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52-451: H7N1 is a subtype of the species Influenza A virus (sometimes called bird flu virus). H7N1 was first isolated in 1972, from Eurasian siskin . A highly pathogenic strain of it caused a flu outbreak with significant spread to numerous farms, resulting in great economic losses in 1999 in Italy in turkeys . Influenzavirus A Influenza A virus (IAV) is the only species of

104-420: A cold , although usually more severe and less likely to include a runny nose . The onset of symptoms is sudden, and initial symptoms are predominately non-specific: a sudden fever; muscle aches; cough; fatigue; sore throat; headache; difficulty sleeping; loss of appetite; diarrhoea or abdominal pain; nausea and vomiting. Humans can rarely become infected with strains of avian or swine influenza , usually as

156-408: A pure culture . To make a subculture , one again works in aseptic technique in microbiology , lifting a single colony off the agar surface with a loop and streaks the material into the 4 quadrants of an agar plate or all over if the colony was singular and did not look mixed. Gram staining allows for visualization of the bacteria's cell wall composition based on the color the bacteria stains after

208-400: A zoonotic event. It is thought that all influenza A viruses causing outbreaks or pandemics among humans since the 1900s originated from strains circulating in wild aquatic birds through reassortment with other influenza strains. It is possible (though not certain) that pigs may act as an intermediate host for reassortment. The Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS)

260-593: A common ancestor around 8,000 years ago. Outbreaks of influenza-like disease can be found throughout recorded history. The first probable record is by Hippocrates in 142 BCE. The historian Fujikawa listed 46 epidemics of flu-like illness in Japan between 862 and 1868. In Europe and the Americas, a number of epidemics were recorded through the Middle Ages and up to the end of the 19th century. In 1918-1919 came

312-420: A different speed, varying from hours ( Escherichia coli ) to weeks (e.g. mycobacteria ). At regular, serial intervals laboratory technicians and microbiologists inspect the media for signs of visible growth and record it. The inspection again has to occur under conditions favoring the isolate's survival, i.e. in an 'anaerobic chamber' for anaerobe bacteria for example, and under conditions that do not threaten

364-428: A dry, hacking cough, depression, loss of appetite and weakness. EI is caused by two subtypes of influenza A viruses: H7N7 and H3N8, which have evolved from avian influenza A viruses. Most animals infected with canine influenza A will show symptoms such as coughing, runny nose, fever, lethargy, eye discharge, and a reduced appetite lasting anywhere from 2–3 weeks. There are two different influenza A dog flu viruses: one

416-462: A layer between the nucleoprotein and the envelope, called the capsid . Envelope - The viral envelope consists of a lipid bilayer derived from the host cell. Two viral proteins; hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), are inserted into the envelope and are exposed as spikes on the surface of the virion. Both proteins are antigenic ; a host's immune system can react to them and produce antibodies in response. The M2 protein forms an ion channel in

468-669: A lipid envelope. The virus particle (also called the virion ) is 80–120 nanometers in diameter such that the smallest virions adopt an elliptical shape; larger virions have a filamentous shape. Core - The central core of the virion contains the viral RNA genome, which is made of eight separate segments. The nucleoprotein (NP) coats the viral RNA to form a ribonucleoprotein that assumes a helical (spiral) configuration. Three large proteins (PB 1 , PB 2 , and PA), which are responsible for RNA transcription and replication, are bound to each segment of viral RNP. Capsid - The matrix protein M1 forms

520-404: A mechanism called cap-snatching . It consists in the hijacking and cleavage of host capped pre-mRNAs . Host cell mRNA is cleaved near the cap to yield a primer for the transcription of positive-sense viral mRNA using the negative-sense viral RNA as a template. The host cell then transports the viral mRNA into the cytoplasm where ribosomes manufacture the viral proteins. Replication of

572-593: A pandemic in 2009. Because of its close resemblance to some strains circulating in pigs, this became known as " Swine flu " Influenza A virus continues to circulate and evolve in birds and pigs. Almost all possible combinations of H (1 thru 16) and N (1 thru 11) have been isolated from wild birds. As of June 2024, two particularly virulent IAV strains - H5N1 and H7N9 - are predominant in wild bird populations. These frequently cause outbreaks in domestic poultry, with occasional spillover infections in humans who are in close contact with poultry. Influenza viruses have

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624-413: A pre-warmed transport container, and a microbe that dries and dies when carried on a cotton swab will need a viral transport medium before it can be cultured successfully. Laboratory technicians inoculate the sample onto certain solid agar plates with the streak plate method or into liquid culture medium , depending what the objective of the isolation is: After the sample is inoculated into or onto

676-467: A relatively high mutation rate that is characteristic of RNA viruses . The segmentation of the influenza A virus genome facilitates genetic recombination by segment reassortment in hosts who become infected with two different strains of influenza viruses at the same time. With reassortment between strains, an avian strain which does not affect humans may acquire characteristics from a different strain which enable it to infect and pass between humans -

728-407: A result of close contact with infected animals or contaminated material; symptoms generally resemble seasonal flu but occasionally can be severe including death. Some species of wild aquatic birds act as natural asymptomatic carriers of a large variety of influenza A viruses, which they can spread over large distances in their annual migration. Symptoms of avian influenza vary according to both

780-474: A result of close contact with infected animals; symptoms range from mild to severe including death. Bird-adapted strains of the virus can be asymptomatic in some aquatic birds but lethal if they spread to other species, such as chickens. IAV disease in poultry can be can be prevented by vaccination, however biosecurity control measures are preferred. In humans, seasonal influenza can be treated in its early stages with antiviral medicines. A global network,

832-400: A segmented genome. Through a combination of mutation and genetic reassortment the virus can evolve to acquire new characteristics, enabling it to evade host immunity and occasionally to jump from one species of host to another. Subtypes of IAV are defined by the combination of the antigenic H and N proteins in the viral envelope ; for example, " H1N1 " designates an IAV subtype that has

884-763: A series of staining and decolorization steps. This staining process allows for the identification of gram-negative and gram positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria will stain a pink color due to the thin layer of peptidoglycan. If a bacteria stains purple, due to the thick layer of peptidoglycan, the bacteria is a gram-positive bacteria. In clinical microbiology numerous other staining techniques for particular organisms are used (acid fast bacterial stain for mycobacteria). Immunological staining techniques, such as direct immunofluorescence have been developed for medically important pathogens that are slow growing ( Auramine-rhodamine stain for mycobacteria ) or difficult to grow (such as Legionella pneumophila species) and where

936-644: A type-1 hemagglutinin (H) protein and a type-1 neuraminidase (N) protein. Almost all possible combinations of H (1 thru 16) and N (1 thru 11) have been isolated from wild birds. Further variations exist within the subtypes and can lead to very significant differences in the virus's ability to infect and cause disease, as well as to the severity of symptoms. Symptoms of human seasonal flu usually include fever, cough, sore throat , muscle aches , conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. Humans can rarely become infected with strains of avian or swine influenza , usually as

988-491: A type-5 hemagglutinin (H) protein and a type-1 neuraminidase (N) protein. Further variations exist within the subtypes and can lead to very significant differences in the virus's behavior. By definition, the subtyping scheme only takes into account the two outer proteins, not the at least 8 proteins internal to the virus. Almost all possible combinations of H (1 thru 16) and N (1 thru 11) have been isolated from wild birds. H17 and H18 have only been discovered in bats. Due to

1040-576: Is a global network of laboratories that monitor the spread of influenza with the aim to provide the World Health Organization with influenza control information and to inform vaccine development. Several millions of specimens are tested by the GISRS network annually through a network of laboratories in 127 countries. As well as human viruses, GISRS monitors avian, swine, and other potentially zoonotic influenza viruses. Flu season

1092-455: Is an H3N8 virus and the other is an H3N2 virus. The H3N8 strain has evolved from an equine influenza avian virus which has adapted to sustained transmission among dogs. The H3N2 strain is derived from an avian influenza which jumped to dogs in 2004 in either Korea or China. It is likely that the virus persists in both animal shelters and kennels, as well as in farms where dogs are raised for meat production. The first bat flu virus, IAV(H17N10),

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1144-588: Is an annually recurring time period characterized by the prevalence of an outbreak of influenza , caused either by Influenza A or by Influenza B . The season occurs during the cold half of the year in temperate regions; November through February in the northern hemisphere and May to October in the southern hemisphere. Flu seasons also exist in the tropics and subtropics , with variability from region to region. Annually, about 3 to 5 million cases of severe illness and 290,000 to 650,000 deaths from seasonal flu occur worldwide. There are several possible reasons for

1196-676: Is based solely on the effect on chickens - a virus strain is highly pathogenic avian influenza ( HPAI ) if 75% or more of chickens die after being deliberately infected with it, or if it is genetically similar to such a strain. The alternative classification is low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI). Classification of a virus strain as either LPAI or HPAI is based on the severity of symptoms in domestic chickens and does not predict severity of symptoms in other species. Chickens infected with LPAI display mild symptoms or are asymptomatic , whereas HPAI causes serious breathing difficulties, significant drop in egg production, and sudden death. Since 2006,

1248-513: Is by sequencing their 16S rRNA gene, which has been PCR-amplified beforehand, this method does not require isolation. Since most bacteria cannot be grown with conventional methods (particularly environmental or soil bacteria) metagenomics or metatranscriptomics are used, shotgun sequencing or PCR directed sequencing of the genome . Sequencing with mass spectrometry as in Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI-TOF MS)

1300-511: Is concern about two subtypes of avian influenza which are circulating in wild bird populations worldwide, H5N1 and H7N9 . Both of these have potential to devastate poultry stocks, and both have jumped to humans with relatively high case fatality rates . H5N1 in particular has infected a wide range of mammals and may be adapting to mammalian hosts. As of June 2024, the influenza viruses which circulate widely in humans are IAV subtypes H1N1 and H3N2, together with Influenza B. Annual vaccination

1352-596: Is possible to vaccinate poultry and pigs against specific strains of influenza. Vaccination should be combined with other control measures such as infection monitoring, early detection and biosecurity. The main treatment for mild influenza is supportive; rest, fluids, and over-the-counter medicines to alleviate symptoms while the body's own immune system works to recover from infection. Antiviral drugs are recommended for those with severe symptoms, or for those who are at risk of developing complications such as pneumonia. The symptoms of seasonal flu are similar to those of

1404-438: Is spread either through close contact between animals or by the movement of contaminated equipment between farms. Humans who are in close contact with pigs can sometimes become infected. Equine influenza can affect horses, donkeys, and mules; it has a very high rate of transmission among horses, and a relatively short incubation time of one to three days. Clinical signs of equine influenza include fever, nasal discharge, have

1456-443: Is the primary and most effective way to prevent influenza and influenza-associated complications, especially for high-risk groups. Vaccines against the flu are trivalent or quadrivalent, providing protection against the dominant strains of IAV(H1N1) and IAV(H3N2), and one or two influenza B virus strains; the formulation is continually reviewed in order to match the predominant strains in circulation. Poultry and other animals - it

1508-572: The Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS) monitors the spread of influenza with the aim to inform development of both seasonal and pandemic vaccines. Several millions of specimens are tested by the GISRS network annually through a network of laboratories in 127 countries. As well as human viruses, GISRS monitors avian, swine, and other potentially zoonotic influenza viruses. IAV vaccines need to be reformulated regularly in order to keep up with changes in

1560-584: The World Organization for Animal Health requires all detections of LPAI H5 and H7 subtypes to be reported because of their potential to mutate into highly pathogenic strains. Signs of swine flu in pigs can include fever, depression, coughing (barking), discharge from the nose or eyes, sneezing, breathing difficulties, eye redness or inflammation, and going off feed. Some pigs infected with influenza, however, may show no signs of illness at all. Swine flu subtypes are principally H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2; it

1612-416: The genus Alphainfluenzavirus of the virus family Orthomyxoviridae . It is a pathogen with strains that infect birds and some mammals , as well as causing seasonal flu in humans. Mammals in which different strains of IAV circulate with sustained transmission are bats, pigs, horses and dogs; other mammals can occasionally become infected. IAV is an enveloped negative-sense RNA virus , with

Influenza A virus subtype H7N1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

1664-464: The 19th century in the field of bacteriology and parasitology using light microscopy . 1860 marked the successful introduction of liquid medium by Louis Pasteur . The liquid culture pasteur developed allowed for the visulization of promoting or inhibiting growth of specific bacteria. This same technique is utilized today through various mediums like Mannitol salt agar , a solid medium. Solid cultures were developed in 1881 when Robert Koch solidified

1716-496: The choice media, they are incubated under the appropriate atmospheric settings, such as aerobic, anaerobic or microaerophilic conditions or with added carbon dioxide (5%), at different temperature settings, for example 37 °C in an incubator or in a refrigerator for cold enrichment, under appropriate light, for example strictly without light wrapped in paper or in a dark bottle for scotochromogen mycobacteria, and for different lengths of time, because different bacteria grow at

1768-427: The core of new virions. The predominant natural reservoir of influenza viruses is thought to be wild waterfowl. The subtypes of influenza A virus are estimated to have diverged 2,000 years ago. Influenza viruses A and B are estimated to have diverged from a single ancestor around 4,000 years ago, while the ancestor of influenza viruses A and B and the ancestor of influenza virus C are estimated to have diverged from

1820-409: The envelope and is responsible for uncoating the virion once it has bound to a host cell. The table below presents a concise summary of the influenza genome and the principal functions of the proteins which are encoded. Segments are conventionally numbered from 1 to 8 in descending order of length. PB2 also inhibits JAK1/STAT signaling to inhibit host innate immune response It also degrades

1872-412: The environment, for example in water or soil flora , or from living beings with skin flora , oral flora or gut flora , one has to separate it from the mix. Traditionally microbes have been cultured in order to identify the microbe(s) of interest based on its growth characteristics. Depending on the expected density and viability of microbes present in a liquid sample, physical methods to increase

1924-475: The first flu pandemic of the 20th century, known generally as the " Spanish flu ", which caused an estimated 20 to 50 million deaths worldwide. It is now known that this was caused by an immunologically novel H1N1 subtype of influenza A. The next pandemic took place in 1957, the " Asian flu ", which was caused by a H2N2 subtype of the virus in which the genome segments coding for HA and NA appeared to have derived from avian influenza strains by reassortment, while

1976-423: The gradient as for example serial dilution or centrifugation may be chosen. In order to isolate organisms in materials with high microbial content, such as sewage, soil or stool, serial dilutions will increase the chance of separating a mixture. In a liquid medium with few or no expected organisms, from an area that is normally sterile (such as CSF , blood inside the circulatory system) centrifugation, decanting

2028-486: The high variability of the virus, subtyping is not sufficient to uniquely identify a strain of influenza A virus. To unambiguously describe a specific isolate of virus, researchers use the Influenza virus nomenclature, which describes, among other things, the subtype, year, and place of collection. Some examples include: The influenza A virus has a negative-sense , single-stranded, segmented RNA genome , enclosed in

2080-575: The host cell's mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein At the early stage of infection, the RNP binds to the host cell's importin-α which transports it into the host cell nucleus, where the viral RNA is transcribed and replicated. At a later stage of infection, newly manufactured viral RNA segments assemble with the NP protein and polymerase (PB1, PB2 and PA) to form the core of a progeny virion NA also facilitates

2132-448: The liquid media through the addition of agar Proper isolation techniques of virology did not exist prior to the 20th century. The methods of microbial isolation have drastically changed over the past 50 years, from a labor perspective with increasing mechanization, and in regard to the technologies involved, and with it speed and accuracy. In order to isolate a microbe from a natural, mixed population of living microbes , as present in

Influenza A virus subtype H7N1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

2184-531: The movement of infective virus particles through mucus, enabling them to reach host epithelial cells. M1 also assists with the function of the NEP protein. Three viral proteins - PB1, PB2, and PA - associate to form the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which functions to transcribe and replicate the viral RNA. Viral messenger RNA Transcription - The RdRp complex transcribes viral mRNAs by using

2236-456: The person looking at the plates from being infected by a particularly infectious microbe, i.e. under a biological safety cabinet for Yersinia pestis (plague) or Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) for example. When bacteria have visibly grown, they are often still mixed. The identification of a microbe depends upon the isolation of an individual colony , as biochemical testing of a microbe to determine its different physiological features depends on

2288-470: The relationship between influenza viruses and bacteria, how influenza symptoms progress, and why some influenza viruses are deadlier than others. Past pandemics, and especially the 1918 pandemic, are the subject of much research to understand and prevent flu pandemics. The World Health Organization has published a Research Agenda with five streams: Isolation (microbiology) The laboratory techniques of isolating microbes first developed during

2340-513: The remainder of the genome was descended from the 1918 virus. The 1968 pandemic (" Hong Kong flu " ) was caused by a H3N2 subtype in which the NA segment was derived from the 1957 virus, while the HA segment had been reassorted from an avian strain of influenza. In the 21st century, a strain of H1N1 flu (since titled H1N1pdm09 ) which was antigenically very different from previous H1N1 strains, leading to

2392-492: The strain of virus underlying the infection, and on the species of bird affected. Symptoms of influenza in birds may include swollen head, watery eyes, unresponsiveness, lack of coordination, respiratory distress such as sneezing or gurgling. Because of the impact of avian influenza on economically important chicken farms, avian virus strains are classified as either highly pathogenic (and therefore potentially requiring vigorous control measures) or low pathogenic. The test for this

2444-539: The supernatant and using only the sediment will increase the chance to grow and isolate bacteria or the usually cell-associated viruses. If one expects or looks for a particularly fastidious organism, the microbiological culture and isolation techniques will have to be geared towards that microbe. For example, a bacterium that dies when exposed to air, can only be isolated if the sample is carried and processed under airless or anaerobic conditions. A bacterium that dies when exposed to room temperature (thermophilic) requires

2496-420: The test result would alter standard management and empirical therapy . Biochemical testing of bacteria involves a set of agars in vials to separate motile from non-motile bacteria . In 1970 a miniaturized version was developed, called the analytical profile index . Successful identification via e.g. genome sequencing and genomics depends on pure cultures. While the most rapid method to identify bacteria

2548-417: The viral RNA - The replication of the influenza virus, unlike most other RNA viruses , takes place in the nucleus and involves two steps. The RdRp first of all transcribes the negative-sense viral genome into a positive-sense complimentary RNA (cRNA), then the cRNAs are used as templates to transcribe new negative-sense vRNA copies. These are exported from the nucleus and assemble near the cell membrane to form

2600-622: The virus. There are two methods of classification, one based on surface proteins (originally serotypes ), and the other based on its behavior, mainly the host animal . There are two antigenic proteins on the surface of the viral envelope, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase . Different influenza virus genomes encode different hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins. Based on their serotype , there are 18 known types of hemagglutinin and 11 types of neuraminidase. Subtypes of IAV are classified by their combination of H and N proteins. For example, " H5N1 " designates an influenza A subtype that has

2652-949: The winter peak in temperate regions: A zoonosis a disease in a human caused by a pathogen (such as a bacterium , or virus ) that has jumped from a non-human to a human . Avian and pig influenza viruses can, on rare occasions, transmit to humans and cause zoonotic influenza virus infections; these infections are usually confined to people who have been in close contact with infected animals or material such as infected feces and meat, they do not spread to other humans. Symptoms of these infections in humans vary greatly; some are in asymptomatic or mild while others can cause severe disease, leading to severe pneumonia and death. A wide range of Influenza A virus subtypes have been found to cause zoonotic disease. Zoonotic infections can be prevented by good hygiene, by preventing farmed animals from coming into contact with wild animals, and by using appropriate personal protective equipment. As of June 2024, there

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2704-465: Was first discovered in 2009 in little yellow-shouldered bats ( Sturnira lilium ) in Guatemala . In 2012 a second bat influenza A virus IAV(H18N11) was discovered in flat-faced fruit-eating bats ( Artibeus planirostris ) from Peru . Bat influenza viruses have been found to be poorly adapted to non-bat species. Influenza research includes efforts to understand how influenza viruses enter hosts,

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