Misplaced Pages

#836163

81-470: The upgrade started as a design study in 2010, for which a European Framework Program 7 grant was allocated in 2011, with goal of boosting the accelerator's potential for new discoveries in physics. The design study was approved by the CERN Council in 2016 and HL-LHC became a full-fledged CERN project. The upgrade work is currently in progress and physics experiments are expected to start taking data at

162-529: A Nature article in December 2020, Horizon 2020 is praised for being less bureaucratic than past framework programmes. In 2021, the European Commission services introduced several simplifications in the new framework programme Horizon Europe , to facilitate the work of the beneficiaries especially in the reporting phase. Top quark The top quark , sometimes also referred to as

243-488: A Smart UTM Design is drafted in alignment with the U-Space concept, which describes a framework for a progressive implementation of services to "enable complex drone operations with a high degree of automation to take place in all types of operational environments, including urban areas". Subsequently, specific microservices will be prototyped and laboratory scale tested in a server-less cloud-based environment. On behalf of

324-427: A collision, a highly energetic gluon is created, which subsequently decays into a top and antitop. This process was responsible for the majority of the top events at Tevatron and was the process observed when the top was first discovered in 1995. It is also possible to produce pairs of top–antitop through the decay of an intermediate photon or Z-boson . However, these processes are predicted to be much rarer and have

405-487: A decay volume of 10 m, which is 3 orders of magnitude higher than FASER and will increase the sensitivity range by 4 orders of magnitude. It will probe into the regime of dark photons , dark Higgs bosons , heavy neutral leptons , and weak gauge boson coupling. It will also have the subdetector FASERnu for neutrino and antineutrino observations. LHCb: LHCb will receive reduced aperture central vacuum chambers during LS2. The Vertex Locator (VELO) detector which measures

486-556: A hadron surrounding the top quark provides physicists with the unique opportunity to study the behavior of a "bare" quark. In particular, it is possible to directly determine the branching ratio : The best current determination of this ratio is 0.957 ± 0.034 . Since this ratio is equal to | V tb | according to the Standard Model , this gives another way of determining the CKM element  | V tb | , or in combination with

567-535: A safe and efficient integration of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) in very low level airspace. As a result, technologically and commercially feasible service solutions are elaborated and deployed in an experimental testing environment. The expected growth of future UAS movements in rural as well as urban areas indicates the need for traffic management solutions, ensuring a normal course of trouble free operations of manned as well as unmanned aviation. IMPETUS contributes by investigating potential microservices that serve

648-503: A scalable, flexible and cost efficient system, IMPETUS proposes the application of the Function as a Service paradigm and Smart Concepts. Concurrently, data quality and integrity is taken into account to guarantee a safe conduct of all operations. To fulfil these purposes, the project started to characterize data processes and services of vital importance for drone operations. Following the requirements derived from this preliminary studies,

729-549: A smaller diameter. The tracking system and the time projection chambers will be upgraded along with a new faster interaction trigger detector. ATLAS: The liquid argon calorimeter at ATLAS will be upgraded to identify the electrons and photons more effectively. The main readout electronics of the calorimeter will be completely replaced to let the detector identify rare particle interactions. These changes are planned for Long Shutdown 3 (LS3) of LHC. CMS: CMS will carry out numerous upgrades to its inner tracking system,

810-723: A top quark by exchanging a W boson with an up or down quark ("t-channel"). A single top quark can also be produced in association with a W boson, requiring an initial-state bottom quark ("tW-channel"). The first evidence for these processes was published by the DØ collaboration in December ;2006, and in March ;2009 the CDF and DØ collaborations released twin articles with the definitive observation of these processes. The main significance of measuring these production processes

891-406: A virtually identical experimental signature in a hadron collider like Tevatron. The production of single top quarks via weak interaction is a distinctly different process. This can happen in several ways (called channels): Either an intermediate W-boson decays into a top and antibottom quarks ("s-channel") or a bottom quark (probably created in a pair through the decay of a gluon) transforms to

SECTION 10

#1732772021837

972-467: A wide range of physics goals. Increasing the number of collisions to 140—each time the proton particle beams meet at the center of the ATLAS and CMS detectors—from the current number of 30, will open a number of new avenues for observing rare processes and particles. The boost in the integrated luminosity , or evidently the larger collision event datasets that would be accumulated through HL-LHC in case of all

1053-529: Is a Horizon 2020 (FP8) project, aimed to support the implementation of the EC and ERC Open Access policies. Its successor OpenAIREplus is aimed at linking the aggregated research publications to the accompanying research and project information, datasets and author information. Open access to scientific peer reviewed publications has evolved from a pilot project with limited scope in FP7 to an underlying principle in

1134-500: Is about a twentieth of the timescale for strong interactions, and therefore it does not form hadrons , giving physicists a unique opportunity to study a "bare" quark (all other quarks hadronize , meaning that they combine with other quarks to form hadrons and can only be observed as such). Because the top quark is so massive, its properties allowed indirect determination of the mass of the Higgs boson (see § Mass and coupling to

1215-762: Is an obligation under the Amsterdam Treaty , which includes a chapter on research and technological development. The programmes are defined by Commission civil servants that are aided by various official advisory group and lobby groups. E.g. to advise the European Commission on the overall strategy to be followed in carrying out the Information and Communication Technology thematic priority, the Information Society Technologies Advisory Group (ISTAG)

1296-528: Is considered as "partly associated" due to the 2014 referendums held by Switzerland, which free movement of workers between Switzerland and the EU was limited. Swiss organizations continue to be active participants in Horizon 2020, however, their participation is sometimes covered by national funding. Israel is an associated country of Horizon 2020. A central point of negotiation was the funding of projects beyond

1377-400: Is fully implemented, although the final decision is yet to come. Crab cavities: The function of the crab cavities is to tilt and project the beams in the required direction. This tilting maximizes the overlap between the colliding bunches, leading to an increase in the achievable instantaneous luminosity. ATLAS and CMS together will have 16 crab cavities; which will give transverse momentum to

1458-512: Is implemented by the European Commission , the executive body of the European Union . More specifically, it is implemented by various agencies, including: Associated countries have signed an association agreement for the purposes of this framework programme. To date, 14 countries are associated to Horizon 2020. Participants from European Union member states and countries associated to Horizon 2020 are automatically funded. Switzerland

1539-493: Is planned. 2021-2023: All surface bindings would be delivered. 2022-2024: The inner triplet string will be installed followed by its operation test. 2025-2027: New magnets, crab-cavities, cryo-plants, collimators, superconducting links, ancillary equipment, and absorbers are planned to be installed. If all above planned activities are completed according to the timeline, HL-LHC would be able to start its physics operation in 2028. The following upgrades to machine systems forms

1620-522: Is that their frequency is directly proportional to the | V tb |  component of the CKM matrix . The only known way the top quark can decay is through the weak interaction , producing a W boson and a bottom quark . Because of its enormous mass , the top quark is extremely short-lived, with a predicted lifetime of only 5 × 10  s . As a result, top quarks do not have time before they decay to form hadrons as other quarks do. The absence of

1701-569: Is to complete the European Research Area (ERA) by coordinating national research policies and pooling research funding in some areas to avoid duplication. Horizon 2020 itself is seen as a policy instrument to implement other high-level policy initiatives of the European Union, such as Europe 2020 and Innovation Union. The programme consists of three main research areas that are called "pillars": The structure follows

SECTION 20

#1732772021837

1782-564: The Austrian Research Promotion Agency launched a petition calling for a simplification of administrative procedures, which attracted over 13,000 signatories. The numerous other criticisms of the petitioners were later distilled into a green paper . In Horizon 2020 , there are significant simplifications: e.g. fewer funding rates (increasing the funding rates of the large companies), less reporting, less auditing, shorter time from proposal to project kick-off. In

1863-504: The Green Line . Israel published its views in an Appendix to the official documents. Armenia gained the status of associated country and Armenian researchers and organizations can participate in all Horizon programs on equal footing with EU member states. IMPETUS ( I nformation M anagement P ortal to E nable the in T egration of U nmanned S ystems) is addressing the scientific analysis of information management requirements for

1944-515: The Large Hadron Collider at CERN became the only accelerator that generates a beam of sufficient energy to produce top quarks, with a center-of-mass energy of 7 TeV. There are multiple processes that can lead to the production of top quarks, but they can be conceptually divided in two categories: top-pair production, and single-top production. The most common is production of a top–antitop pair via strong interactions . In

2025-574: The Nobel Prize in physics in 1999. Because top quarks are very massive, large amounts of energy are needed to create one. The only way to achieve such high energies is through high-energy collisions. These occur naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere as cosmic rays collide with particles in the air, or can be created in a particle accelerator . In 2011, after the Tevatron ceased operations,

2106-583: The SESAR Joint Undertaking , IMPETUS is carried out from 2017 to 2019 by a multinational consortium of key stakeholders in unmanned aviation: Altitude Angel (UK), Boeing Research and Technology Europe (ES), C-Astral (SI), CRIDA (ES), INECO (ES), Jeppesen (DE) and the Technical University of Darmstadt (DE). A network of Open Access repositories, archives and journals that support Open Access policies. The OpenAIRE Consortium

2187-578: The electron has a minuscule coupling y electron = 2 × 10 , while the top quark has the largest coupling to the Higgs, y t ≈ 1 . In the Standard Model, all of the quark and lepton Higgs–Yukawa couplings are small compared to the top-quark Yukawa coupling. This hierarchy in the fermion masses remains a profound and open problem in theoretical physics. Higgs–Yukawa couplings are not fixed constants of nature, as their values vary slowly as

2268-473: The running of the large Higgs–Yukawa coupling of the top quark. If a quark Higgs–Yukawa coupling has a large value at very high energies, its Yukawa corrections will evolve downward in mass scale and cancel against the QCD corrections. This is known as a (quasi-) infrared fixed point , which was first predicted by B. Pendleton and G.G. Ross, and by Christopher T. Hill , No matter what the initial starting value of

2349-420: The strong interaction and is typically produced in hadron colliders via this interaction. However, once produced, the top (or antitop) can decay only through the weak force . It decays to a W boson and either a bottom quark (most frequently), a strange quark , or, on the rarest of occasions, a down quark . The Standard Model determines the top quark's mean lifetime to be roughly 5 × 10  s . This

2430-497: The truth quark , (symbol: t) is the most massive of all observed elementary particles . It derives its mass from its coupling to the Higgs field . This coupling y t is very close to unity; in the Standard Model of particle physics , it is the largest (strongest) coupling at the scale of the weak interactions and above. The top quark was discovered in 1995 by the CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab . Like all other quarks ,

2511-428: The DØ data (which had been searched for a much lighter top), the two groups jointly reported the discovery of the top at a mass of 176 ± 18 GeV/ c . In the years leading up to the top-quark discovery, it was realized that certain precision measurements of the electroweak vector boson masses and couplings are very sensitive to the value of the top-quark mass. These effects become much larger for higher values of

High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider - Misplaced Pages Continue

2592-595: The European Union was explicitly encouraged. Participants from European Union member states and countries associated to Horizon 2020 were automatically fundable. Horizon 2020 supported open access to research results. Projects such as the European Processor Initiative , or the Exscalate4Cov project, were beneficiaries of Horizon 2020. Horizon 2020 has been succeeded by Horizon Europe in 2021. The framework programme's objective

2673-517: The GIM mechanism to become part of the Standard Model. With the acceptance of the GIM mechanism, Kobayashi and Maskawa's prediction also gained in credibility. Their case was further strengthened by the discovery of the tau by Martin Lewis Perl 's team at SLAC between 1974 and 1978. The tau announced a third generation of leptons , breaking the new symmetry between leptons and quarks introduced by

2754-517: The GIM mechanism. Restoration of the symmetry implied the existence of a fifth and sixth quark. It was in fact not long until a fifth quark, the bottom, was discovered by the E288 experiment team, led by Leon Lederman at Fermilab in 1977. This strongly suggested that there must also be a sixth quark, the top, to complete the pair. It was known that this quark would be heavier than the bottom, requiring more energy to create in particle collisions, but

2835-539: The HL-LHC accelerator requirements, superconducting power transmission lines made of magnesium diboride (MgB 2 ) will be used to transmit the current of about 100,000 amperes. As part of the HL-LHC, significant changes will be made to the proton injector. The beams that come to LHC are pre-accelerated by following 4 accelerators. All four of these accelerators, together known as the Injectors will be upgraded through

2916-469: The HL-LHC project with its initial budget and schedule. Followed by which the hardware parts consisting of components and models were validated. Between 2018 and 2020: The prototypes were tested and final Technical Design report was published. The underground excavation work was also carried out. Although the civil engineering work and prototyping process would continue till the end of 2021. Between 2019 and 2024: The construction and testing of hardware parts

2997-436: The HL-LHC with an upgraded version of the near-beam PPS. Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development The Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development , also called Framework Programmes or abbreviated FP1 to FP9 , are funding programmes created by the European Union / European Commission to support and foster research in the European Research Area (ERA). Starting in 2014,

3078-557: The Higgs boson below). As such, the top quark's properties are extensively studied as a means to discriminate between competing theories of new physics beyond the Standard Model. The top quark is the only quark that has been directly observed due to its decay time being shorter than the hadronization time. In 1973, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa predicted the existence of a third generation of quarks to explain observed CP violations in kaon decay . The names top and bottom were introduced by Haim Harari in 1975, to match

3159-562: The Horizon 2020 funding scheme, obligatory for all H2020 funded projects. The goal is to make as much European funded research output as possible available to all, via the OpenAIRE portal. The Zenodo research data repository is a product of OpenAIRE. The OpenAIRE portal is online. The programmes have been criticized on various grounds, such as actually diminishing Europe's industrial competitiveness and failing to deliver fundamental excellence and global economic competitiveness. In 2010,

3240-542: The LHC Injector Upgrade (LIU) project during the Long Shutdown 2 (LS2). The LIU is responsible for delivering beams of very high brightness to HL-LHC. The proton injectors will be upgraded to produce proton beams with double the original luminosity and 2.4 times the brightness . The replacement of Linear Accelerator 2 (Linac2 - which delivered the proton beams) with Linear Accelerator 4 (Linac4)

3321-581: The LHC Run-3. The upgrade plan for SND at HL-LHC is to continue developing the detector with the aim of improving the statistics of collision events, and expand its pseudorapidity range for studies of heavy-quark production and neutrino interactions. TOTEM : The TOTEM -CMS collaboration which has been operating the Proton Precision Spectrometer (PPS) since 2016, will measure the central-exclusive production events at

High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider - Misplaced Pages Continue

3402-480: The LHC experiments, is the most significant aspect towards achieving the goals described below. The motivation for the construction of large underground infrastructure at HL-LHC therefore, is to have a high efficiency and highly reliable machine which can deliver the required integrated luminosity. Major goals of HL-LHC thus belong to the following five categories; improved Standard Model measurements, searches for beyond

3483-402: The Standard Model (BSM) physics, flavor physics of heavy quarks and leptons , studies of the properties of the Higgs boson , and the studies of QCD matter at high density and temperature. Measurements of the Higgs boson and understanding its connection to the electroweak symmetry breaking remains the primary goal. In the domain of flavour physics; LHCb, ATLAS and CMS together will test

3564-492: The Standard Model. The branching ratios for these decays have been determined to be less than 1.8 in 10000 for photonic decay and less than 5 in 10000 for Z boson decay at 95% confidence . The Standard Model generates fermion masses through their couplings to the Higgs boson . This Higgs boson acts as a field that fills space. Fermions interact with this field in proportion to their individual coupling constants y i , which generates mass. A low-mass particle, such as

3645-454: The Yukawa coupling changes with energy scale  μ . Solutions to this equation for large initial values y t cause the right-hand side of the equation to quickly approach zero, locking y t to the QCD coupling g 3 . The value of the top quark fixed point is fairly precisely determined in the Standard Model, leading to a top-quark mass of 220 GeV. This is about 25% larger than

3726-467: The airspace user's needs in all phases of the operation life cycle, from strategical planning over pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight data provision. Since information management is an infrastructural prerequisite of future unmanned traffic systems, the results support the European goal to gain in prosperity by means of the job and business opportunities of an emerging drone service market. Ensuring

3807-553: The beams before the collision to remain constant. Cryogenics: Implementation of HL-LHC would require larger cryogenic plants, plus larger 1.8 Kelvin refrigerators, along with sub-cooling heat exchangers. New cooling circuits are also to be developed. The majority of these upgrades are for interaction points, P1, P4, P5, and P7. While P1, P4, and P5 will receive new cryogenic plants, P7 will have new cryogenic circuits. Machine protection and collimators: The collimators are responsible for absorbing any extra particles that deviate from

3888-412: The beams to increase the collision probability. Beam optics: As per the current HL-LHC design the beam intensity will decrease due to the burn-off of the circulating proton beams inside the collider. Maintaining the intensity at a constant level throughout the lifespan of beam is thus a major challenge. Nevertheless, plan is to at least have a system that would allow beam focusing or the concentration of

3969-752: The core of the new HL-LHC. Quadrupole magnets: The strong magnets along with the huge rings are a necessary aspect of LHC's functionality. HL-LHC will have quadrupole magnets with the strength of 12 tesla as opposed to 8 tesla in LHC. Such superconducting magnets made up of inter-metallic niobium-tin (Nb 3 Sn), compound would be installed around the CMS and ATLAS detector. A ten-year-long joint project between CERN, Brookhaven National Laboratory , Fermilab , and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory known as United States Department of Energy LHC Accelerator Research Program (US–LARP) successfully built and tested such quadrupole magnets. 20 inner triplet quadrupoles are in

4050-433: The coupling is, if sufficiently large, it will reach this fixed-point value. The corresponding quark mass is then predicted. The top-quark Yukawa coupling lies very near the infrared fixed point of the Standard Model. The renormalization group equation is: where g 3 is the color gauge coupling, g 2 is the weak isospin gauge coupling, and g 1 is the weak hypercharge gauge coupling. This equation describes how

4131-516: The determination of | V tb | from single top production provides tests for the assumption that the CKM matrix is unitary. The Standard Model also allows more exotic decays, but only at one loop level, meaning that they are extremely rare. In particular, it is conceivable that a top quark might decay into another up-type quark (an up or a charm) by emitting a photon or a Z-boson. However, searches for these exotic decay modes have produced no evidence that they occur, in accordance with expectations of

SECTION 50

#1732772021837

4212-507: The discovery of the top was imminent. As the SPS gained competition from the Tevatron at Fermilab there was still no sign of the missing particle, and it was announced by the group at CERN that the top mass must be at least 41 GeV/ c . After a race between CERN and Fermilab to discover the top, the accelerator at CERN reached its limits without creating a single top, pushing the lower bound on its mass up to 77 GeV/ c . The Tevatron

4293-436: The earliest in 2028. The HL-LHC project will deliver proton-proton collisions at 14 TeV with an integrated luminosity of 3 ab for both ATLAS and CMS experiments, 50 fb for LHCb , and 5 fb for ALICE . In the heavy-ion sector, the integrated luminosities of 13 nb and 50 nb will be delivered for lead-lead and proton-lead collisions , respectively. The inverse femtobarn (fb) unit measures

4374-450: The energy scale (distance scale) at which they are measured. These dynamics of Higgs–Yukawa couplings, called "running coupling constants", are due to a quantum effect called the renormalization group . The Higgs–Yukawa couplings of the up, down, charm, strange and bottom quarks are hypothesized to have small values at the extremely high energy scale of grand unification, 10  GeV . They increase in value at lower energy scales, at which

4455-653: The existence of quarks, including the other second generation quark, the strange quark , was obtained in 1968; strange particles were discovered back in 1947.) When in November 1974 teams at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) simultaneously announced the discovery of the J/ψ meson , it was soon after identified as a bound state of the missing charm quark with its antiquark. This discovery allowed

4536-484: The existing nominal LHC luminosity (1⋅10 cm⋅s) is about a factor of 4 higher than the LHC's performance at its peak luminosity of 2⋅10 cm⋅s, unfortunately far below the LHC upgrade project's initial ambition of a factor of 10. However, at the LUMI'06 workshop, several suggestions were proposed that would boost the LHC peak luminosity by a factor of 10 beyond nominal towards 1⋅10 cm⋅s. The peak luminosity at LHC

4617-592: The funding programmes were named Horizon . The funding programmes began in 1984 and continue to the present day. The most recent programme, Horizon Europe , has a budget of 95.5 billion Euros to be distributed over 7 years. The specific objectives and actions vary between funding periods. In FP6 and FP7, focus was on technological research. In Horizon 2020, the focus was on innovation, delivering economic growth faster, and delivering solutions to end users that are often governmental agencies. Conducting European research policies and implementing European research programmes

4698-633: The general expectation was that the sixth quark would soon be found. However, it took another 18 years before the existence of the top was confirmed. Early searches for the top quark at SLAC and DESY (in Hamburg ) came up empty-handed. When, in the early 1980s, the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) at CERN discovered the W ;boson and the Z ;boson , it was again felt that

4779-559: The heavy ion collisions forms the basis of QCD perturbation theory probes, and HL-LHC will measure this at very high energy scales. Owing to these high energy collisions, there is also a possibility for HL-LHC to detect BSM phenomena such as baryogenesis , dark matter , answers to the flavour problem , neutrino masses and insights into the strong CP problem . The upgrades to the heavy-ion injectors are also in progress and would bring up even more opportunities to observe very rare phenomena and to search for BSM physics. The HL-LHC project

4860-507: The high luminosity interaction regions is being maintained by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). A workshop was held in 2006 to establish the most promising options. Increasing LHC luminosity involves reduction of the beam size at the collision point, and either the reduction of bunch length and spacing, or significant increase in bunch length and population. The maximum instantaneous luminosity increase of

4941-862: The most important of which included: Note also the FP7 Joint Technology Initiatives (JTI) in partnership with industry . A specific action was the FIRST project, to foster cooperation in the area of internet technologies through the European-Latin American Technology Platforms . Horizon 2020 was the eighth framework programme (FP8) funding research, technological development, and innovation. The programme's name has been modified to "Framework Programme for Research and Innovation". The programme ran from 2014 to 2020 and provided an estimated € 80 billion of funding, an increase of 23 per cent on

SECTION 60

#1732772021837

5022-458: The names of the first generation of quarks ( up and down ) reflecting the fact that the two were the "up" and "down" component of a weak isospin doublet . The proposal of Kobayashi and Maskawa heavily relied on the GIM mechanism put forward by Sheldon Glashow , John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani , which predicted the existence of the then still unobserved charm quark . (Direct evidence for

5103-428: The observed top mass and may be hinting at new physics at higher energy scales. The quasi-infrared fixed point subsequently became the basis of top quark condensation and topcolor theories of electroweak symmetry breaking, in which the Higgs boson is composed of a pair of top and antitop quarks. The predicted top-quark mass comes into improved agreement with the fixed point if there are additional Higgs scalars beyond

5184-399: The original beam trajectory and can potentially damage the machines. The higher luminosities are bound to generate such highly energetic particles. HL-LHC design thus contains ways to prevent damages by replacing 60 out of 118 collimators and adding about 20 new ones. The upgraded collimators will also have lower electromagnetic interference with beams. Superconducting power lines: To meet

5265-463: The previous framework programme (FP7, 2007–2013) to the level of the sub-programmes under the pillars. Horizon 2020 is also implementing the European environmental research and innovation policy , which is aimed at defining and turning into reality a transformative agenda for greening the economy and the society as a whole so as to achieve a truly sustainable development . The framework programme

5346-481: The previous phase. The ERC, as one component of H2020, funded 6,707 research projects worth a total of €13.3 billion. From 2013 to 2020 the EU's European Research Council assigned to UK scientists €1.7bn in grants, more than any other country. Horizon 2020 provided grants to research and innovation projects through open and competitive calls for proposals. Legal entities from any country were eligible to submit project proposals to these calls. Participation from outside

5427-440: The primary and displaced vertices of short-lived particles will be enhanced to meet the increased radiation and particle interaction rates. MoEDAL: For LHCs Run-3 MoEDAL will implement a new sub-detector called MoEDAL's Apparatus for the detection of Penetrating Particles (MAPP). For HL-LHC MAPP-1 would be upgraded to MAPP-2. Scattering and Neutrino Detector (SND): SND and will begin its first operation only in 2022, during

5508-470: The production phase at CERN and in the US. Dipole magnets: For inserting the new collimators , two of the LHC's dipole magnets will have to be replaced with smaller ones. They would be stronger (11 tesla) than LHC's dipole magnets (8.3 tesla) and be more powerful in bending the beam trajectories. As of now six 11 T dipoles are in the production phase. These magnets would probably be installed only after HL-LHC

5589-447: The quark masses are generated by the Higgs. The slight growth is due to corrections from the QCD coupling. The corrections from the Yukawa couplings are negligible for the lower-mass quarks. One of the prevailing views in particle physics is that the size of the top-quark Higgs–Yukawa coupling is determined by a unique nonlinear property of the renormalization group equation that describes

5670-400: The time-integrated luminosity in terms of the number of collisions per femtobarn of the target's cross-section . The increase in the integrated luminosity for the aforementioned major LHC experiments will provide a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements. Many different paths exist for upgrading colliders . A collection of different designs of

5751-574: The top mass and therefore could indirectly see the top quark even if it could not be directly detected in any experiment at the time. The largest effect from the top-quark mass was on the T ;parameter , and by 1994 the precision of these indirect measurements had led to a prediction of the top-quark mass to be between 145 GeV/ c and 185 GeV/ c . It is the development of techniques that ultimately allowed such precision calculations that led to Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman winning

5832-625: The top quark is a fermion with spin-1/2 and participates in all four fundamental interactions : gravitation , electromagnetism , weak interactions , and strong interactions . It has an electric charge of + ⁠ 2  / 3 ⁠   e . It has a mass of 172.76 ± 0.3  GeV/ c , which is close to the rhenium atom mass. The antiparticle of the top quark is the top antiquark (symbol: t , sometimes called antitop quark or simply antitop ), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign . The top quark interacts with gluons of

5913-399: The top. In the following years, more evidence was collected and on 22 April 1994, the CDF group submitted their article presenting tentative evidence for the existence of a top quark with a mass of about 175 GeV/ c . In the meantime, DØ had found no more evidence than the suggestive event in 1992. A year later, on 2 March 1995, after having gathered more evidence and reanalyzed

5994-428: The trigger system, the calorimeter, and the muon detection systems during Long Shutdown 2 (LS2) and LS3. These changes are based on the expected pile-up densities and increase in radiation due to the higher luminosity. Similar changes are also planned for the ATLAS experiment. FASER-2: LHC's FASER experiment will undergo several upgrades and be turned into FASER-2 to fully utilize HL-LHC's capabilities. It will have

6075-511: The unitarity of the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix , and ATLAS and CMS will measure the properties of the top quark , the fermion with the largest known mass and largest Yukawa coupling . HL-LHC will also add to the knowledge of parton distribution functions (PDFs) by measuring several Standard Model processes with the jets, top quarks , photons and electroweak gauge bosons in their final state. The jet and photon production in

6156-551: Was (until the start of LHC operation at CERN in 2009) the only hadron collider powerful enough to produce top quarks. In order to be able to confirm a future discovery, a second detector, the DØ detector , was added to the complex (in addition to the Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) already present). In October 1992, the two groups found their first hint of the top, with a single creation event that appeared to contain

6237-546: Was achieved in 2020. The Linac4 is a 160 MeV linear accelerator and delivers H beams with twice the beam brightness compared to its older counterparts. LIU also upgraded the cesiated radiofrequency-plasma H ion source that feeds Linac4. The challenge here was to have a high current, low emittance source beam. Heavy-ion injector upgrades through the upgrades to the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) and Linac3 are also being designed. The source extraction system of Linac3

6318-419: Was initiated in 2010, and the following has been the timeline till 2020, followed by the tentative future stages. 2010: HL-LHC was established at CERN as a design study. 2011: The FP7 HL-LHC design study was approved and started. 2014: The first preliminary report on the design study was published. 2015: Budget and schedule along with technical design report was made available. 2016: CERN Council approved

6399-430: Was limited due to the cooling capacity of its triplet magnets and secondly due to the detector limits. The resultant higher event rate posed challenges for the particle detectors located in the collision areas. Through the ongoing upgrades, HL-LHC's peak luminosity is expected to be 5⋅10 cm⋅s and would most likely be pushed to 7.5⋅10 cm⋅s. The HL-LHC upgrade being applicable to almost all major LHC experiments has

6480-579: Was re-designed, and by the end of LS2 it successfully increased the extracted source beam intensity by 20%. To handle the increased luminosity, number of simultaneous particle interactions, massive amount of data, and radiation of the HL-LHC environment, the detectors will be upgraded. ALICE: The upgrade will increase the lifetime of the Tile Calorimeter (TileCal), which is a hadronic calorimeter sensitive to charged particles, by 20 years. The beam pipe at ALICE will also be replaced by one with

6561-661: Was set up. The framework programmes, up until Framework Programme 6 (FP6), covered five-year periods; but from Framework Programme 7 (FP7) onward, programmes run for seven years. The Framework Programmes, and their budgets in billions of Euros, are presented in the table below. For FP1–FP5, program expenditures were made in European Currency Units ; from FP6 onward budgets were in Euros. The values presented below are in Euros. Framework Programme 6 and 7 (2002–2013) projects were generally funded through instruments ,

#836163