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101-448: Primarily made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer , the HANS device is shaped like a "U", with the back of the "U" set behind the nape of the neck and the two arms lying flat along the top of the chest over the pectoral muscles . The device, in general, is supported by the shoulders. It is attached only to the helmet, not to the belts, the driver's body, or the seat; the helmet is attached to

202-438: A vacuum bag can be used. A fiberglass, carbon fiber, or aluminum mold is polished and waxed, and has a release agent applied before the fabric and resin are applied, and the vacuum is pulled and set aside to allow the piece to cure (harden). There are three ways to apply the resin to the fabric in a vacuum mold. The first method is manual and called a wet layup, where the two-part resin is mixed and applied before being laid in

303-401: A 2/2 weave. The process by which most CFRPs are made varies, depending on the piece being created, the finish (outside gloss) required, and how many of the piece will be produced. In addition, the choice of matrix can have a profound effect on the properties of the finished composite. Many CFRP parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric that is backed with fiberglass. A tool called

404-468: A car. In the wake of Scott Kalitta 's death at Englishtown, NJ in 2008, the sand traps have been made longer and deeper, going from three feet deep to six feet deep and from 40 feet (12 m) long to 80 feet (24 m) long. Anchors for any arresting netting must be buried underground with no obstructing posts. Some of the newest safety features deal with the tracks themselves. In the wake of Kalitta's death, there are now heavily padded retaining walls at

505-437: A central wing-box made of CFRP; it is the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross-section instead of the wings being partitioned span-wise into sections. This flowing, continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency. Moreover, the trailing edge, along with the rear bulkhead, empennage , and un-pressurised fuselage are made of CFRP. However, many delays have pushed order delivery dates back because of problems with

606-447: A chopper gun is used to quickly create these composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin are mixed on the spot. The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use. Manufacturing methods may include

707-466: A core. Applications for CFRPs include the following: The Airbus A350 XWB is built of 53% CFRP including wing spars and fuselage components, overtaking the Boeing 787 Dreamliner , for the aircraft with the highest weight ratio for CFRP, which is 50%. This was one of the first commercial aircraft to have wing spars made from composites. The Airbus A380 was one of the first commercial airliners to have

808-537: A direct result of Kalitta's death. Within the safety requirements, there is also a full crew of safety personnel, called the Safety Safari , whose job is to attend to any fires, clean up the track of debris after an accident on the track, and attend to the drivers prior to the arrival of any medical personnel. The Safety Safari has been in place since the late 1960s, after a rash of on-track accidents caused several promising drivers to retire early. Since that time

909-505: A mold, with epoxy either pre-impregnated into the fibers (also known as pre-preg ) or "painted" over it. High-performance parts using single molds are often vacuum-bagged and/or autoclave -cured, because even small air bubbles in the material will reduce strength. An alternative to the autoclave method is to use internal pressure via inflatable air bladders or EPS foam inside the non-cured laid-up carbon fiber. For simple pieces of which relatively few copies are needed (one or two per day),

1010-432: A number of field applications strengthening concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures. Their use in industry can be either for retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or prestressing) material instead of steel from the outset of a project. Retrofitting has become the increasingly dominant use of the material in civil engineering, and applications include increasing

1111-525: A professor of biomechanical engineering at Michigan State University . After talking to his brother-in-law, accomplished American road-racer Jim Downing , following the death of Patrick Jacquemart , a mutual friend who was killed in a testing accident at the Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course when his Renault Le Car Turbo struck a sandbank, leaving him dead on arrival with head injuries, IMSA officials decided that some sort of protection

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1212-399: A rear panel, accessible to safety crews. Sixth is the roof escape hatch that is in place on all Funny Cars since the founding of the division in the early 1970s. This device allows Funny Car drivers a safe means of exit during an engine fire rather than falling out of the car between the frame and fiberglass body, and possibly running the risk of being run over by the rear tires. Seventh are

1313-422: A refinery in a one-step process. Capture and reuse of the carbon and monomers is then possible. CFRPs can also be milled or shredded at low temperature to reclaim the carbon fiber; however, this process shortens the fibers dramatically. Just as with downcycled paper, the shortened fibers cause the recycled material to be weaker than the original material. There are still many industrial applications that do not need

1414-543: A severe case of tire shake which, coupled with the release of his parachutes, ripped his car cleanly in two directly behind the engine. This frame failure exposed him to severe injury with no body or frame in front of his feet, as the severely damaged vehicle ground to a halt. The rules now prevent the use of hardened chrome moly tubing in the framework construction of any Top Fuel or Funny Car. The track length for nitromethane-powered vehicles (funny cars and fuel dragsters) has been reduced to 1,000 feet (305 meters), to reduce

1515-720: A single carbon fiber with diameter of 5–7 μm is sealed in a glass capillary. At the tip the capillary is either sealed with epoxy and polished to make carbon-fiber disk microelectrode or the fiber is cut to a length of 75–150 μm to make carbon-fiber cylinder electrode. Carbon-fiber microelectrodes are used either in amperometry or fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for detection of biochemical signalling. CFRPs are now widely used in sports equipment such as in squash, tennis, and badminton racquets, sport kite spars, high-quality arrow shafts, hockey sticks, fishing rods, surfboards , high end swim fins, and rowing shells . Amputee athletes such as Jonnie Peacock use carbon fiber blades for running. It

1616-497: Is commonly referred to by its nickname, " The Wally ". Wally Parks, editor of Hot Rod magazine and a dry lakes racer himself, began the National Hot Rod Association to promote "safety, sportsmanship, and fellowship" among hot rodders. The association gained about 25,000 members in its first year; within six years, it had more than 57,000 members. Hot Rod magazine and NHRA worked together to convince

1717-409: Is dependent on the fiber orientation and machining condition of the cutting process. To reduce tool wear various types of coated tools are used in machining CFRP and CFRP-metal stack. The primary element of CFRPs is a carbon filament ; this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon , or petroleum pitch . For synthetic polymers such as PAN or rayon, the precursor

1818-438: Is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and mechanical processes to initially align the polymer chains in a way to enhance the final physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms ( carbonization ), producing

1919-518: Is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly

2020-619: Is most widely used in the "safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars. The first carbon fiber monocoque chassis was introduced in Formula One by McLaren in the 1981 season. It was designed by John Barnard and was widely copied in the following seasons by other F1 teams due to the extra rigidity provided to the chassis of the cars. Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRPs extensively in their manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components. As far back as 1971,

2121-413: Is much more difficult to process and more expensive. Despite their high initial strength-to-weight ratios, a design limitation of CFRPs are their lack of a definable fatigue limit . This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out. While steel and many other structural metals and alloys do have estimable fatigue or endurance limits, the complex failure modes of composites mean that

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2222-495: Is not a hot-rodder at all. He's a square." NHRA initiated the 1954 "Drag Safari", a nationwide tour to encourage organized drag racing with an emphasis on safety. Sponsored by Mobil Oil , the Safari crew would meet with law enforcement and local city officials at each stop to explain their program, involve local car clubs, set up sites, and run drag races. Drag Safari would lead to the 1955 US Nationals for drag racing. Due to

2323-409: Is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy , but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester , vinyl ester , or nylon, are sometimes used. The properties of the final CFRP product can be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix (resin). The most common additive is silica , but other additives such as rubber and carbon nanotubes can be used. Carbon fiber

2424-400: Is resistant to disintegration. This also came about after the death of Russell. The tires are not allowed to be inflated under 7 pounds per square inch (48 kPa) for any race at any time. All cars capable of attaining 150 miles per hour require braking parachutes . A safety requirement on all Drag cars running 9.99 and quicker in the 1/4 mile is the fireproof engine blanket that surrounds

2525-524: Is several times stronger and tougher than typical CFRPs and is used in the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II as a structural material for aircraft. CNRP still uses carbon fiber as the primary reinforcement, but the binding matrix is a carbon nanotube-filled epoxy. National Hot Rod Association The National Hot Rod Association ( NHRA ) is a governing body which sets rules in drag racing and hosts events all over

2626-646: Is significantly improved if a thin layer of carbon fibers is moulded near the surface because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat. CFRPs are being used in an increasing number of high-end products that require stiffness and low weight, these include: CFRPs have a long service lifetime when protected from the sun. When it is time to decommission CFRPs, they cannot be melted down in air like many metals. When free of vinyl (PVC or polyvinyl chloride ) and other halogenated polymers, CFRPs can be thermally decomposed via thermal depolymerization in an oxygen-free environment. This can be accomplished in

2727-442: Is sometimes referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer ( GFRP is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer ). CFRP are composite materials . In this case the composite consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides its strength. The matrix is usually a thermosetting plastic, such as polyester resin, to bind

2828-471: Is still debated whether Earnhardt's death was the result of a broken seat belt or an inadequate head and neck restraint, he died of a basilar skull fracture, which likely would have been prevented by the proper use of belts and a head and neck restraint. Media members immediately turned focus to the HANS device after Earnhardt's death. HANS device co-founder Hubbard was quoted: "... (I was) shocked by that. I recorded about 80 entries in my telephone log

2929-571: Is the top division of the NHRA. It consists of four professional classes: There are more than a dozen Sportsman Classes. The classes contested at NHRA Divisional races include Snowmobile, Motorcycle Classes, Super Street, Super Gas, Stock Eliminator, Super Stock, Competition Eliminator, Super Comp, Top Sportsman, Top Dragster, Top Alcohol Funny Car, and Top Alcohol Dragster. All classes except Snowmobile and some Sportsman motorcycle classes are regularly contested at NHRA national events. NHRA promotes mainly

3030-401: Is the total composite modulus, V m {\displaystyle V_{m}} and V f {\displaystyle V_{f}} are the volume fractions of the matrix and fiber respectively in the composite, and E m {\displaystyle E_{m}} and E f {\displaystyle E_{f}} are the elastic moduli of

3131-436: Is typical). As a consequence, only small cross-sectional areas of the material are used. Small areas of very high strength but moderate stiffness material will significantly increase strength, but not stiffness. CFRPs can also be used to enhance shear strength of reinforced concrete by wrapping fabrics or fibers around the section to be strengthened. Wrapping around sections (such as bridge or building columns) can also enhance

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3232-412: Is used as a shank plate in some basketball sneakers to keep the foot stable, usually running the length of the shoe just above the sole and left exposed in some areas, usually in the arch. Controversially, in 2006, cricket bats with a thin carbon-fiber layer on the back were introduced and used in competitive matches by high-profile players including Ricky Ponting and Michael Hussey . The carbon fiber

3333-534: Is usually immediate, some drivers have survived basilar skull fractures, such as NASCAR's Larry Pollard , Ernie Irvan , Stanley Smith , Rick Carelli and F1's Philippe Streiff . Hubbard had extensive experience as a biomechanical crash engineer, including in General Motors ' auto safety program. His first prototype was developed in 1985, and in crash tests in 1989 – the first to use crash sleds and crash dummies using race car seat belt harnesses –

3434-639: The Citroën SM offered optional lightweight carbon fiber wheels. Use of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the majority of their products. CFRPs have become a notable material in structural engineering applications. Studied in an academic context as to their potential benefits in construction, CFRPs have also proved themselves cost-effective in

3535-595: The United States and Canada . With over 40,000 drivers in its rosters, the NHRA claims to be the largest motorsport sanctioning body in the world. The association was founded by Wally Parks in 1951 in California to provide a governing body to organize and promote the sport of drag racing. NHRA's first Nationals was held in 1955, in Great Bend, Kansas . The NHRA Mission Foods Drag Racing Series ,

3636-591: The brittle nature of CFRPs, in contrast to the ductility of steel. Though design codes have been drawn up by institutions such as the American Concrete Institute , there remains some hesitation among the engineering community about implementing these alternative materials. In part, this is due to a lack of standardization and the proprietary nature of the fiber and resin combinations on the market. Carbon fibers are used for fabrication of carbon-fiber microelectrodes . In this application typically

3737-951: The coronavirus pandemic in the United States , the NHRA cancelled its 2020 and 2021 editions of the Drag Racing Series at the Virginia Motorsports Park . Regular scheduling resumed in 2022, with the events taking place in May of that year. Currently, there are two headquarters offices, one in San Dimas, California , and the other in Brownsburg, Indiana at Lucas Oil Indianapolis Raceway Park . The Mission Foods Drag Racing Series offices are held in Brownsburg. The NHRA Mission Foods Drag Racing Series

3838-478: The ductility of the section, greatly increasing the resistance to collapse under dynamic loading. Such 'seismic retrofit' is the major application in earthquake-prone areas, since it is much more economic than alternative methods. If a column is circular (or nearly so) an increase in axial capacity is also achieved by wrapping. In this application, the confinement of the CFRP wrap enhances the compressive strength of

3939-418: The 1,000 foot (304.8 meter) increment NHRA has over 100 member tracks across the United States. It currently leases In N Out Pomona Dragstrip , Gainesville Raceway and Lucas Oil Raceway . It previously owned National Trail Raceway and Atlanta Dragway The NHRA mandates numerous safety devices and procedures in all competition events. A five-point safety harness is required for all vehicles. It holds

4040-470: The Alcohol ranks. This is to prevent any debris from entering the cockpit and becoming a missile hazard to the driver after the death of Top Fuel racer Darrell Russell. Fifth is the on-board fire extinguishing system that is required. These systems are directed onto the engine itself and are activated instantly when the engine catches fire, reducing the chance for the car to completely catch fire and endanger

4141-426: The HANS device is to keep the head from whipping in a crash, preventing excessive rotational movement as a secondary protection, without otherwise restricting movement of the neck. In other words, it allows the wearer's head to move normally, but prevents or restricts head movements during a crash that would exceed the normal articulation range of the musculoskeletal system and cause severe injury. In any kind of crash,

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4242-518: The HANS device or similar products was resisted. The following weekend, Mark Martin said at Rockingham , "I would not wear one for anything. I'll just keep my fingers crossed and take my chances". Following an extensive investigation into Earnhardt’s death that ended in August 2001, NASCAR did not make any immediate changes regarding use of HANS. Then on October 4, 2001, in an Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA) race being held in conjunction with

4343-872: The Professional classes at national events; however, the majority of its participants are Sportsman Racers. Sportsman-class racers must be dues-paying members of NHRA before they are allowed to enter and participate in any NHRA event. Included in these sportsman events are the Lucas Oil Drag Racing Series, the Summit Racing Equipment Racing Series and the NHRA Jr. Drag Racing League. The NHRA Sportsman Drag Racing Series originally consisted of seven divisions: Northeast, Southeast, North Central, South Central, West Central, Northwest, and Pacific. Starting in 2012,

4444-538: The Top Alcohol Dragster and Top Alcohol Funny Car classes competed in four regions: East, North Central, Central and West. Sportsman racers with multiple championships Sportsman racers who have won multiple world championships, with the date of their most recent championship. Top Alcohol Dragster (TAD) Alcohol Funny Car (AFC) Competition Eliminator (CE) Super Stock (SS) Stock NOTE: Top Fuel and Funny Car records are measured in

4545-426: The brittle fracture mechanics presents unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material and finding alternative polymer matrix. One such material with high promise is PEEK , which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK

4646-464: The car's engine, and should the car backfire at any time during the race, or if the burst panel is blown out by an engine explosion, the fuel pump shuts off and the parachutes are deployed automatically. Although several drivers in the Top Fuel and Funny Car divisions have stated their dislike for the new sensor, they do admit that it should cut down on any fatal crashes similar to Kalitta's. This device

4747-736: The chance of fatal injuries has been decreased but not eliminated. There is also a full staff of EMTs on hand at any event on the schedule at any given time. These EMTs are usually from the city or county the track is located in, and are compensated by the NHRA for their time and efforts. Aeromedical services are also on hand at the track for airlifting severely injured persons to local hospitals or trauma centers if necessary. The original "Drag Safari" began their tour across America in 1954. Included were four original members: Bud Coons, Bud Evans, Eric Rickman and Chic Cannon. Although there are several safety procedures in place to prevent fatal accidents, no amount of safety can completely prevent fatalities on

4848-524: The conclusion of a run, a pair of redundant transmitters, placed 400 feet (120 m) and 600 feet (180 m) past the finish line, will signal an on-board receiver to automatically shut off ignition power and fuel to the engine and deploy the parachutes. The transmitters are designed and placed so as to avoid inadvertent triggering of the automated shutoffs. These transmitters and the receivers that are placed on all cars were designed by NHRA's Track Safety Committee and constructed by Electrimotion , and are

4949-407: The concrete. However, although large increases are achieved in the ultimate collapse load, the concrete will crack at only slightly enhanced load, meaning that this application is only occasionally used. Specialist ultra-high modulus CFRP (with tensile modulus of 420 GPa or more) is one of the few practical methods of strengthening cast iron beams. In typical use, it is bonded to the tensile flange of

5050-409: The desired component. The benefit is the speed of the entire process. Some car manufacturers, such as BMW, claimed to be able to cycle a new part every 80 seconds. However, this technique has a very high initial cost since the molds require CNC machining of very high precision. For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used to make CFRP parts by winding filaments around a mandrel or

5151-399: The device compulsory for drivers in the 2005 season. Acceptance by drivers was helped by the addition of quick-release shackles developed and implemented by Ashley Tilling. They were sourced from the marine industry, being used on racing sailboat rigging. The shackles allowed the drivers a simple and quick pull to release the HANS device and exit their vehicle. The first driver to utilize them

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5252-464: The device compulsory for oval tracks in 2001, and subsequently requiring the HANS devices for all circuits the following season. Starting in October 2001, NASCAR mandated the use of either the HANS or Hutchens device , changing to the HANS device exclusively starting in 2005. ARCA also followed suit in the wake of Alexander's death. The World Rally Championship and Australian V8 Supercar Series made

5353-473: The device with the help of an anchor on each side, much like the Hutchens device , but placed slightly back. In a properly installed 5- or 6-point racing harness , the belts that cross the driver's upper body pass directly over the HANS device on the driver's shoulders and buckle at the center of the driver's abdomen. Therefore, the HANS device is secured by the body of the driver, not the seat. The purpose of

5454-532: The driver securely in the seat and is equipped with a quick-release latch which can be released in less than a second should the driver need to leave the car due to fire or explosions. Fire suits are required for all drivers in the alcohol and nitromethane fuel classes and the faster gasoline classes. These suits are full body coveralls and made with seven layers of Nomex fabric, which makes them resistant to fire. The required suit includes Nomex gloves, foot socks, and head sock. Another NASCAR transplant, which

5555-425: The driver. The driver also has a manual activation control available. This has been in place on all cars since 1983, when an engine explosion and fire came very close to killing then-Funny Car driver Mike Dunn. All enclosed body cars must have a five-inch circular opening that will accept the nozzle of a fire extinguisher triggered by safety personnel. All vehicles must have a clearly marked fuel pump cut-off switch on

5656-429: The end of the sand traps. These walls are able to withstand the impact of a vehicle traveling at well over the usual speed of any division within the NHRA's professional categories. These retaining walls take the place of the old rubber polymer safety nets that were once held up with concrete posts. Another safety modification was a direct result of Kalitta's death. The NHRA began installing a sensor that constantly checks

5757-402: The energy exerted on the head and neck was lowered by approximately 80%. Prior tests had established the thresholds for acute basilar skull fracture to be 740 lbs of vertical neck tension and 700 lbs of forward neck shear; the HANS device greatly reduced both these values to 210 lbs. Neck compression was also reduced by about 28 millimetres. After major racing safety companies declined to produce

5858-407: The engine block and contains debris in case of an engine explosion. NHRA rules call for a monetary, points, and time penalty if the car leaks oil during the run. During qualifying, the offending team loses its elapsed time and speed from the run; during a race, the penalty is loss of lane choice unless both teams in the ensuing race committed the violation. In the wake of Eric Medlen 's 2007 death,

5959-485: The fall NASCAR racing weekend at the Charlotte Motor Speedway , Blaise Alexander was killed in a two-car incident while battling for the lead in the final laps of the race. Coincidentally, the other driver racing with Alexander for the lead was Dale Earnhardt's oldest son Kerry Earnhardt . The younger Earnhardt's car flipped on its roof after Alexander went into the wall, but he was in the lead when

6060-550: The fatigue failure properties of CFRPs are difficult to predict and design against; however emerging research has shed light on the effects of low velocity impacts on composites. Low velocity impacts can make carbon fibre polymers susceptible to damage. As a result, when using CFRPs for critical cyclic-loading applications, engineers may need to design in considerable strength safety margins to provide suitable component reliability over its service life. Environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on

6161-401: The final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound onto bobbins . From these fibers, a unidirectional sheet is created. These sheets are layered onto each other in a quasi-isotropic layup, e.g. 0°, +60°, or −60° relative to each other. From the elementary fiber, a bidirectional woven sheet can be created, i.e. a twill with

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6262-556: The first day [after the fatal accident]. And I didn't even write them all down. I was on national television ten times that Monday. I had been down in Florida and came home on Friday and went cross-country skiing in Michigan. So, I didn't know he died until I got home and there was a voicemail on my answering machine at 10 o'clock at night. I actually had two interviews that night before I went to bed." Even after Earnhardt's death, use of

6363-495: The following: One method of producing CFRP parts is by layering sheets of carbon fiber cloth into a mold in the shape of the final product. The alignment and weave of the cloth fibers is chosen to optimize the strength and stiffness properties of the resulting material. The mold is then filled with epoxy and is heated or air-cured. The resulting part is very corrosion-resistant, stiff, and strong for its weight. Parts used in less critical areas are manufactured by draping cloth over

6464-415: The form of hydrogen embrittlement has been blamed for the gradual deterioration of the prestressing wires in many PCCP lines. Over the past decade, CFRPs have been used to internally line PCCP, resulting in a fully structural strengthening system. Inside a PCCP line, the CFRP liner acts as a barrier that controls the level of strain experienced by the steel cylinder in the host pipe. The composite liner enables

6565-440: The general public and especially the police that there was a difference between hot-rodders and reckless street racers, sometimes known as "shot rodders". They encouraged the involvement of adults, such as auto shop teachers and garage owners. The NHRA's efforts to defend the image of the hot-rodder included a series of short films such as The Cool Hot Rod (1953) in which a delinquent teen learns that "a reckless kid in an old junker

6666-938: The initial "SAE International Award for Motorsport Safety Honoring John Melvin " for their lifesaving work on the HANS Device. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers ( American English ), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers ( Commonwealth English ), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics , carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic ( CFRP , CRP , CFRTP ), also known as carbon fiber , carbon composite , or just carbon , are extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastics that contain carbon fibers . CFRPs can be expensive to produce, but are commonly used wherever high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness (rigidity) are required, such as aerospace, superstructures of ships, automotive, civil engineering, sports equipment, and an increasing number of consumer and technical applications. The binding polymer

6767-488: The late 1980s, fans could station themselves up to the guardrails so they could be closer to the action. However, in the wake of several rather dramatic accidents on track, where spectators have been injured or killed, fans are no longer allowed within 75 feet (23 m) of the guardrail. One of the newest safety requirements came after a near-fatal crash at Texas Motorplex in Ennis, Texas , when John Force 's car experienced

6868-403: The likelihood and severity of blower and engine explosions and fires at or above 200 miles per hour. All other classes continue to race a full 1320-foot quarter mile (402 meters) which has been the original distance established by the NHRA in the 1950s. The 2010 season brought a new safety device to Top Fuel classes. Should the driver be rendered unable to perform the normal shutdown sequence at

6969-440: The load capacity of old structures (such as bridges, beams, ceilings, columns and walls) that were designed to tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing today, seismic retrofitting, and repair of damaged structures. Retrofitting is popular in many instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed the cost of strengthening using CFRP. Applied to reinforced concrete structures for flexure,

7070-422: The long bars at the rear end of all cars, also known as " wheelie bars ". These long struts prevent the car from flipping over during the launch phase. To prevent debris, oil, fuel, or coolant from falling on the racing surface, "diapers" under the engine (with a supporting platform) are used to retain liquids and broken parts in the event of a catastrophic engine failure. "Oil-downs" result in substantial fines and

7171-402: The loss of previously earned Championship points (for annual awards). Many cars using the centrifugally-activated "slipper" clutch are now using a retention tube to collect the substantial amount of clutch dust that is produced during each race. The aforementioned recent practices, along with the longstanding requirement for a Kevlar-style retainer blanket over the supercharger, considerably reduce

7272-419: The manufacture of these parts. Many aircraft that use CFRPs have experienced delays with delivery dates due to the relatively new processes used to make CFRP components, whereas metallic structures have been studied and used on airframes for decades, and the processes are relatively well understood. A recurrent problem is the monitoring of structural ageing, for which new methods are constantly investigated, due to

7373-568: The matrix and fibers respectively. The other extreme case of the elastic modulus of the composite with the fibers oriented transverse to the applied load can be found using the equation: The fracture toughness of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is governed by the mechanisms: 1) debonding between the carbon fiber and polymer matrix, 2) fiber pull-out, and 3) delamination between the CFRP sheets. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0.5% strain to failure. Although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus,

7474-623: The matrix in CFRPs such as compressive, interlaminar shear, and impact properties. The epoxy matrix used for engine fan blades is designed to be impervious against jet fuel, lubrication, and rain water, and external paint on the composites parts is applied to minimize damage from ultraviolet light. Carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum or mild steel but not to stainless steel or titanium. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics are very hard to machine, and cause significant tool wear. The tool wear in CFRP machining

7575-433: The mold and placed in the bag. The other one is done by infusion, where the dry fabric and mold are placed inside the bag while the vacuum pulls the resin through a small tube into the bag, then through a tube with holes or something similar to evenly spread the resin throughout the fabric. Wire loom works perfectly for a tube that requires holes inside the bag. Both of these methods of applying resin require hand work to spread

7676-413: The national event series which comprises 24 races each year, is the premier series in drag racing that brings together the best drag racers from across North America and the world. The NHRA U.S. Nationals are now held at Lucas Oil Raceway in Brownsburg, Indiana and are officially called the U.S. Nationals. Winners of national events are awarded a trophy statue in honor of founder Wally Parks. The trophy

7777-647: The need to re-true a wheel and the reduced mass reduces the moment of inertia of the wheel. CFRP spokes are rare and most carbon wheelsets retain traditional stainless steel spokes. CFRPs also appear increasingly in other components such as derailleur parts, brake and shifter levers and bodies, cassette sprocket carriers, suspension linkages, disc brake rotors, pedals, shoe soles, and saddle rails. Although strong and light, impact, over-torquing, or improper installation of CFRP components has resulted in cracking and failures, which may be difficult or impossible to repair. The fire resistance of polymers and thermo-set composites

7878-459: The person's body, when not protected, is decelerated by the seat belt, with the head maintaining velocity until it is decelerated by the neck. The HANS device maintains the relative position of the head to the body, in addition to transferring energy to the much stronger chest, torso, shoulder, seat belts, and seat as the head is decelerated. The device was designed in the early 1980s by American scientist and researcher Dr. Robert Hubbard (1943–2019),

7979-494: The polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While CFRPs demonstrate excellent corrosion resistance, the effect of moisture at wide ranges of temperatures can lead to degradation of the mechanical properties of CFRPs, particularly at the matrix-fiber interface. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the moisture plasticizes the polymer matrix. This leads to significant changes in properties that are dominantly influenced by

8080-709: The positioning of the device made the seat belts feel less secure or rubbed on the shoulders or the collar bone. Earnhardt referred to the device as "that damn noose ", claiming the tethers would more likely hang him than save him in the event of a crash. On February 18, 2001, Dale Earnhardt was killed on the last lap of the Daytona 500 . Earnhardt was the fourth NASCAR driver killed by basilar skull fractures in an eight-month span, following Adam Petty in May 2000, Kenny Irwin Jr. in July 2000, and Tony Roper in October 2000. While it

8181-405: The potential for injury and fire, in addition to assuring a cleaner and safer racing surface, resulting in a dramatic reduction in race delays for track clean-up. The rear tires of the car, which are called slicks due to the fact that there is no tread on them, are specified with safety considerations in mind. These tires are made from a much harder compound than in previous years so that the tire

8282-402: The product, Hubbard and Downing formed Hubbard Downing Inc., to develop, manufacture, sell and promote the HANS in 1990. However, the product languished until 1994, when Formula One showed interest in the wake of the deaths of Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna . In 1999, CART driver Gonzalo Rodríguez was killed after suffering a basilar skull fracture in a crash. At the same time, Mercedes

8383-436: The proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer. The two different equations governing the net elastic modulus of composite materials using the properties of the carbon fibers and the polymer matrix can also be applied to carbon fiber reinforced plastics. The equation: is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. E c {\displaystyle E_{c}}

8484-454: The race was halted with four laps to go. Due to carnage of the accident, the race was never restarted, so Earnhardt was declared the winner. NASCAR mandated use of the HANS device in its top three series on October 17, 2001. Formula One mandated HANS devices in 2003 after extensive testing by Mercedes from 1996 to 1998, sharing the results with other Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) affiliates. Using that information, CART made

8585-414: The reinforcements together. Because CFRPs consist of two distinct elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. Reinforcement gives CFRPs their strength and rigidity, measured by stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRPs have directional strength properties. The properties of a CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and

8686-649: The resin evenly for a glossy finish with very small pin-holes. A third method of constructing composite materials is known as a dry layup. Here, the carbon fiber material is already impregnated with resin (pre-preg) and is applied to the mold in a similar fashion to adhesive film. The assembly is then placed in a vacuum to cure. The dry layup method has the least amount of resin waste and can achieve lighter constructions than wet layup. Also, because larger amounts of resin are more difficult to bleed out with wet layup methods, pre-preg parts generally have fewer pinholes. Pinhole elimination with minimal resin amounts generally require

8787-463: The roll bars in a Funny Car underwent modifications to further improve safety. They are padded with thick insulation and coated with several layers of Nomex to prevent the padding from catching fire during an engine explosion. Another facility safety feature is the large sand pit at the end of the track past an area of the track known as the "shutdown area", also known as a "sand trap". This 40-foot-long (12 m) sand pit has been placed to slow or stop

8888-490: The section, both increasing the stiffness of the section and lowering the neutral axis , thus greatly reducing the maximum tensile stress in the cast iron. In the United States, prestressed concrete cylinder pipes (PCCP) account for a vast majority of water transmission mains. Due to their large diameters, failures of PCCP are usually catastrophic and affect large populations. Approximately 19,000 miles (31,000 km) of PCCP were installed between 1940 and 2006. Corrosion in

8989-709: The steel cylinder to perform within its elastic range, to ensure the pipeline's long-term performance is maintained. CFRP liner designs are based on strain compatibility between the liner and host pipe. CFRPs are more costly materials than commonly used their counterparts in the construction industry, glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRPs) and aramid fiber-reinforced polymers (AFRPs), though CFRPs are, in general, regarded as having superior properties. Much research continues to be done on using CFRPs both for retrofitting and as an alternative to steel as reinforcing or prestressing materials. Cost remains an issue and long-term durability questions still remain. Some are concerned about

9090-429: The strength of full-length carbon fiber reinforcement. For example, chopped reclaimed carbon fiber can be used in consumer electronics, such as laptops. It provides excellent reinforcement of the polymers used even if it lacks the strength-to-weight ratio of an aerospace component. In 2009, Zyvex Technologies introduced carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy and carbon pre-pregs . Carbon nanotube reinforced polymer (CNRP)

9191-718: The unusual multi-material and anisotropic nature of CFRPs. In 1968 a Hyfil carbon-fiber fan assembly was in service on the Rolls-Royce Conways of the Vickers VC10s operated by BOAC . Specialist aircraft designers and manufacturers Scaled Composites have made extensive use of CFRPs throughout their design range, including the first private crewed spacecraft Spaceship One . CFRPs are widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of their high strength-to-weight ratio. CFRPs are extensively used in high-end automobile racing. The high cost of carbon fiber

9292-407: The use of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out. A quicker method uses a compression mold , also commonly known as carbon fiber forging. This is a two (male and female), or multi-piece mold, usually made out of aluminum or steel and more recently 3D printed plastic. The mold components are pressed together with the fabric and resin loaded into the inner cavity that ultimately becomes

9393-422: The use of CFRPs typically has a large impact on strength (doubling or more the strength of the section is not uncommon), but only moderately increases stiffness (as little as 10%). This is because the material used in such applications is typically very strong (e.g., 3 GPa ultimate tensile strength , more than 10 times mild steel) but not particularly stiff (150 to 250 GPa elastic modulus, a little less than steel,

9494-562: The use of head and neck restraints; the FIA has made HANS devices use compulsory for all International-level events from the beginning of 2009. Even monster truck drivers use the HANS device in many events. Grassroots Motorsports awarded the HANS device the Editors' Choice award in 2002. Autosport magazine also awarded HANS their pioneering and innovation award in 2007. In 2016, Hubbard and Downing, along with FIA's Hubert Gramling, were awarded

9595-863: Was NASCAR driver Scott Pruett of PPI Motorsports . Such shackles were also used on the Hutchens device and others. Beginning in July 2007, many sanctioning bodies have approved any head-and-neck restraint that passes the SFI Foundation Specification 38.1 standard. These include the HANS device, the Moto-R Sport, the R3 , the Hutch-II, the Hutchens Hybrid, or the Hybrid X. Today, most major auto racing sanctioning bodies mandate

9696-474: Was brought into use after the death of Fireball Roberts , was the fuel cell. This bladder is placed into the fuel tanks of non-nitromethane-fueled vehicles to prevent fuel leaks and explosions. Third is the use of the HANS device . This device limits the movement of the head and neck in the event of an impact. Fourth is the titanium shield that must be placed behind the head of all Dragsters and Funny Cars down to

9797-958: Was claimed to merely increase the durability of the bats, but it was banned from all first-class matches by the ICC in 2007. A CFRP bicycle frame weighs less than one of steel, aluminum, or titanium having the same strength. The type and orientation of the carbon-fiber weave can be designed to maximize stiffness in required directions. Frames can be tuned to address different riding styles: sprint events require stiffer frames while endurance events may require more flexible frames for rider comfort over longer periods. The variety of shapes it can be built into has further increased stiffness and also allowed aerodynamic tube sections. CFRP forks including suspension fork crowns and steerers, handlebars , seatposts , and crank arms are becoming more common on medium as well as higher-priced bicycles. CFRP rims remain expensive but their stability compared to aluminium reduces

9898-556: Was completing research of the HANS on behalf of the FIA for Formula One, finally deciding that it out-performed their airbag project. The device was first adopted by the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) in 1996, following the death of Top Fuel driver Blaine Johnson , though was not mandatory in the series until 2004, after the death of 2003 Top Fuel Rookie of the Year Darrell Russell , who

9999-523: Was developed by Force, Kenny Bernstein , and Tony Schumacher , along with NHRA racing development, and NHRA track safety. It was implemented at the start of the 2009 season. The sensor is used only in the Funny Car and Top Fuel divisions. Pro Stock doesn't use nitromethane or superchargers in their engines and this presents a much-reduced risk of the massive explosions that can be seen in the nitromethane-fueled cars—and often at their peak speeds. Prior to

10100-588: Was killed by flying debris during the Sears Craftsman Nationals in Madison, Illinois . Other racing series were also slow to follow suit. Many drivers, including seven-time NASCAR Cup Series Champion Dale Earnhardt , resisted the HANS devices or anything that was similar to them, claiming that they were uncomfortable and more restrictive. There were also fears that it would cause more injuries and problems than it prevented. Some even stated that

10201-470: Was required to help prevent injuries from sudden stops, especially during accidents. A major cause of death among drivers during races was through violent head movements, where the body remains in place because of the seat belts , but the momentum keeps the head moving forward, causing a basilar skull fracture, resulting in serious injury or immediate death. Notable race car drivers who died from basilar skull fractures include: While death from such injuries

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