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105-680: HMT Empire Windrush was a passenger motor ship that was launched in Germany in 1930 as the MV Monte Rosa . She was built as an ocean liner for the German shipping company Hamburg Süd . They used the ship to carry German emigrants to South America, and as a cruise ship . During World War II , she was taken over by the German navy and used as a troopship . During the war, she survived two Allied attempts to sink her. After World War 2,

210-447: A flathead engine a push rod is not necessary. The overhead cam design typically allows higher engine speeds because it provides the most direct path between cam and valve. Valve clearance refers to the small gap between a valve lifter and a valve stem that ensures that the valve completely closes. On engines with mechanical valve adjustment, excessive clearance causes noise from the valve train. A too-small valve clearance can result in

315-509: A German operator. The use of diesel engines drew on the experience Blohm & Voss had gained by building diesel-powered U-boats in World War I . Windrush had a set of four four-stroke , six-cylinder, single-acting MAN Diesel engines. She had two screw propellers , each of which was driven by one pair of engines via single-reduction gearing . Her engines' combined output was rated at 6,880 brake horsepower (5,130 kW), and gave her

420-652: A Jamaican newspaper, The Daily Gleaner , offering cheap passage on the ship's return voyage; advertisements were also placed in newspapers in British Honduras , British Guiana, Trinidad and Tobago and other places. However, the cheapest fares were only available to men, who were accommodated in the large, dormitory areas usually allocated to troops. Women were required to travel in the ship's two and four-berth cabins, that cost considerably more. Many former servicemen took this opportunity to return to Britain in hope of finding better employment. Some wished to rejoin

525-487: A given hull size. Passenger ships are subject to two major International Maritime Organization requirements : to perform musters of the passengers (...) within 24 hours after their embarkation and to be able to perform full abandonment within a period of 30 minutes from the time the abandon-ship signal is given . Transportation Research Board research from 2019 reported passenger vessels, much more than freight vessels, are subject to degradations in stability as

630-667: A means of strengthening support for the Nazi regime and indoctrinating people in its ideology. The cruises ranged from eight to 20 days in duration. One route went north from Hamburg, along the Norwegian coast and travelling as far as Svalbard . Another was through the Mediterranean, stopping in Italy and Libya, and travelling as far east as Port Said . Each voyage included a number of undercover Gestapo officers, tasked with spying on

735-615: A news event. When she was in the English Channel, the Evening Standard sent an aircraft to photograph her from the air, and published the story on its front page. She docked at Tilbury , downriver from London, on 21 June 1948, and the 1,027 passengers began disembarking the next day. This was covered by newspaper reporters and by Pathé News newsreel cameras. The name Windrush, as a result, has come to be used as shorthand for West Indian migration, and, by extension, for

840-493: A replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861, Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge. In 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel mixture prior to ignition, but failed as that engine would run no more than a few minutes prior to its destruction. Many other engineers were trying to solve

945-408: A result of increases in lightship weight. Passenger vessels appear to be more pressing candidates for lightship weight-tracking programs than freight vessels. Passengers on ships without backup generators suffer substantial distress due to lack of water, refrigeration, and sewage systems in the event of loss of the main engines or generators due to fire or other emergency. Power is also unavailable to

1050-502: A ship's GRT and displacement were somewhat similar in number. For example, Titanic , put in service in 1912, had a GRT of 46,328 and a displacement reported at over 52,000 tons. Similarly, Cunard Line's mid-1930s RMS  Queen Mary and RMS Queen Elizabeth were of approximately 81,000 – 83,000 GRT and had displacements of over 80,000 tons. Today, due to changes in construction, engineering, function, architecture, and, crucially, measurement system – which measures functionally all of

1155-526: A ship's internal volume, not just part of it – modern passenger ships' GT values are much higher than their displacements. The Cunard Queens' current successor, the 148,528 GT Queen Mary 2 , has been estimated to only displace approximately 76,000 tons. With the completion in 2009 of the first of the over 225,000 GT Oasis -class cruise ships, Oasis of the Seas , passenger ships' displacements rose to 100,000 tons, well less than half their GT. This new class

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1260-403: A small cargo motor ship, Holchu , adrift with a broken mast. Empire Windrush broadcast a general warning by wireless. A British cargo steamship , Ranee , responded by changing course to investigate. Ranee found no trace of Holchu ' s five crew, and towed the vessel to Colombo. Holchu was carrying a cargo of bagged rice and was in good condition apart from her broken mast; the vessel

1365-435: A speed of 14 knots (26 km/h). This was slower than Hamburg Süd's flagship Cap Arcona , but more economical for the emigrant trade, and for pleasure cruises. Electric power was supplied by a set of DC electric generators , powered by internal combustion engines in the engine room. As built, Monte Rosa had three 350 kW generators. A fourth generator was added in 1949. She had also an emergency generator outside

1470-654: A symbol of post-war migration to Britain. British Caribbean people who came to the United Kingdom in the period after World War II, including those who came on other ships, are often referred to as the Windrush generation . Monte Rosa , was the last of five almost identical Monte-class passenger ship  [ de ] s that were built between 1924 and 1931 by Blohm & Voss in Hamburg for Hamburg Süd (Hamburg South American Steam Shipping Company). In

1575-583: A turbine system that converted waste heat into kinetic energy that it fed back into the engine's transmission. In 2005, BMW announced the development of the turbosteamer , a two-stage heat-recovery system similar to the Mack system that recovers 80% of the energy in the exhaust gas and raises the efficiency of an Otto engine by 15%. By contrast, a six-stroke engine may reduce fuel consumption by as much as 40%. Modern engines are often intentionally built to be slightly less efficient than they could otherwise be. This

1680-488: A welfare-officer. He later became Attorney General of Sierra Leone . Others passengers were Nancy Cunard , English writer and heiress to the Cunard shipping fortune; the travel writer Freya Stark (who shared a cabin with Cunard); Lady Ivy Woolley, the wife of Sir Charles Woolley , the governor of British Guiana; Gertrude Whitelaw, the wealthy widow of the former Member of Parliament William Whitelaw . and Peter Jonas , who

1785-413: Is a contact surface on which the cam slides to open the valve. Many engines use one or more camshafts "above" a row (or each row) of cylinders, as in the illustration, in which each cam directly actuates a valve through a flat tappet. In other engine designs the camshaft is in the crankcase , in which case each cam usually contacts a push rod , which contacts a rocker arm that opens a valve, or in case of

1890-480: Is an internal combustion (IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four separate strokes are termed: Four-stroke engines are the most common internal combustion engine design for motorized land transport, being used in automobiles , trucks , diesel trains , light aircraft and motorcycles . The major alternative design

1995-408: Is calculated based on "the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship", and is used to determine things such as a ship's manning regulations, safety rules, registration fees, and port dues. It is produced by a mathematical formula, and does not distinguish between mechanical and passenger spaces, and thus is not directly comparable to historic GRT measurements. Displacement , a measure of mass,

2100-425: Is characteristic of an explosive growth in gross tonnage, which has more than doubled from the largest cruise ships of the late 1990s. This reflects the much lower relative weight of enclosed space in the comparatively light superstructure of a ship versus its heavily reinforced and machinery-laden hull space, as cruise ships have grown slab-sided vertically from their maximum beam to accommodate more passengers within

2205-467: Is closer to the top. Diesel engines by their nature do not have concerns with pre-ignition. They have a concern with whether or not combustion can be started. The description of how likely Diesel fuel is to ignite is called the Cetane rating. Because Diesel fuels are of low volatility, they can be very hard to start when cold. Various techniques are used to start a cold Diesel engine, the most common being

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2310-424: Is designed to provide efficiency at the expense of power density , and is used in some modern hybrid electric applications. The original Atkinson-cycle piston engine allowed the intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes of the four-stroke cycle to occur in a single turn of the crankshaft and was designed to avoid infringing certain patents covering Otto-cycle engines. Due to the unique crankshaft design of

2415-536: Is limited by the chemical composition of the fuel. There are several grades of fuel to accommodate differing performance levels of engines. The fuel is altered to change its self ignition temperature. There are several ways to do this. As engines are designed with higher compression ratios the result is that pre-ignition is much more likely to occur since the fuel mixture is compressed to a higher temperature prior to deliberate ignition. The higher temperature more effectively evaporates fuels such as gasoline, which increases

2520-609: Is necessary for emission controls such as exhaust gas recirculation and catalytic converters that reduce smog and other atmospheric pollutants. Reductions in efficiency may be counteracted with an engine control unit using lean burn techniques . In the United States, the Corporate Average Fuel Economy mandates that vehicles must achieve an average of 34.9 mpg ‑US (6.7 L/100 km; 41.9 mpg ‑imp ) compared to

2625-507: Is not commonly used for passenger vessels. While a high displacement can indicate better sea keeping abilities, gross tonnage is promoted as the most important measure of size for passenger vessels, as the ratio of gross tonnage per passenger – the Passenger/Space Ratio – gives a sense of the spaciousness of a ship, an important consideration in cruise liners where the onboard amenities are of high importance. Historically,

2730-431: Is not immediately available due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin up the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power operation is reached. Another difficulty is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to

2835-414: Is regarded as the first car. In 1884, Otto's company, then known as Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz (GFD), developed electric ignition and the carburetor. In 1890, Daimler and Maybach formed a company known as Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft . Today, that company is Daimler-Benz . The Atkinson-cycle engine is a type of single stroke internal combustion engine invented by James Atkinson in 1882. The Atkinson cycle

2940-400: Is that the temperature rise of the compressed charge can cause pre-ignition. If this occurs at the wrong time and is too energetic, it can damage the engine. Different fractions of petroleum have widely varying flash points (the temperatures at which the fuel may self-ignite). This must be taken into account in engine and fuel design. The tendency for the compressed fuel mixture to ignite early

3045-581: Is the two-stroke cycle . Nikolaus August Otto was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels, he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir . In 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower. The Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon . In testing

3150-595: Is the second-highest mountain in the Alps. Hamburg Süd registered her at Hamburg. Her German official number was 1640, and her code letters were RHWF. By 1934 her call sign was DIDU, and this had superseded her code letters. Under UK ownership she became one of about 1,300 Empire ships . About 60 Empire ships were named after British rivers. Her namesake, the River Windrush , rises in the Cotswolds , and joins

3255-412: Is ultimately limited by material strength and lubrication . Valves, pistons and connecting rods suffer severe acceleration forces. At high engine speed, physical breakage and piston ring flutter can occur, resulting in power loss or even engine destruction. Piston ring flutter occurs when the rings oscillate vertically within the piston grooves they reside in. Ring flutter compromises the seal between

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3360-674: The Atlantic Ocean between Europe and the United States or travel even further to South America or Asia while cruise ships typically serve shorter routes with more stops along coastlines or among various islands. Both the Queen Elizabeth 2 ( QE2 ) (1969) and her successor as Cunard's flagship RMS  Queen Mary 2 ( QM2 ), which entered service in 2004, are of hybrid construction. Like transatlantic ocean liners, they are fast ships and strongly built to withstand

3465-729: The Coldharbour Lane Employment Exchange in Brixton , where some of the arrivals sought work. The stowaways were given brief prison sentences, but were allowed to remain in the UK after their release. Many of Empire Windrush ' s passengers intended to stay for only a few years. A number did return to the Caribbean, but a majority settled permanently in the UK. Those born in the West Indies who settled in

3570-539: The Great Depression was causing a global slump in shipping, including Hamburg Süd's passenger business. In 1933 trade began to recover, so Hamburg Süd returned the older ships, Monte Sarmiento and Monte Olivia , to their original role of taking emigrants to South America; and put Monte Pascoal and Monte Rosa mainly on cruises to Norway and the UK. By 1935 Monte Rosa was back on her route between Hamburg and Buenos Aires. She made more than 20 round trips on

3675-560: The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) requires passenger ships operating in international waters must either be constructed or upgraded to exclude combustible materials. It is believed some owners and operators of ships built before 1980, which are required to upgrade or retire their vessels, will be unable to conform to the regulations. Fred. Olsen Cruise Line 's Black Prince , built in 1966

3780-642: The Minister of Labour , stated in Parliament that there would be no encouragement for others to follow their example. Despite this, Parliament did not pass the first legislation controlling immigration from the Commonwealth until 1962. Passengers who had not already arranged accommodation were temporarily housed in the Clapham South deep shelter in southwest London, less than a mile away from

3885-513: The Port of Tilbury coast near London, carrying 1,027 passengers and two stowaways who embarked at Trinidad , Jamaica , Mexico and Bermuda . While the passengers included people from many parts of the world, the great majority were West Indian . Empire Windrush was not the first ship to carry a large group of West Indian people to the United Kingdom, as two other ships had arrived the previous year. But her 1948 voyage became very well-known and

3990-628: The River Thames a few miles upstream of Oxford . The Ministry of Transport registered her at London . Her UK official number was 181561, and her call sign was GYSF. IN UK service, her name had the prefix "HMT". This could stand for "His Majesty's Troopship", "His Majesty's Transport" or "Hired Military Transport". Some official documents, including the enquiry report into the ship's loss, use "MV" (which stands for Motor Vessel ), instead of "HMT". Blohm & Voss launched Monte Rosa on 13 December 1930. Early in 1931 she made her sea trials and

4095-666: The United Kingdom seized the ship as a prize of war and renamed her HMT Empire Windrush . She remained in service as a troopship until March 1954. While sailing in Mediterranean Sea , there was a sudden explosion and fire in the engine room that killed four people. With the fire out of control, the ship was abandoned; the other 1494 passengers and crew were all rescued. The empty ship remained afloat and on-fire for nearly two days, eventually sinking during an attempt to salvage her. In 1948, Empire Windrush arrived at

4200-741: The battleship Tirpitz in Altafjord in Norway. Germany was unwilling to risk moving the ship to a German dockyard for repair, so in October Monte Rosa was used to take hundreds of civilian workers and engineers to Altafjord, where they repaired Tirpitz in situ. Monte Rosa was docked alongside Tirpitz as an accommodation ship for the workers, and as a repair ship . During the winter of 1943–1944, Monte Rosa continued to sail between Norway and Germany. On 30 March 1944, British and Canadian Bristol Beaufighters attacked her. The strike

4305-590: The fuel economy improvements the Atkinson cycle can provide. The diesel engine is a technical refinement of the 1876 Otto-cycle engine. Where Otto had realized in 1861 that the efficiency of the engine could be increased by first compressing the fuel mixture prior to its ignition, Rudolf Diesel wanted to develop a more efficient type of engine that could run on much heavier fuel. The Lenoir , Otto Atmospheric, and Otto Compression engines (both 1861 and 1876) were designed to run on Illuminating Gas (coal gas) . With

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4410-541: The 1920s Hamburg Süd believed there would be a lucrative business in carrying German emigrants to South America. (See " German Argentines ".) The first two ships, Monte Sarmiento and Monte Olivia , were built for that trade with single-class passenger accommodation of 1,150 passengers in cabins, and 1,350 in dormitories. However, the number of emigrants was less than expected so the two ships were repurposed as cruise ships , operating in Northern European waters,

4515-433: The Atkinson, its expansion ratio can differ from its compression ratio and, with a power stroke longer than its compression stroke, the engine can achieve greater thermal efficiency than a traditional piston engine. While Atkinson's original design is no more than a historical curiosity, many modern engines use unconventional valve timing to produce the effect of a shorter compression stroke/longer power stroke, thus realizing

4620-452: The Baltic damaged Monte Rosa , flooding her engine room. She was towed to Gdynia for temporary repairs. She was then towed to Copenhagen, carrying 5,000 German refugees fleeing from the advancing Red Army . She was then taken to Kiel , where on 10 May 1945 British forces captured her. In summer 1945 a Danish dockyard repaired Monte Rosa ' s war damage. On 18 November 1945, ownership

4725-832: The Jamaican Government could not legally stop people from leaving, and the UK government could not legally stop them from landing. However, he stated that the Government was opposed to this migration, and both the Colonial Office and the Jamaican government would take all possible steps to discourage it. The day after arrival, several MPs, including James Dixon Murray , warned the Prime Minister that such an " argosy of Jamaicans", might "cause discord and unhappiness among all concerned". George Isaacs ,

4830-531: The Mediterranean and around South America. This venture became a great success. Until the 1920s, cruise holidays had been the preserve of the very wealthy. But by providing modestly-priced cruises, Hamburg Süd could profitably attract a large new clientele. The company commissioned another ship, Monte Cervantes , to meet the increased demand, but an uncharted rock sank her after only two years' service. Hamburg Süd then ordered two more ships: Monte Pascoal and Monte Rosa . Monte Rosa ' s registered length

4935-450: The RAF. Others decided to make the journey just to see what the "mother country" was like. One passenger later recalled that demand for tickets far exceeded supply, and there was a long queue to buy one. The British Nationality Bill to give the status of citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC status) to all British subjects connected with the United Kingdom or a British colony,

5040-544: The Royal Air Force during World War 2. She was also carrying 257 civilians, including women and children. The ship departed from Southampton on May 7 and arrived in Trinidad on May 20. She then stopped at Kingston, Jamaica , Tampico, Mexico , Havana, Cuba and Bermuda , before returning to the United Kingdom. Several weeks before the ship left the United Kingdom, opportunistic advertisements had been placed in

5145-493: The Seas in October 2009. Because of changes in historic measurement systems, it is difficult to make meaningful and accurate comparisons of ship sizes. Historically, gross register tonnage (GRT) was a measure of the internal volume of certain enclosed areas of a ship divided into "tons" equivalent to 100 cubic feet (2.8 m ) of space. Gross tonnage (GT) is a comparatively new measure, adopted in 1982 to replace GRT. It

5250-760: The Trinidadian singer Mona Baptiste , one of the few women on the ship, who travelled first class. Also aboard were 66 Poles who had embarked in Tampico. They were women and children whom the Soviets had deported to Siberia after the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, but who had escaped and travelled via India and the Pacific to Mexico. About 1,400 had been living at a refugee camp at Santa Rosa near León, Guanajuato since 1943. They were granted permission to settle in

5355-484: The UK in this migration movement over the following years are now typically referred to as the "Windrush Generation". While the 1948 voyage of the Empire Windrush is well-known, she was not the first ship to bring West Indians to the UK after World War II. On 31 March 1947, Orient Line 's Ormonde reached Liverpool from Jamaica with 241 passengers, including 11 stowaways. They included Ralph Lowe, who became

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5460-557: The UK to rejoin the RAF. He later helped to found the Notting Hill Carnival , and became the first black Mayor of Southwark . The Jamaican artist and master potter Cecil Baugh was also aboard. There were a number of musicians, who were later to become well known. These included the Calypso musicians Lord Kitchener , Lord Beginner and Lord Woodbine , all from Trinidad; the Jamaican jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece and

5565-540: The UK under the Polish Resettlement Act 1947 . One of them later recalled that they were given cabins below the waterline, allowed on deck only in escorted groups, and kept segregated from the other passengers. Of the other passengers, 119 were from the UK, and 40 from elsewhere in the World. Non-Caribbean people aboard included a serving RAF officer, Sierra Leonean John Henry Clavell Smythe , acting as

5670-525: The actual four-stroke and two-stroke cycles is not a simple task. However, the analysis can be simplified significantly if air standard assumptions are utilized. The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the Otto cycle. During normal operation of the engine, as the air/fuel mixture is being compressed, an electric spark is created to ignite the mixture. At low rpm this occurs close to TDC (Top Dead Centre). As engine rpm rises,

5775-426: The air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it is only expanded in one stage. A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine . A turbocharger is incorporated into the exhaust system of a vehicle to make use of the expelled exhaust. It consists of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses

5880-512: The beginning of modern British multiracial society. The purpose of Empire Windrush ' s voyage to the Caribbean had been to repatriate service personnel. The UK government neither expected nor welcomed her return with civilian, West Indian migrants. Three days before the ship arrived, Arthur Creech Jones , the Secretary of State for the Colonies , wrote a Cabinet memorandum noting that

5985-452: The bore diameter is larger than its stroke length is an oversquare engine, conversely, an engine with a bore diameter that is smaller than its stroke length is an undersquare engine. The valves are typically operated by a camshaft rotating at half the speed of the crankshaft . It has a series of cams along its length, each designed to open a valve during the appropriate part of an intake or exhaust stroke. A tappet between valve and cam

6090-739: The class were sunk in Kiel harbour by separate wartime air-raids, Monte Sarmiento in February 1942 and Monte Olivia in April 1945. Monte Pascoal was damaged by an air raid on Wilhelmshaven in February 1944. In 1946 she was filled with chemical bombs , and the British scuttled her in the Skagerrak . As a troopship, Empire Windrush made 13 round trips between Britain and the Far East. Her route

6195-472: The crew of the ship to operate electrically powered mechanisms. Lack of an adequate backup system to propel the ship can, in rough seas, render it dead in the water and result in loss of the ship. The 2006 Revised Passenger Ship Safety Standards address these issues, and others, requiring that ships ordered after July, 2010 conform to safe return to port regulations; however, as of 2013 many ships remain in service which lack this capacity. After October 1, 2010,

6300-436: The current standard of 25 mpg ‑US (9.4 L/100 km; 30.0 mpg ‑imp ). As automakers look to meet these standards by 2016, new ways of engineering the traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) have to be considered. Some potential solutions to increase fuel efficiency to meet new mandates include firing after the piston is farthest from the crankshaft, known as top dead centre , and applying

6405-474: The efficiency of the compression engine. Higher compression ratios also mean that the distance that the piston can push to produce power is greater (which is called the expansion ratio ). The octane rating of a given fuel is a measure of the fuel's resistance to self-ignition. A fuel with a higher numerical octane rating allows for a higher compression ratio, which extracts more energy from the fuel and more effectively converts that energy into useful work while at

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6510-502: The energy generated by combustion is converted into useful rotational energy at the output shaft of the engine, while the remainder being lost due to waste heat, friction and engine accessories. There are a number of ways to recover some of the energy lost to waste heat. The use of a turbocharger in diesel engines is very effective by boosting incoming air pressure and in effect, provides the same increase in performance as having more displacement. The Mack Truck company, decades ago, developed

6615-539: The engine room. The ship also carried two Scotch marine boilers to produce high-pressure steam for some auxiliary machinery. These could be heated either by burning diesel fuel, or by using the hot exhaust gases from her main engines. The Monte -class ships were named after mountains in Europe or South America. Monte Rosa was named after Monte Rosa , which is a mountain massif on the Swiss-Italian border, and

6720-412: The engine's performance and/or fuel efficiency could be improved by improving the overall efficiency of the cycle. It has been found that even if 6% of the entirely wasted heat is recovered it can increase the engine efficiency greatly. Many methods have been devised in order to extract waste heat out of an engine exhaust and use it further to extract some useful work, decreasing the exhaust pollutants at

6825-560: The engines burst, nearly killing Diesel. He persisted, and finally created a successful engine in 1893. The high-compression engine, which ignites its fuel by the heat of compression, is now called the diesel engine, whether a four-stroke or two-stroke design. The four-stroke diesel engine has been used in the majority of heavy-duty applications for many decades. It uses a heavy fuel containing more energy and requiring less refinement to produce. The most efficient Otto-cycle engines run near 30% thermal efficiency. The thermodynamic analysis of

6930-507: The father of the author and poet Hannah Lowe . Liverpool Magistrates Court tried the stowaways and sentenced them to one day in prison, which effectively meant their immediate release. On 21 December 1947, Royal Mail Line 's Almanzora reached Southampton with 200 passengers aboard. As with Empire Windrush , many were former service personnel who had served in the RAF in World War II. 30 adult stowaways and one boy were arrested when

7035-420: The first high-speed Otto engine in 1883. In 1885, they produced the first automobile to be equipped with an Otto engine. The Daimler Reitwagen used a hot-tube ignition system and the fuel known as Ligroin to become the world's first vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine. It used a four-stroke engine based on Otto's design. The following year, Karl Benz produced a four-stroke engined automobile that

7140-434: The intake air, and the other side that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow. When idling, and at low-to-moderate speeds, the turbine produces little power from the small exhaust volume, the turbocharger has little effect and the engine operates nearly in a naturally aspirated manner. When much more power output is required, the engine speed and throttle opening are increased until the exhaust gases are sufficient to 'spool up'

7245-795: The last British troops stationed in Greece, embarking the First Battalion of the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment at Thessaloniki on 5 February, and other troops and their families at Piraeus . British troops had been in Greece since 1944, fighting for the Kingdom of Greece in the Greek Civil War . On 7 February 1953, around 200 nautical miles (370 km) south of the Nicobar Islands , Empire Windrush sighted

7350-424: The mechanical parts of the engine. The rod-to-stroke ratio is the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the length of the piston stroke. A longer rod reduces sidewise pressure of the piston on the cylinder wall and the stress forces, increasing engine life. It also increases the cost and engine height and weight. A "square engine" is an engine with a bore diameter equal to its stroke length. An engine where

7455-593: The passengers. When visiting South America, the ship was used to spread Nazi ideology among the German-speaking community there. When in port in Argentina, she hosted Nazi rallies for German Argentines . In 1933, the new German ambassador, Baron Edmond von Thermann  [ de ] , sailed to Argentina aboard Monte Rosa . He disembarked wearing an SS uniform in front of an enthusiastic crowd. He spent his time in office promoting Nazi ideology. The ship

7560-415: The piston speed for industrial engines to about 10 m/s. The output power of an engine is dependent on the ability of intake (air–fuel mixture) and exhaust matter to move quickly through valve ports, typically located in the cylinder head . To increase an engine's output power, irregularities in the intake and exhaust paths, such as casting flaws, can be removed, and, with the aid of an air flow bench ,

7665-421: The power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement. Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure exhaust, as

7770-472: The problem, with no success. In 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie (NA Otto and Company). Otto and Cie succeeded in creating a successful atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz , Germany in 1869, where the company was renamed to Deutz Gasmotorenfabrik AG (The Deutz Gas Engine Manufacturing Company). In 1872, Gottlieb Daimler

7875-497: The radii of valve port turns and valve seat configuration can be modified to reduce resistance. This process is called porting , and it can be done by hand or with a CNC machine. An internal combustion engine is on average capable of converting only 40-45% of supplied energy into mechanical work. A large part of the waste energy is in the form of heat that is released to the environment through coolant, fins etc. If somehow waste heat could be captured and turned to mechanical energy,

7980-641: The rigors of the North Atlantic in line voyage service, but both ships are also designed to operate as cruise ships, with the amenities expected in that trade. QM2 was superseded by the Freedom of the Seas of the Royal Caribbean line as the largest passenger ship ever built; however, QM2 still hold the record for the largest ocean liner. The Freedom of the Seas was superseded by the Oasis of

8085-399: The ring and the cylinder wall, which causes a loss of cylinder pressure and power. If an engine spins too quickly, valve springs cannot act quickly enough to close the valves. This is commonly referred to as ' valve float ', and it can result in piston to valve contact, severely damaging the engine. At high speeds the lubrication of piston cylinder wall interface tends to break down. This limits

8190-501: The route before the outbreak of World War II. After coming to power in Germany in 1933 , the Nazi Party used ships including Monte Rosa to further its ideology. In 1937 the Nazi government chartered Monte Olivia , Monte Rosa , and Monte Sarmiento to provide cruise holidays for the state-owned Kraft durch Freude ("Strength through Joy") programme. This provided concerts, lectures, sports activities and cheap holidays as

8295-502: The same motivation as Otto, Diesel wanted to create an engine that would give small industrial companies their own power source to enable them to compete against larger companies, and like Otto, to get away from the requirement to be tied to a municipal fuel supply. Like Otto, it took more than a decade to produce the high-compression engine that could self-ignite fuel sprayed into the cylinder. Diesel used an air spray combined with fuel in his first engine. During initial development, one of

8400-406: The same time preventing engine damage from pre-ignition. High Octane fuel is also more expensive. Many modern four-stroke engines employ gasoline direct injection or GDI. In a gasoline direct-injected engine, the injector nozzle protrudes into the combustion chamber. The direct fuel injector injects gasoline under a very high pressure into the cylinder during the compression stroke, when the piston

8505-498: The same time. Use of the Rankine Cycle , turbocharging and thermoelectric generation can be very useful as a waste heat recovery system. One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can be produced from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression device known as a supercharger , which can be powered by the engine crankshaft. Supercharging increases

8610-404: The ship docked; they were jailed for 28 days. In May 1949, Empire Windrush was en route from Gibraltar to Port Said when fire broke out aboard. Four ships were put on standby to assist if she had to be abandoned. The passengers were placed in the lifeboats , but the boats were not launched, and the ship was subsequently towed back to Gibraltar. In February 1950, Empire Windrush repatriated

8715-525: The ship was carrying German troops, plus Norwegian women with young children, who were being taken to Germany as part of the Lebensborn programme. The explosion was at 0500 hrs, and about 200 people aboard were trapped and drowned as the ship's captain closed the watertight bulkhead doors to limit flooding and keep the ship afloat. On 16 February 1945 a mine explosion near the Hel Peninsula in

8820-403: The ship was near Øresund . They damaged her hull, but she stayed afloat, and returned to harbour under her own power. In September 1944 another explosion, possibly by a mine, damaged Monte Rosa . Odd Claus  [ no ] , a Norwegian boy with German parents who was being forcibly taken to Germany, was one of those aboard when it happened. In his memoirs, published on 2008, he wrote that

8925-495: The ship's manifest , kept in the United Kingdom National Archives , shows that 802 passengers gave their last place of residence as a country in the Caribbean. A small number of the Caribbean people aboard were Indo-Caribbeans . One of whom, Sikaram Gopthal, was the father of the record-label owner Lee Gopthal . Among West Indian passengers was Jamaican-born Sam Beaver King , who was travelling to

9030-452: The speed of the flame front does not change so the spark point is advanced earlier in the cycle to allow a greater proportion of the cycle for the charge to combust before the power stroke commences. This advantage is reflected in the various Otto engine designs; the atmospheric (non-compression) engine operates at 12% efficiency whereas the compressed-charge engine has an operating efficiency around 30%. A problem with compressed charge engines

9135-508: The trip itself and the attractions of the ship and ports visited are the principal draw. There are several main types: Although some ships have characteristics of both types, the design priorities of the two forms are different: ocean liners value speed and traditional luxury while cruise ships value amenities (swimming pools, theaters, ball rooms, casinos, sports facilities, etc.) rather than speed. These priorities produce different designs. In addition, ocean liners typically were built to cross

9240-407: The turbocharger's turbine to start compressing much more air than normal into the intake manifold. Thus, additional power (and speed) is expelled through the function of this turbine. Turbocharging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust pressure that would otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as turbo lag . The increased engine power

9345-423: The use of a glow plug . The maximum amount of power generated by an engine is determined by the maximum amount of air ingested. The amount of power generated by a piston engine is related to its size (cylinder volume), whether it is a two-stroke engine or four-stroke design, volumetric efficiency , losses, air-to-fuel ratio, the calorific value of the fuel, oxygen content of the air and speed ( RPM ). The speed

9450-438: The valves not closing properly. This results in a loss of performance and possibly overheating of exhaust valves. Typically, the clearance must be readjusted each 20,000 miles (32,000 km) with a feeler gauge. Most modern production engines use hydraulic lifters to automatically compensate for valve train component wear. Dirty engine oil may cause lifter failure. Otto engines are about 30% efficient; in other words, 30% of

9555-438: Was 500.3 ft (152.5 m), her beam was 65.7 ft (20.0 m), her depth was 37.8 ft (11.5 m), and her draught was 26 ft 4 + 1 ⁄ 2  in (8.04 m). Her tonnages were 13,882  GRT and 7,788  NRT . All five Monte -class ships were motor ships. The first two to be launched, Monte Sarmiento and Monte Olivia , were the first large Diesel-powered passenger ships to serve with

9660-537: Was a barracks ship at Stettin (now Szczecin ), and in April 1940 she was a troopship for the invasion of Norway , mainly sailing to Oslo . She was one of two ships used in 1942 to deport Norwegian Jews . She made two trips from Oslo to Denmark on 19 and 26 November, carrying a total of 46 people, including the Polish-Norwegian businessman and humanitarian Moritz Rabinowitz . All but two were murdered at Auschwitz concentration camp . In September 1943 she

9765-573: Was also a venue for Nazi gatherings when docked in London. On 23 July 1934 Monte Rosa ran aground off Thorshavn in the Faroe Islands . She was refloated the next day. In 1936 she rendezvoused at sea with the airship LZ 127  Graf Zeppelin , and a bottle of Champagne was hoisted from her deck to the airship. When World War II began, Monte Rosa was in Hamburg. From 11 January 1940 she

9870-514: Was between Southampton and Hong Kong , via Gibraltar ; Suez ; Aden ; Colombo ; and Singapore . Her route was extended to Kure in Japan during the Korean War . She also made ten round trips to the Mediterranean; four to India ; and one to the West Indies. In 1948, Empire Windrush travelled from the United Kingdom to the Caribbean, to repatriate around 500 West Indians who had served in

9975-501: Was delivered to Hamburg Süd. Her maiden voyage was from Hamburg to Buenos Aires . She left Hamburg on 28 March 1931, and got back on 22 June. For the remainder of 1931, all four Monte sisters were scheduled to sail between Hamburg and Buenos Aires. They were scheduled to call at A Coruña and Vigo on outward voyages only; and to call at Las Palmas , Rio de Janeiro , Santos , São Francisco do Sul , Rio Grande , and Montevideo in both directions. Monte Rosa entered service just as

10080-567: Was going through Parliament. Some Caribbean migrants decided to embark in anticipation that the bill would become an Act of Parliament . Until 1962, the UK had no immigration control for CUKCs. They could settle in the UK indefinitely, without restriction. A figure often given for the number of West Indian migrants aboard Empire Windrush is 492, based on news reports in the media at the time, which variously announced that "more than 400", "430" or "500" Jamaican men had arrived in Britain. However,

10185-471: Was in Oslo harbour. The British had learned the ship was to take 3,000 German troops back to Germany. The raid's purpose was to sink her during the voyage. The pair twice bluffed their way into the dock area by posing as electricians, then hid for three days as they waited for the ship to arrive. After she docked, they paddled out to her in an inflatable rubber boat and attached their mines. The mines detonated when

10290-755: Was near the Norwegian island of Utsira . The RCAF and RAF crews claimed two torpedo hits on Monte Rosa . Cannon fire and eight rockets also hit her. One German Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighter was shot down, and 404 Squadron lost two Beaufighters. The two crew of one aircraft were killed; the crew of the other (one of whom was the squadron commanding officer) survived and were made prisoners of war. Despite her damage, Monte Rosa reached Aarhus in Denmark on 3 April. In June 1944, Max Manus and Gregers Gram , members of Norwegian Independent Company 1 (a British Army sabotage and resistance unit composed of Norwegians), attached limpet mines to Monte Rosa ' s hull while she

10395-887: Was not short of food, water or fuel. A meal was found prepared in the ship's galley. The fate of her crew remains unknown, and the incident is cited in several works on Ufology and the Bermuda Triangle . Passenger ship While typically passenger ships are part of the merchant marine , passenger ships have also been used as troopships and often are commissioned as naval ships when used as for that purpose. Passenger Ship Types: Passenger ships include ferries , which are vessels for day to day or overnight short-sea trips moving passengers and vehicles (whether road or rail); ocean liners , which typically are passenger or passenger-cargo vessels transporting passengers and often cargo on longer line voyages; and cruise ships , which often transport passengers on round-trips, in which

10500-584: Was one such ship, but was reported to be headed for inter-island service in Venezuelan waters. The International Ice Patrol was formed in 1914 after the sinking of the Titanic to address the long-outstanding issue of iceberg collision. Passengers and their luggage at sea are covered by the Athens Convention . Four-stroke engine A four-stroke (also four-cycle ) engine

10605-451: Was only two years old and travelling with his mother and older-sister. He would be later well known as an arts administrator and opera company director. One of the stowaways was a woman called Evelyn Wauchope, a 27-year-old dressmaker. She was discovered seven days out of Kingston. Some of the musicians on-board organized a benefit concert that raised enough money for her fare, and £4 spending money. Empire Windrush ' s arrival became

10710-466: Was planned to sink her, after a reconnaissance aircraft of 333 (Norwegian) Squadron had tracked her movements. The ship was sailing south, escorted by two flak ships ; a destroyer ; and German fighter aircraft. The attacking force comprised nine aircraft of Royal Air Force (RAF) 144 Squadron , five of which carried torpedoes; and nine aircraft of Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) 404 Squadron , all armed with armour-piercing RP-3 rockets . The attack

10815-406: Was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design. Daimler was a gunsmith who had worked on the Lenoir engine. By 1876, Otto and Langen succeeded in creating the first internal combustion engine that compressed the fuel mixture prior to combustion for far higher efficiency than any engine created to this time. Daimler and Maybach left their employ at Otto and Cie and developed

10920-651: Was to be used for the deportation of Danish Jews. The German chief of sea transport at Aarhus in Denmark, together with Monte Rosa ' s captain, Heinrich Bertram (captain)  [ de ] , conspired to prevent this by falsely reporting serious engine trouble to the German High Command. This action may have helped the rescue of the Danish Jews . In September 1943, Royal Navy X-class submarines in Operation Source badly damaged

11025-521: Was transferred to the UK as a prize of war . In 1946 she was refitted at South Shields as a troopship. On 21 January 1947 she was renamed HMT Empire Windrush . She was registered as a UK merchant ship , and assigned to the UK Ministry of Transport, who contracted The New Zealand Shipping Company to manage her. By then she was the only survivor of the five Monte -class ships. Monte Cervantes sank near Tierra del Fuego in 1930. Two members of

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