennsylvania and Virginia were competing against Canada to attain control over the Ohio Country , a source of skins and furs and a geographic middle ground between the eastern colonies and the Mississippi and lands west of it. For Canada, control of
14652-529: The weapons and ammunition to the Ohio Indians. However, only the Delaware's expressed that their goods were received. In addition to the goods being delivered, it was also settled that Andrew Montour and George Croghan would travel to South Carolina and advocate for the release of warriors of the Shawonese Nation. The Virginia Regiment recruited men in Virginia and Pennsylvania in 1754 before
14784-772: The white people were coming against the Indians," which was overheard by Pisquetomen's brother and his wife, who said they would see Gibson burnt alive as soon as Pisquetomen returned. Pisquetomen instead took Gibson to live with him in a tent outside Kuskusky, rather than have him killed. In March, 1759, Gibson escaped, together with Marie Le Roy and Barbara Leininger and a Scotsman named David Brackenridge, and walked 250 miles to Fort Pitt (then under construction). Richard and Catharine Bard were captured by Lenape Indians at their mill in York County, Pennsylvania , on 13 April, 1758. Six others, including two children and Thomas Potter, brother of General James Potter , were also captured, and
14916-489: Was "divided into four Towns, each at a Distance from the others, and the whole consists of about 90 Houses and 200 able Warriors." Post encountered some French soldiers living in the town: The French came and would speak with me. There were then 15 of them building Houses for the Indians. The Captain is gone with 15 to another Town. He can speak the Indian Tongue well. The Indians say he is a cunning Fox; that they get
15048-488: Was a Hare Krishna devotee (member of ISKCON ) who – according to a lawsuit filed on her behalf by the American Civil Liberties Union – was abducted by deprogrammers in February 1977, and held captive for 33 days. During that time, she was subjected to abusive treatment in an effort to "deprogram" her of her religious beliefs. She escaped her captors by pretending to cooperate, then returned to
15180-417: Was a distinguished merchant and trader in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania. Trent was the second son born to Mary Coddington Trent, and was her only child to survive to adulthood. Her first son, Thomas, died in infancy. The children of William Trent Sr.'s first marriage were James, John, Maurice, and Mary Trent. However, by the year 1735, the three older sons had all died leaving William Trent Jr. and his sister as
15312-607: Was a member of, submitted a reimbursement invoice on which was written: "To Sundries got to Replace in kind those which were taken from people in the Hospital to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians Vizt." General Thomas Gage approved reimbursement to the company. Trent, along with 22 other fur traders formed a group in 1763 that was known as the Indian Company. Because of the losses the Indian Company members experienced in
15444-452: Was a normal, secure social site; were subjected to overpowering subversive techniques; endured a period of subjugation during which they experienced tribulation and humiliation; ultimately effected escape or rescue from the organization; and subsequently renounced their former loyalties and issued a public warning of the dangers of the former organization as a matter of civic responsibility. Any expressions of ambivalence or residual attraction to
15576-535: Was able to survive for several more years in poor health until his final days in spring of 1787. Trent's death resulted in his heirs and fellow Indian Company members continuing to fight for reparations under the new Constitution of the United States . However, despite the case being brought to the Supreme Court in 1792, the "William Grayson & others vs. The Commonwealth of Virginia" case
15708-480: Was an American fur trader and merchant based in the colonial-era Province of Pennsylvania . He was commissioned as a captain of the Virginia Regiment in the early stages of the French and Indian War , when he served on the western frontier with the young Lt. Colonel George Washington . Trent led an advance group who built forts and improved roads for troop access and defense of the western territory. He
15840-499: Was becoming a fixture in Native American culture by the early 18th century. On 11 November, 1747 the Seneca leader Kanuksusy traveled from Kuskusky to Philadelphia with ten young Mingo warriors to deliver news of French activities in western Pennsylvania. These were the first reports to be heard from outside the colony. He later addressed the Pennsylvania Council, declaring that he and his group were representatives of
15972-575: Was captured as a young girl (1755) and spent the remainder of her 90 years among the Seneca, is such an example. Where The Spirit Lives , a 1989 film written by Keith Leckie and directed by Bruce Pittman , turns the tables on the familiar white captive/aboriginal captors narrative. It sensitively portrays the plight of Canadian aboriginal children who were captured and sent to residential schools, where they were stripped of their Native identity and forced to conform to Eurocentric customs and beliefs. The story of Patty Hearst , which unfolded primarily in
16104-669: Was commissioned the rank of captain in June of 1746 by the Philadelphia Governor George Thomas. Trent commanded one of the four companies that were tasked to defend against Canadian threats. Less than a year later April 7, 1747, while stationed at Fort Saratoga in New York, Captain Trent and his company were ambushed by two hundred French and Indian soldiers under the command of M. de St. Luc. With only sixty troops in Captain Trent's company, he and his men appeared greatly outnumbered. After suffering
16236-625: Was common among Native American tribes, who used it as a kind of passage. Henry Grace was taken captive by the Mi'kmaq near Fort Cumberland during Father Le Loutre's War . His narrative was entitled, The History of the Life and Sufferings of Henry Grace (Boston, 1764). Anthony Casteel was taken in the Attack at Jeddore during the same war, and also wrote an account of his experience. The fifth captivity narrative, by John Payzant , recounts his being taken prisoner with his mother and three siblings during
16368-677: Was destroyed, that great numbers of Indians [were coming and] that out of regard to us, they had prevailed on Six Nations [not to] attack us but give us time to go down the Country and they desired we would set of immediately. The Commanding Officer thanked them, let them know that we had everything we wanted, that we could defend it against all the Indians in the Woods, that we had three large Armys marching to Chastise those Indians that had struck us, told them to take care of their Women and Children, but not to tell any other Natives, they said they would go
16500-676: Was destroyed, the Indians moved for a time to Fort Duquesne , then in the spring of 1757 the two girls were brought to "Kaschkaschkung, an Indian town on the Beaver Creek." There they had to "clear the plantations...to plant corn, and to do other hard work of every kind." They lived at Kuskusky for about eighteen months. In late August, 1758 they were visited by the Moravian missionary Christian Frederick Post , but not permitted to speak with him. On 12 October 1758, French and Indian forces from nearby Fort Duquesne were defeated in an attack on
16632-516: Was exposed to Roman Catholicism by attending a convent school. She subsequently resolved to become a Catholic nun, but upon admission to the order at the Hôtel-Dieu nunnery in Montreal , was soon made privy to its dark secrets: the nuns were required to service the priests sexually, and the children born of such liaisons were murdered and buried in a mass grave on the building's premises. Though
16764-440: Was forgotten. Post left Kuskusky on 29 November and returned to Philadelphia. The Kuskuskies Towns appear to have been largely abandoned after 1758, for reasons that remain unclear. These may have included military actions at the very end of the French and Indian War, the encroaching English settlements, the lack of game due to over-hunting, or a combination of these. Many Native American communities were relocating farther west into
16896-585: Was honorably discharged from his duties in December, 1747. He was thanked by the House of Delegates for his valiant stand at Fort Saratoga. Just a couple of years later, in June of 1749, Governor Hamilton declared Trent to be a justice of the court and he was tasked with keeping the peace in Cumberland county. The House of Delegates also appointed Trent as an official messenger for the Ohio Indians. Just before
17028-507: Was killed. In the summer of 1749 Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville , leading a force of eight officers, six cadets, an armorer, 20 soldiers, 180 Canadians, 30 Iroquois and 25 Abenakis , moved down the Ohio River on a flotilla of 23 large boats and birch-bark canoes, on his "lead plate expedition," burying lead plates at six locations where major tributaries entered the Ohio and nailing copper plates bearing royal arms to trees to claim
17160-423: Was later promoted to the rank of major. Trent had gone into fur trading by 1740, aided by capital from his father, a wealthy shipping merchant of Philadelphia , who was the founder of Trenton, New Jersey . The younger Trent took on George Croghan , an Irish immigrant, as his partner, as he was effective in developing trading networks with Native Americans. Some of Trent's first land deals were of modest size, with
17292-528: Was precarious Time for Us. We were warned not to go far from the House, because the People...were possessed with a murdering Spirit, which led them as in a Halter in which they were catched, and with bloody Vengeance were thirsty and drunk. On 22 November, word reached the town that General John Forbes was approaching Fort Duquesne and that the French had set fire to the fort and were retreating. The Indians were overjoyed and danced until midnight, and Post's letter
17424-529: Was tying up in his goods, in order to send to the Lower Shawna Town ; and the Indians kept pressing into his house...Some he turned out, and others, as they came in, he pushed the door in their faces; upon which they were determined to take his liquor...They brought him wampum , and offered to leave it in pledge; but he refused to let them have it; upon which they took a quantity from him. A great many of them got drunk, who then insisted upon revenge for
#723276