85-808: Hota refers to the seeds of the plant Canna indica . Hota may also refer to: Hota Canna indica , commonly known as Indian shot , African arrowroot , edible canna , purple arrowroot , Sierra Leone arrowroot , is a plant species in the family Cannaceae . It is native to much of South America, Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico. It is also naturalized in the southeastern United States ( Florida , Texas , Louisiana , and South Carolina ), and much of Europe, sub-Saharan Africa , Southeast Asia, and Oceania. It ( achira in Hispanic America, cana-da-índia in Brazil) has been
170-469: A basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress
255-451: A certain type of disease. To prevent mold, the soil should be well-drained without too much soil moisture or stagnating water. To diminish the risk of spreading diseases, dead and infected leaves should be removed. The canna leaf roller butterfly ( Calpodes ethlius ) has been seen on Canna plants in the US . It is a caterpillar known as the worst pest for this plant and primarily found in
340-557: A chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the Linnaean system ). Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with
425-519: A constant under (syncarp) ovary adherent which has a soft-spiky surface and many central-angle-constant ovules. The pollen is deposited on the abaxial (off-axis) surface of the stylus . The pollination mechanism is very specialised and the pollination is done by insects. The insects pick up the pollen from the flattened style. In their natural habitat, blooming occurs in the months of August to October. The fruits are ellipsoid capsules to globose, warty, 1.5 to 3 cm long, chestnut coloured, with
510-443: A different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined " beta taxonomy " as the classification of ranks higher than species. An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species
595-467: A filling of rattles. From the Indians, the seeds were previously used as gold weights, similar to the seeds of carob ( Ceratonia siliqua ), as they have a constant weight. The large rhizomes are edible. They can be eaten raw, but are usually baked. Cooked, the rhizomes become translucent, mucilaginous, and sweet. Starch is produced by grinding or pounding the roots and soaking them in water, separating
680-527: A large amount of black and very hard seeds. The seeds are small, globular, black pellets, hard and dense enough to sink in water. They resemble shotgun pellets giving rise to the plant's common name of Indian shot. The seeds are hard enough to shoot through wood and still survive and later germinate. According to the BBC , "The story goes that during the Indian Mutiny of the 19th century, soldiers used
765-455: A little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy. Later authors have used the term in
850-563: A mean temperature of 14 to 27 °C. The plant prefers a mean annual rainfall between 1,000–4,500 millimetres ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 –15 ft), but it can tolerate 500–5,000 mm per year. Canna prefers light sandy-loamy soils, but can also grow on heavy soils, as far as they are not wet. It is indifferent to soil pH . For seeds to germinate, they must soak in water for two to three days. Cannas suffer from relatively few diseases compared to other species. Nevertheless, some diseases have been recorded to affect C. indica . One of them
935-578: A minor food crop cultivated by indigenous peoples of the Americas for thousands of years. Canna indica is a perennial growing to between 0.5 and 2.5 metres ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 and 8 feet), depending on the variety. It is hardy to zone 10 and is frost tender. It forms branched rhizomes 60 centimetres (24 inches) long that are divided into bulbous segments and covered in two lines by pale green or purple flaky leaves . The very large grains of starch stored there can supposedly be seen with
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#17327918286991020-469: A native plant, but imported from more humid climates. Achira was also being cultivated by 2000 BCE by the people of the Casma/Sechin culture in the extremely arid region of coastal Peru , also an area in which achira was probably not native. To cultivate Canna indica , the substrate should be rich, humiferous, and light. The optimal substrate consists of a deep, rich and well-drained soil in
1105-504: A notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above. A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics , scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes
1190-477: A single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius , Timotheus of Gaza , Demetrios Pepagomenos , and Thomas Aquinas . Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. During
1275-652: A sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy: In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows: Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics)
1360-413: A sunny place with a pH between 5.5 and 7.5. The rhizomes should be planted at 10 cm deep, after the last frost. Although it can tolerate dry periods, occasional irrigation will be beneficial for the yield. C. indica is a plant that can withstand low temperatures (down to -10 °C in regions with a mild climate). Nevertheless, the foliage can already be affected at 0 °C. Canna indica
1445-524: A truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus 's system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals
1530-481: Is Canna rust ( Puccinia thaliae ), a fungus that causes orange spots on the leaves. In addition, plant viruses occur: Hippeastrum mosaic virus , Tomato aspermy virus , Canna yellow mottle virus and Canna yellow streak virus which can cause mild or strong symptoms from streaked leaves, stunted growth to distorted blooms. Furthermore, there is Botrytis (fungus) , a mold that affects the flowers. Many different Canna varieties exist, and some of them are resistant to
1615-497: Is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): Domain , Kingdom , Phylum , Class , Order , Family , Genus , Species , and Strain . The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing
1700-509: Is a more common pest on cereals . C. indica has been included in the Global Invasive Species Database and has been declared as invasive in the following places: ‹The template How-to is being considered for merging .› Canna indica (achira) has been cultivated by indigenous peoples of the Americas in tropical America for thousands of years. The place of the first domestication may have been
1785-400: Is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular taxon . This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological, anatomical , palynological , biochemical and genetic . A monograph or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for
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#17327918286991870-458: Is a resource for fossils. Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology , and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life , the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of biodiversity and the resulting field of conservation biology . Biological classification
1955-505: Is affordable and can degrade completely into fertilizer for crop production in just a few months. The method for producing C. indica plastics consists of fusing 60–80% of C. indica starch and 20–40% of polyethylene uniformly at 240 °C. [REDACTED] Media related to Canna indica at Wikimedia Commons Taxonomists In biology , taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις ( taxis ) 'arrangement' and -νομία ( -nomia ) ' method ')
2040-505: Is believed to be around 22–50 tons per hectare, whereas the starch yield is about 2–5 tons per hectare and can reach up to 10 tons per ha. Observations show that the highest yield in rhizomes does not necessarily correspond to the highest yield in starch. Rhizomes for starch extraction should be processed within days after the harvest due to their perishability. The following steps of traditional starch production in Colombia show that
2125-419: Is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy". How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as
2210-597: Is native to South America: Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina as well as the West Indies and Central America. In modern times, C. indica is reportedly naturalized in Austria, Portugal, Spain, Azores , Canary Islands , Cape Verde , Madeira , most of tropical Africa, Ascension Island , St. Helena , Madagascar, China, Japan, Taiwan, the Bonin Islands , India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, Java , Malaysia,
2295-438: Is not successful. Harvesting is done manually by pulling out the crop with a shovel or another digging tool, shaking off the soil, and then cutting the stems to separate the rhizomes. The yield varies depending on the region of cultivation and its climate and soil conditions. In certain locations, the yield of Canna indica can be higher than other starchy crops like cassava and arrowroot . The average rhizome yield
2380-548: Is slowly baked underground. In the 1950s, Canna indica was introduced to China as a perennial ornamental crop. It was mainly planted in parks and home gardens in Guizhou for ornamental purposes. From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, China suffered from a severe food shortage, known as the Great Chinese Famine . During this time, weeds, tree roots, tubers, etc., became an important food source. Canna indica
2465-428: Is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum ), class , order , family , genus , and species . The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics,
2550-449: Is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing ) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank ; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain , kingdom , phylum ( division
2635-400: Is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced
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2720-413: Is usually propagated by putting either the rhizome tips or the whole rhizomes in the ground. Because the rhizomes are quickly perishable, storing them properly between the harvest and the next planting time is essential. The large rhizomes can be divided in spring before the new shoots appear. Additionally, Canna indica can also be propagated by seeds. Seedlings growing early in spring are able to flower
2805-529: The Aristotelian system , with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi , due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in
2890-585: The Neomura , the clade that groups together the Archaea and Eucarya , would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from Actinomycetota . His 2004 classification treated the archaeobacteria as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding Prionobiota ( acellular and without nucleic acid ) and Virusobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to
2975-512: The Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment , categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology
3060-439: The species problem . The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher taxonomic ranks subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of phylogenetic nomenclature . While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations,
3145-467: The vertebrates ), as well as groups like the sharks and cetaceans , are commonly used. His student Theophrastus (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his Historia Plantarum . Several plant genera can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as Cornus , Crocus , and Narcissus . Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on
3230-488: The 1960s. In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade . Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic . The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree , with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed paraphyletic , while groups representing more than one branch from
3315-535: The Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as
3400-491: The Origin of Species (1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of cladistic methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of monophyly , supported by the presence of synapomorphies . Since then,
3485-837: The Philippines, Christmas Island , the Bismarck Archipelago , Norfolk Island , New South Wales , Queensland , Fiji, Tonga, Vanuatu, Kiribati, the Cook Islands , the Society Islands , the Caroline Islands and Hawaii . Canna can be cultivated from sea level to 2,700 m (8,900 ft) above sea level , but thrives in temperate, tropical or subtropical mountain climates, between 1,000 and 2,000 m (3,300 and 6,600 ft) above sea level (in humid tropical climates for higher elevations) at
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3570-541: The Southern United States. This pest causes damages by laying its eggs in the bud of developing stalks. To protect the eggs from predators and insecticide, caterpillars use sticky webs to keep the leaves from unfurling. The pupate then feed on the leaves which can lead to losses of yield due to reduced photosynthesis. The Japanese beetle ( Popillia japonica ) is another leaf ragging pest with mainly small consequences for Canna plants. This beetle feeds on
3655-522: The animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea
3740-560: The base and leaves should be avoided. Before flowering, the second tillage can be combined with the second fertilizer application to promote the growth of underground stems and roots. Applying fertilizer evenly on both sides of the roots helps them to absorb water and grow uniformly. Fast growing weeds can have a negative impact on C. indica , especially before the fourth leaf appears. Two weed control methods are usually practiced: firstly, applying herbicides to eradicate weeds and secondly, carrying out mechanical operations depending on
3825-550: The definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology , the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks ( superfamily to subspecies ), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN Code ). In the fields of phycology , mycology , and botany , the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants ( ICN ). The initial description of
3910-399: The entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or
3995-494: The evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from molecular genetics that for the most part complements traditional morphology . Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from c. 1500 BC , indicating that
4080-524: The exception of spiders published in Svenska Spindlar ). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean. Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as DNA sequencing , bioinformatics , databases , and imaging . A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of
4165-486: The first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis , Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard Owen in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of evolutionary taxonomic thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in
4250-687: The formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the PhyloCode , which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the PhyloCode or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as
4335-466: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use. The cladistic method has emerged since
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#17327918286994420-424: The leaves sprout, the floral stem and the stems. The flowers are hermaphrodite . The mostly large flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. On pedicels, they are 0.2–1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 8 in) long, red or yellow-orange, except in some cultivars, 4.5–7.5 cm (2–3 in) long, with the sepals being closely triangular, 1–1.7 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 ⁄ 4 in) long and
4505-401: The merger of previous subtaxa. Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the phylogeny ) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include: The term " alpha taxonomy " is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa , particularly species. In earlier literature,
4590-452: The midrib (not typical of monocots ). The leaves are broad, green or violet green, with elliptical sheets, which can measure 30 to 60 cm long and 10 to 25 cm wide, with the base obtuse or narrowly cuneate and the apex is shortly acuminate or sharp. The surface of the rhizome is carved by transverse grooves, which mark the base of scales that cover it; from the lower part white and apex rootlets emerge, where there are numerous buds,
4675-404: The naked eye. The plants form an upright, unbranched stem or the overlapping leaf sheaths form a pseudo trunk. The alternate and spiral or two-line arranged, very large, simple leaves are divided into leaf sheaths, short petioles and leaf blades. The leaf blade has a length of 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) and a width of 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in). The parallel leaf veins arise from
4760-512: The northern Andes , as may be true of other similar root crops such as Calathea allouia and M. arundinacea . The Cauca river valley of Colombia was a center of early domestication. Archaeological evidence has been found of the cultivation of achira in 3000 BCE by people of the Las Vegas culture of coastal Ecuador. As the Las Vegas region is arid and semiarid, achira was not likely
4845-579: The part of the leaves between the veins. In its originating region in Japan, it does not cause a lot of damages. However, in the US it has no natural predator and can cause serious damages on Cannas and other plants. The bird cherry-oat aphid ( Rhopalosiphum padi ) has been recorded to affect stored rhizomes. Although this pest has not been causing severe damages yet, it can particularly affect plants grown in greenhouses and can be combatted with parasitical wasps. It
4930-480: The petals erect, 4–6.5 cm long. The tube is 1.5–2 cm long. The bracts are designed differently. The three free sepals are usually green. The three petals are green or have depending on the variety shades of yellow about orange and red to pink. The base of the petals is fused with the staminodien to a stamen column. There are two circles, each with originally three stamens present. The petals and staminodes are usually yellow to red. The three carpels are at
5015-434: The possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide
5100-469: The process is dependent on a significant supply of fresh water. In rural areas in Colombia, the recently harvested rhizomes are packed up in sacks and transported to the processing site. The first step is cleaning the rhizomes by washing them in tanks. The second step is grating the rhizomes mechanically to disrupt the cell walls to release the starch. The third step is sieving to separate the starch from
5185-818: The rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the Encyclopedia of Life , the Global Biodiversity Information Facility , the NCBI taxonomy database , the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera , the Open Tree of Life , and the Catalogue of Life . The Paleobiology Database
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#17327918286995270-473: The rest of the rhizome pulp: The grated rhizomes and additional water are passed manually or mechanically through a sieve. The fourth step is separating the starch from the sieving water by letting the starch granules sink to the bottom of a tank. The fifth step is washing the starch multiple times with clean water. The last step is drying the starch by exposing it to the sun. The starch is now ready to be stored or transported. Canna indica sps. can be used for
5355-515: The same year they are sown. The amount of rhizomes used for sowing is normally about 3,000–4,500 kg/ha, and the planting density should not exceed 22,500 plants/ha. When putting the rhizomes in the ground, the sprouts should point upwards. The ideal spacing between plants in a row is 60–70 cm, and the spacing between rows is 70–80 cm. Because Canna indica grows quite tall, it should be cultivated at locations with relatively low wind speed to prevent bending over. Germination begins when
5440-407: The same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle , in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique . John Lindley provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use
5525-489: The seeds are known as "hota" seeds. The starch is easily digestible and therefore well suited as a health and baby food. The tubers can be eaten raw or cooked. The starch is also suitable for baking. In South America, the leaves are used to wrap pastries ( tamales , humitas, quimbolitos, juanes, etc.), similar to banana leaves or maize leaves. In some areas, the leaves are fed to livestock . The round seeds are pierced in some areas and used as pearls. They are also used as
5610-909: The seeds of a Canna indica when they ran out of bullets." In the last three decades of the 20th century, Canna species have been categorised by two different taxonomists , Paulus Johannes Maria Maas from the Netherlands and Nobuyuki Tanaka from Japan. Maas regards C. coccinea , C. compacta , C. discolor , C. patens and C. speciosa as synonyms or varieties of C. indica , while Tanaka recognises several additional varieties of C. indica . John Gilbert Baker recognizes 2 varieties: Canna indica var. napalensis (Wall. ex Bouché) and Canna indica var. orientalis (Roscoe), William Aiton recognizes 2 varieties of Canna indica var. lutea (Mill.) and Canna indica var. rubra , and Eduard August von Regel recognizes one variety of Canna indica var. edwardsii . Canna indica
5695-453: The soil temperature is above 16 °C, while the optimal temperature is 20–25 °C. 20–30 days after sowing, seedlings emerge. Canna indica is reliant on fertilizer to achieve a good yield. In the early stages, seedling fertilizer should be applied during the first tillage and spread according to seedling conditions. Up to 750 kg/ha of ternary compound fertilizer (N, P, K) can be applied. When applying fertilizer, direct contact with
5780-465: The starch granules from fibers in the roots. The starch granules of C. indica are also translucent and the largest known from any plant. The starch is occasionally marketed commercially as "arrowroot", a name also applied to the starch of other similar roots crops such as Maranta arundinacea . It was an ingredient in mid-nineteenth century recipes such as cakes and was called tous-les-mois . The Spanish took notice of achira in 1549 when it
5865-472: The term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century. William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate
5950-482: The terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular alpha taxonomy , is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. A taxonomic revision or taxonomic review
6035-510: The three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria , previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera ), with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus . A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method. Thomas Cavalier-Smith , who published extensively on the classification of protists , in 2002 proposed that
6120-427: The top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common. Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese 's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of
6205-436: The traditional three domains. Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to
6290-406: The treatment of industrial waste waters through constructed wetlands. It is effective for the removal of high organic load, colour and chlorinated organic compounds from paper mill wastewater. The seeds are widely used for jewellery. The seeds are also used as the mobile elements of the kayamb , a musical instrument from Réunion , as well as the hosho , a gourd rattle from Zimbabwe , where
6375-518: The tree of life are called polyphyletic . Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of synapomorphies , shared derived character states. Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of Zoological and Botanical nomenclature , to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature or PhyloCode has been proposed, which regulates
6460-642: The uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place. Organisms were first classified by Aristotle ( Greece , 384–322 BC) during his stay on the Island of Lesbos . He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes , such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied. He divided all living things into two groups: plants and animals . Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as invertebrates ) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly
6545-420: The weed growth. About six months after planting, the crop can be harvested. At this time, the rhizomes are tender and succulent. However, the rhizomes are mainly harvested later, after 8–10 months, when they reach their maximum size. C. indica is suitable as an emergency crop in case of shortfalls due to its long durability in the ground. It can be harvested during times when the cultivation of other crops
6630-486: Was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae , included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it
6715-818: Was also part of this famine food . As a consequence, the plant became known as a food crop. Today, the rhizomes are processed to starch, vermicelli , white wine , and ethanol . Due to the use as a food crop and relatively low diseases and pests pressure, Canna indica has become a characteristic crop for large-scale cultivation in China. The research in China mainly focuses on processing methods, and additionally, there are few studies on varieties and cultivation techniques. The Achira rhizomes consist of 73% water. In addition to 24% starch, they still contain 1% protein, 0.6% crude fiber and 1.4% minerals. In China , Canna indica starch and polyethylene are used as raw materials to produce biodegradable plastics . This type of plastics
6800-555: Was entitled " Systema Naturae " ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre- evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin 's On
6885-463: Was mentioned as one of four root crops being grown for food by the people of the Chuquimayo valley ( Jaén province ) of Peru. The other three were sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas ), cassava ( Manihot esculenta ), and racacha ( Arracacia xanthorrhiza ). In 1609, achira was described by a Spanish visitor to Cusco, Peru . In modern times, achira is rarely grown for food, although in the 1960s it
6970-615: Was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent . Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of
7055-573: Was still an important crop in Paruro Province on the upper Apurimac River near Cusco. There, at elevations of up to 2,600 metres (8,500 ft), achira is cultivated and harvested, especially to be eaten during the Festival of Corpus Christi in May or June. The achira rhizomes are wrapped with achira leaves and placed in a pit with heated rocks. The pit is then filled with dirt and the achira
7140-543: Was the Italian physician Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His magnum opus De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae . In the 17th century John Ray ( England , 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment
7225-429: Was the text he used as a young student. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works Systema Naturae 1st Edition in 1735, Species Plantarum in 1753, and Systema Naturae 10th Edition , he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to
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