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50-545: The Buryat name means place covered with couch grass , and is derived from Mongolian word хиаг , meaning couch grass . The region where Kyakhta stands is advantageous for Russo-Chinese trade. The Siberian River Routes connect the fur-bearing lands of Siberia to Lake Baikal . From there, the Selenga River valley is the natural route through the Selenga Highlands southeast of Lake Baikal out onto

100-441: A dialect of Buryat, this is not supported by isoglosses . The same holds for Tsongol and Sartul dialects, which rather group with Khalkha Mongolian to which they historically belong. Buryat dialects are: Based on loan vocabulary, a division might be drawn between Russia Buryat, Mongolia Buryat and Inner Mongolian Buryat. However, as the influence of Russian is much stronger in the dialects traditionally spoken west of Lake Baikal,

150-514: A division might rather be drawn between the Khori and Bargut group on the one hand and the other three groups on the other hand. Buryat has the vowel phonemes /i, ʉ, e, a, u, o, ɔ/ (plus a few diphthongs), and the consonant phonemes /b, g, d, tʰ, m, n, x, l, r/ (each with a corresponding palatalized phoneme) and /s, ʃ, z, ʒ, h, j/ . These vowels are restricted in their occurrence according to vowel harmony . The basic syllable structure

200-455: A fort a short distance north, Troitskosavsk being the administrative and military center while Kyakhta was the trading post on the border. The Manchus built Maimaicheng just south of Kyakhta on their side of the border. Before 1762, state caravans traveled from Kyakhta to Peking . After that date, trade was mostly by barter at Kyakhta-Maimaicheng, with merchants crossing the border to make their business. Kyakhta and Maimaicheng were visited by

250-525: A pan-Mongolian language was recognized as pan-Mongolian and counterrevolutionary. The Institute of Culture was tasked with compiling a new literary language based on the East Buryat (primarily Selenga) dialect. In the early 1930s, the internationalization of the Buryat language and the active introduction of Russian-language revolutionary Marxist terms into it began. During the next reform in 1936, there

300-424: A part of municipal formations are known as inter-settlement territories  [ ru ] , a concept introduced in 2019. The Federal Law was amended on 27 May 2014 to include new types of municipal divisions: In June 2014, Chelyabinsky Urban Okrug became the first urban okrug to implement intra-urban divisions. Federal legislation introduced on May 1, 2019, added an additional territorial unit: All

350-667: A particular oblique form of the stem. In September 1931, a joint plenum of the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission of the CPSU (B) was held, which, in line with the decisions of the Central Committee, formulated a course for the construction of a socialist in content and national in form culture of the Buryat people. In the activities of the Institute of Culture, they saw a distortion of

400-531: A separate literary standard , written in a Cyrillic alphabet . It is based on the Russian alphabet with three additional letters: Ү/ү , Ө/ө and Һ/һ . There are at least 100,000 ethnic Buryats in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia , China , as well. The delimitation of Buryat mostly concerns its relationship to its immediate neighbors, Mongolian proper and Khamnigan . While Khamnigan is sometimes regarded as

450-562: Is (C)V(C) in careful articulation, but word-final CC clusters may occur in more rapid speech if short vowels of non-initial syllables get dropped. Other lengthened vowel sounds that are written as diphthongs, namely ай ( aj ), ой ( oj ), and үй ( yj ), are heard as [ɛː œː yː] . Also, эй ( ej ) is also rendered homophonous with ээ ( ee ). In unstressed syllables, /a/ and /ɔ/ become [ɐ] , while unstressed /ɤ/ becomes [ə] . These tend to disappear in fast speech. Voiced plosives are half-voiced syllable finally on

500-744: Is conventionally referred to as the Old Buryat literary and written language. Before the October Revolution, clerical records of the Western Buryats were made in the Russian language , and not by the Buryats themselves, but by representatives of the tsarist administration, the so-called clerks. The old Mongolian script was used only by ancestral nobility, lamas and traders Relations with Tuva, Outer and Inner Mongolia. In 1905, on

550-467: Is home to the Damdin Sükhbaatar memorial museum. Kyakhta has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dwb ) with dry, severely cold winters and warm, moist summers. In Mongolian, Kyakhta was formerly known as Ар Хиагт ( Ar Khiagt , lit. "North Kyakhta"); Altanbulag (then, Maimaicheng) across the border was Өвөр Хиагт ( Övör Khiagt , lit. "South Kyakhta"). When

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600-698: The Town of Kyakhta . As a municipal division , the Town of Kyakhta is incorporated within Kyakhtinsky Municipal District as Kyakhta Urban Settlement . Kyakhta's economy today relies mainly on its status as an important center for trade between Russia, China, and Mongolia, located on the highway from the republic's capital of Ulan-Ude to the Mongolian capital of Ulan Bator . It also has textile, lumber, and food-processing plants. Kyakhta

650-591: The Federation Council ( upper house of the Federal Assembly ). They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy. De jure, excluding the occupied Ukrainian territories, there are 6 types of federal subjects—21 republics , 9 krais , 46 oblasts , 2 federal cities , 1 autonomous oblast , and 4 autonomous okrugs . Autonomous okrugs are the only ones that have a peculiar status of being federal subjects in their own right, yet at

700-598: The invasion of Ukraine that began in late February, which were organized by Russian occupation authorities in territories where hostilities were ongoing and much of the population had fled. It occurred seven months after the start of the invasion and less than a month after the start of the Ukrainian Kharkiv counteroffensive . The signing ceremony was held in the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow in

750-472: The 18th century. Buryats have changed the literary base of their written language three times in order to approach the living spoken language, first using the Mongolian script , switching to Latin in 1930, and finally Cyrillic in 1939, which is currently used. From the end of the 17th century, Classical Mongolian was used in clerical and religious practice. The language of the end of the 17th—19th centuries

800-531: The 1989 All-Union Population Census, the region was home to about 1,038,000 people, including 726,200 Russians (70%) and 249,500 Buryats (24%). Twenty years later, according to the 2010 All-Russian Census, 461,400 Buryats lived in Russia. The permanent population of Buryatia amounted to about 972,000 people, including 630,780 (66.1%) Russians and 286,840 (30%) Buryats. Since the days of the Russian Empire,

850-776: The Federation. However, six of these federal subjects—the Republic of Crimea , the Donetsk People's Republic , the Kherson Oblast , the Lugansk People's Republic , the federal city of Sevastopol , and the Zaporozhye Oblast —are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine . All federal subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal representation—two delegates each—in

900-613: The Irkutsk Oblast and Trans-Baikal Territory. One of the reasons for the artificial division of Buryats into different administrative units was the fight against so-called "pan-Mongolism" and "Buryat nationalism" that began in the 1920s. In an effort to break the cultural, linguistic, and historical ties of the Buryat-Mongols with Mongolia, the Soviet and later Russian authorities pursued a decisive policy of Russification,

950-788: The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR of 17 August 1982 "On the Procedures of Dealing with the Matters of the Administrative-Territorial Structure of the RSFSR". The 1993 Constitution, however, did not identify the matters of the administrative-territorial divisions as the responsibility of the federal government nor as the joint responsibility of the federal government and the subjects. This

1000-843: The Republic of Crimea and the City of Sevastopol as constituent members of the Russian Federation. According to the Treaty, the Republic of Crimea is accepted as a federal subject with the status of a republic while the City of Sevastopol has received federal city status. Neither the Republic of Crimea nor the city of Sevastopol are politically recognized as parts of Russia by most countries . Similarly, Russia also annexed four Ukrainian oblasts of Donetsk , Kherson , Luhansk , and Zaporozhzhia on 30 September 2022 after internationally-unrecognized referendums held days prior, during

1050-688: The Russian authorities have made efforts to destroy the national and cultural identity of the Buryats. For example, in today's Russia, the territories inhabited by ethnic Buryats are divided between the Republic of Buryatia and the Ust-Ordyn Buryat District in the Irkutsk Oblast, as well as the Aginsky Buryat District in the Trans-Baikal Territory. In addition to these administrative-territorial units, Buryats live in some other neighboring districts of

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1100-661: The Voskreskenskaya church was being used as a stable. It was from Kyakhta that Nikolay Przhevalsky , Grigory Potanin , Pyotr Kozlov , and Vladimir Obruchev set off on their expeditions into the interior of Mongolia and Xinjiang . Town status was granted to Kyakhta in 1805. After the entire Russian-Chinese frontier was opened to trade in 1860 and the Trans-Siberian and the Chinese Eastern Railways bypassed it, Kyakhta fell into decline. In

1150-602: The addition of three special letters ( Ү ү, Ө ө, Һ һ ). Finally, in 1936, the Khorinsky oriental dialect, close and accessible to most native speakers, was chosen as the basis of the literary language at the linguistic conference in Ulan-Ude . (pre-1910) Buryat is an SOV language that makes exclusive use of postpositions . Buryat is equipped with eight grammatical cases: nominative , accusative , genitive , instrumental , ablative , comitative , dative - locative and

1200-723: The basis of the Old Mongolian script, Agvan Dorzhiev developed a script known as Vagindra , which by 1910 had at least a dozen books printed. However, use of vagindra was not widespread. In 1926, an organized scientific development of the Buryat Latinized writing began in the USSR . In 1929, the draft Buryat alphabet was created. It contained the following letters: A a, B b, C c, Ç ç, D d, E e, Ә ә, Ɔ ɔ, G g, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, O o, P p, R r, S s, Ş ş, T t, U u, Y y, Z z, Ƶ ƶ, H h, F f, V v . However, this project

1250-565: The famous English adventurer and engineer Samuel Bentham in 1782. He related that he was entertained by the commander of the Chinese city "with the greatest politeness which a stranger can meet with in any country whatever". At that time, the Russians sold furs, textiles, clothing, hides, leather, hardware, and cattle, while the Chinese sold silk , cotton stuffs, teas , fruits, porcelain , rice, candles, rhubarb , ginger , and musk . Much of

1300-621: The federal subjects are grouped into eight federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia . The envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with federal laws. For economic and statistical purposes the federal subjects are grouped into twelve economic regions. Economic regions and their parts sharing common economic trends are in turn grouped into economic zones and macrozones . In order for

1350-671: The first syllable ( xob [xɔb̥] ' calumny ' , xobto [xɔb̥tʰɐ] ' chest ' ), but completely devoiced on the second syllable onwards ( tyleb [tʰʉləp] ' shape ' , harapša [harɐpʃɐ] ' shed ' ). Velar stops are "postvelarized" in words containing back vowel harmony: g ar [ɢar̥] ' hand ' , xo g [xɔɢ̥] ' trash ' , but not as in g er [gɤr̥] ' house ' , tee g [tʰeːg̊] ' cross-beam ' . Also, /g/ becomes [ʁ] between back vowels ( jaa g aab [jaːʁaːp] ' what has happened? ' ). The phoneme /n/ becomes [ŋ] before velar consonants, while word finally it may cause nasalization of

1400-456: The following types of high-level administrative divisions are recognized: Autonomous okrugs and okrugs are intermediary units of administrative divisions, which include some of the federal subject's districts and cities/towns/urban-type settlements of federal subject significance. Typical lower-level administrative divisions include: In the course of the Russian municipal reform of 2004–2005, all federal subjects of Russia were to streamline

1450-583: The leaders of the Buryat-Mongolian Writers' Union Solbone Tuya, editor of the Buryaad-Mongolian Unen newspaper B. Vancikov and others. They were accused of "polluting the Buryat language with Pan-Mongolian and Lama-religious terms," as well as of counter-revolutionary, Pan-Mongolian distortions of the works of the classics of Marxism-Leninism, and of Mongolizing their native language, namely, "translating into Mongolian with

1500-587: The mid-20th century, a branch railway was built from Ulan-Ude (on the Trans-Siberian) to Mongolia's Ulan Bator , and, eventually, to China, paralleling the old Kyakhta trade route. However, this railway crosses the Russian-Mongolian border not in Kyakhta itself, but in nearby Naushki . As the first market town on the border between the Russian and Chinese Empires, Kyakhta gave its name to

1550-492: The nation's constitution, do not have competences of their own, and do not manage regional affairs. They exist solely to monitor consistency between the federal and regional bodies of law, and ensure governmental control over the civil service, judiciary, and federal agencies operating in the regions. The federal district system was established on 13 May 2000. Since 30 September 2022, the Russian Federation has consisted of eighty-nine federal subjects that are constituent members of

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1600-414: The northern border of Mongolia . In Russia, it is an official language in the Republic of Buryatia and was an official language in the former Ust-Orda Buryatia and Aga Buryatia autonomous okrugs . In the Russian census of 2002, 353,113 people out of an ethnic population of 445,175 reported speaking Buryat (72.3%). Some other 15,694 can also speak Buryat, mostly ethnic Russians. Buryats in Russia have

1650-482: The party line in the development of the main issues of national and cultural construction and gave basic guidelines for the Institute's further work. In particular, it was noted that the Old Mongolian writing system penetrated Buryatia from Mongolia along with Lamaism and, before the revolution, "served in the hands of the Lama, Noyonat, and kulaks as an instrument of oppression of illiterate workers." The theory of creating

1700-470: The place of Barsukov winter camp. A church was erected inside the wooden fortress. The church gave the name both to the Troitskaya (Trinity) Fortress and to the future town of Troitskosavsk. This is what the town was called until 1734 when it was merged with the trading settlement of Kyakhta and renamed Troitskosavsk-Kyakhta. In 1934, the name was shortened to Kyakhta." Other sources have Troitskosavsk as

1750-687: The plains of Mongolia. Kyakhta was founded in 1727 soon after the Treaty of Kyakhta was negotiated just north at Selenginsk . It was the starting point of the boundary markers that defined what is now the northern border of Mongolia. Kyakhta's founder, the Serb Sava Vladislavich , established it as a trading point between Russia and the Qing Empire . "He gave instructions to build the Troitskosavsky Fortress at

1800-453: The preceding vowel ( a n xa n [aŋxɐŋ ~ aŋxɐ̃] ' beginning ' ) In the Aga dialect, /s/ and /z/ are pronounced as non-sibilants [θ] and [ð] , respectively. /tʃ/ in loans was often substituted by simple /ʃ/ . /r/ is devoiced to [r̥] before voiceless consonants. Lexical stress (word accent) falls on the last heavy nonfinal syllable when one exists. Otherwise, it falls on

1850-457: The presence of occupation authority heads Leonid Pasechnik , Denis Pushilin , Yevgeny Balitsky , and Vladimir Saldo , and Russian President Vladimir Putin . Like Crimea, none of the four occupied regions are internationally recognized as part of Russia. Prior to the adoption of the 1993 Constitution of Russia , the administrative-territorial structure of Russia was regulated by the Decree of

1900-469: The region. In the 1940s, the Soviet Union completely stopped printing in the Old Mongolian language. The so-called "Pan-Mongolian" words, which were actually Mongolian and Tibetan, were massively replaced by "international" words, i.e. Russian. The Buryats are the indigenous people of the Republic of Buryatia, yet today the majority of the republic's residents are of Russian nationality. According to

1950-489: The same time they are considered to be administrative divisions of other federal subjects (with the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug being the only exception). On 18 March 2014, as a part of the annexation of Crimea and following the establishment of the Republic of Crimea (an independent entity that was recognized only by Russia), a treaty was signed between Russia and the Republic of Crimea incorporating

2000-450: The selection of reactionary Buddhist feudal-theocratic, Khan Wan words that are incomprehensible and inaccessible to the population of Soviet Buryatia." Since 1938, Russian was introduced as a compulsory language from the 1st grade, thus consolidating Buryat-Russian bilingualism. Changes in the spelling, alphabet and literary norms on which the language is based reduced the prestige of the Buryat language, consolidating Russian domination in

2050-526: The settlement of the Republic of Buryatia by Russians, the replacement of the Mongolian script with the Cyrillic alphabet, and so on. At the moment, UNESCO has officially included the Buryat language in the Red Book of Endangered Languages. According to the 2010 All-Russian Census, 130,500 people in the Republic of Buryatia spoke Buryat, or only 13.4% of the total population. Currently, the process of reducing

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2100-475: The so-called Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin , a contact language that was used by Russian and Chinese traders to communicate. Within the framework of administrative divisions , Kyakhta serves as the administrative center of Kyakhtinsky District . As an administrative division, it is, together with one rural locality (the settlement of Sudzha ), incorporated within Kyakhtinsky District as

2150-446: The spheres of use of the Buryat language continues. Russian is compulsory in Buryat schools, while Buryat is optional. There is a lack of Buryat-language publications, TV channels, periodicals, etc. Subdivisions of Russia#Administrative divisions Russia is divided into several types and levels of subdivisions. The federal districts are groupings of the federal subjects of Russia. Federal districts are not mentioned in

2200-498: The structures of local self-government, which is guaranteed by the Constitution of Russia . The reform mandated that each federal subject was to have a unified structure of municipal government bodies by 1 January 2005, and a law enforcing the reform provisions went into effect on 1 January 2006. According to the law, the units of the municipal division (called " municipal formations ") are as follows: Territories not included as

2250-495: The tea is said to have come from Yangloudong  [ zh ] , a major center of tea production and trade near today's Chibi City , Hubei . Kyakhta was crowded, unclean, ill-planned, and never came to reflect the wealth that flowed through it, although several Neoclassical buildings were erected in the 19th century, including a tea bourse (1842) and the Orthodox cathedral (1807–1817), both of which still stand. In 1996

2300-712: The town was known as Troitskosavsk, its name in Mongolian was Дээд Шивээ ( Deed Šhivee ). Buryat language Buryat or Buriat , known in foreign sources as the Bargu-Buryat dialect of Mongolian , and in pre-1956 Soviet sources as Buryat-Mongolian , is a variety of the Mongolic languages spoken by the Buryats and Bargas that is classified either as a language or major dialect group of Mongolian. The majority of Buryat speakers live in Russia along

2350-482: The word-final heavy syllable when one exists. If there are no heavy syllables, then the initial syllable is stressed. Heavy syllables without primary stress receive secondary stress : Secondary stress may also occur on word-initial light syllables without primary stress, but further research is required. The stress pattern is the same as in Khalkha Mongolian . Buryat has been a literary language since

2400-637: Was a reorientation to the Khorin dialect. The reform coincided with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, so it was intended to isolate the Buryats from the rest of the Mongol world. In 1939, the Buryat language was translated into the Cyrillic alphabet, a process that coincided with active repression of the Buryat intelligentsia, including scholars and statesmen who had been involved in the language reform. Among them were publicist and literary critic Dampilon, one of

2450-415: Was interpreted by the governments of the federal subjects as a sign that the matters of the administrative-territorial divisions became solely the responsibility of the federal subjects. As a result, the modern administrative-territorial structures of the federal subjects vary significantly from one federal subject to another. While the implementation details may be considerably different, in general, however,

2500-518: Was not approved. In February 1930, a new version of the Latinized alphabet was approved. It contained letters of the standard Latin alphabet (except for h, q, x ), digraphs ch, sh, zh , and also the letter ө . But in January 1931, its modified version was officially adopted, unified with other alphabets of peoples within the USSR . In 1939, the Latinized alphabet was replaced by Cyrillic with

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