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148-623: Hmongtown Marketplace is an indoor-outdoor marketplace focused on Hmong American products and culture in the Frogtown neighborhood of Saint Paul, Minnesota . Hmongtown was the first Hmong-owned and operated marketplace in the United States and is today noted for its cuisine and produce. Locally it is variously referred to as the Hmong Farmers Market or Hmong Flea Market , or simply "Hmongtown" to emphasize its role as

296-496: A pochteca was a professional merchant who travelled long distances to obtain rare goods or luxury items desired by the nobility. The system supported various levels of pochteca – from very high status through to minor traders who acted as a type of peddler to fill in gaps in the distribution system. Colonial sources also record Mayan market hubs at Acalan , Champotón , Chetumal , Bacalar , Cachi, Conil, Pole, Cozumel , Cochuah , Chauaca, Chichén Itzá , as well as markets marking

444-587: A "tri-coalition" government was finally seated in Vientiane . The North Vietnamese Army, in collaboration with the Pathet Lao, invaded Laos in 1958 and 1959 , occupying the east of the country to use for its Ho Chi Minh Trail supply corridor and as a staging area for offensives into South Vietnam. There were two major theatres of the war, one for control over the Laotian Panhandle and the other

592-447: A Hmong American city alongside other ethnicities, and entitles the poem (and Fresno) Hmongtown. Hmongtown founder Toua Xiong said in 2000, four years before Hmongtown was realized, that the goal of his neighborhood business ventures were to "turn Frogtown into Hmongtown". His marketplace concept was opened as International Marketplace in 2004, and renamed Hmongtown Marketplace in 2009. Xiong has since encouraged leaving "Marketplace" out of

740-539: A Hmong community hub, Hmongtown is often targeted for public health initiatives. Hmongtown participates in outreach around testing for breast cancer and reducing consumption of heavy metals from skin lightening products and fish. The market also held vaccine clinics during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic . In June 2013, law enforcement raided Hmongtown and confiscated hundreds of pounds of illegal medication, including penicillin , opiates , and mislabeled over

888-589: A Vietnamese wife while in Vietnam, and he solicited Viet Minh aid in founding a guerrilla force. In August 1950, Souphanouvong had joined the Viet Minh in their headquarters north of Hanoi, Vietnam, and become the head of the Pathet Lao, along with its political arm dubbed Neo Lao Hak Sat (Lao Patriotic Front). This was an attempt to give a false front of authority to the Lao communist movement by claiming to represent

1036-759: A business while still acclimating to America. In 2010 Toua Xiong was awarded the Immigrant of Distinction award for his work at Hmongtown from the Minnesota-Dakotas chapter of the American Immigration Lawyers Association . Hmongtown was featured in an Emmy Award -winning episode of CNN 's United Shades of America with owner Toua Xiong and local Hmong American chef Yia Vang in 2019. Andrew Zimmern featured papaya salad, fried intestines, and bitter bamboo soup from Hmongtown on Bizarre Foods America in 2012, and

1184-501: A charter to local Lords to create markets and fairs for a town or village. A charter protected the town's trading privileges in return for an annual fee. Once a chartered market was granted for specific market days, a nearby rival market could not open on the same days. Fairs, which were usually held annually, and almost always associated with a religious festival, traded in high value goods, while regular weekly or bi-weekly markets primarily traded in fresh produce and necessities. Although

1332-668: A constitution declaring Laos an independent nation within the French Union . This began the building of a new government over the next few years, including the establishment of a national army, the Armée Nationale Laotienne, which was the first iteration of the Royal Lao Army. The nascent army was plagued by lack of Lao leadership, and its weaponry was a hodgepodge. Thus the new Armée Nationale Laotienne consisted of light infantry battalions officered by

1480-588: A cultural hub like a Chinatown , not just a retail location. Two buildings in north Frogtown at 217 Como Ave contain more than 200 vendors who sell traditional food, clothing, and home goods especially from Hmong and Hmong American culture, including from Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos and Thailand. The market is designed to simulate open-air markets in Chiang Mai, Thailand , and Vientiane, Laos . Produce vendors sell culturally specific fruits, vegetables, nuts, and other edible plants. Hot and ready-made food vendors sell

1628-810: A drop outside Luang Prabang. This was coupled with a thrust to the north by the French forces, from Vientiane to Luang Prabang, that chased Phetsarath Ratanavongsa and the Lao Issara ministers out of Laos. The king reinstated the French rule by repudiating his actions that had been pressured from him by the Japanese, Chinese, and Lao Issara. By September 1946, the Lao Issara had been defeated and had fled to exile in Bangkok. One of its splinter groups, led by Thao O Anourack , fled to Hanoi. There he allied himself with two men trusted by Ho Chi Minh ; Nouhak Phoumsavanh

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1776-408: A fair's primary purpose was trade, it typically included some elements of entertainment, such as dance, music, or tournaments. As the number of markets increased, market towns situated themselves sufficiently far apart so as to avoid competition, but close enough to permit local producers a round trip within one day (about 10 km). Some British open-air markets have been operating continuously since

1924-623: A few days and the quantity supplied is relatively inelastic. The second group is the short period market where the time in which the quantity supplied can be increased by improving the scale of production (adding labor and other inputs but not by adding capital). Many non-perishable goods fall into this category. The third category is the long-period market where the length of time can be improved by capital investment. Other ways to classify markets include its trading area (local, national or international); its physical format or its produce. Major physical formats of markets are: Markets may feature

2072-610: A functional economy. French commandos parachuted into Laos beginning in 1945 to organize guerrilla forces. By November, they had formed the guerrillas into four light infantry battalions of the newly founded French Union Army. The officers and sergeants of the new Lao battalions were French. In October 1945, a Lao nationalist movement called Lao Issara (Free Laos) was founded as a new government for Laos. Among Lao Issara's prominent members were three European-educated princes; brothers Phetsarath Ratanavongsa and Souvanna Phouma , and their half brother, Souphanouvong . The former became

2220-646: A guerrilla force of about thirty thousand Laotian hill tribesmen, mostly local Hmong (Meo) tribesmen along with the Mien and Khmu , led by Royal Lao Army General Vang Pao , a Hmong military leader. This army, supported by the CIA proprietary airline Air America , Thailand, the Royal Lao Air Force , and a covert air operation directed by the United States ambassador to Laos, fought the People's Army of Vietnam,

2368-434: A lengthy description which paints a picture of a highly organised, vibrant operation which attracted large number of visitors from some distance away. "As for the people in the fair, they all universally eat, drink and sleep in their booths, and tents; and the said booths are so intermingled with taverns, coffee-houses, drinking-houses, eating-houses, cookshops &c, and all tents too, and so many butchers and higglers from all

2516-439: A local market is a standard feature of daily life. Given the market's role in ensuring food supply for a population, markets are often highly regulated by a central authority. In many places, designated marketplaces have become listed sites of historic and architectural significance and represent part of a town's or nation's cultural assets. For these reasons, they are often popular tourist destinations. The term market comes from

2664-405: A market tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government. A graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets: "Saturn's day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun's day at Atella and Nola, Moon's day at Cumae", etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of

2812-453: A meal is less than $ 15 and restaurants are open all day for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Individual restaurant stalls and a food court serve traditional Hmong and Southeast Asian meals, snacks, and street food . Because Hmong are a diaspora, Hmong cuisine is a fusion , so dishes at Hmongtown come from Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and even China, Japan, South Korea, and Mexico. Difficult to find outside of Minnesota, Hmong-style barbecue

2960-766: A particular type of produce – such as the silversmith's street or the textile district. In Tangiers , a sprawling market fills the many streets of the medina and this area is divided into two sections, known as the Grand Socco and the Petit Socco . The term ' socco ' is a Spanish corruption of the Arabic word for souk , meaning marketplace. These markets sell a large variety of goods: fresh produce, cooking equipment, pottery, silverware, rugs and carpets, leather goods, clothing, accessories, electronics, alongside cafes, restaurants and take-away food stalls. The medina at Fez

3108-479: A place to perpetuate Hmong culture such as textile art. A participant in a study on Hmong youth recalled how spending time at her mother's Hmongtown stall encouraged her to become a Hmong Paj Ntaub embroiderer: "Over winter break, my mom had a stall at Hmongtown Market so I went with her to help her. I was tired of not doing anything so I started embroidering again. That’s when I realized that if I did not continue to embroider then I would not know how to embroider in

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3256-520: A range of merchandise for sale, or they may be one of many specialist markets, such as: Markets generally have featured prominently in artworks, especially amongst the Dutch painters of Antwerp from the middle of the 16th century. Pieter Aertsen was known as the "great painter of the market". Both he and his nephew, Joachim Beuckelaer , painted market scenes, street vendors and merchants extensively. Elizabeth Honig argues that painters' interest in markets

3404-530: A refugee camp. He, a younger brother, and his parents joined his teenage brothers in an American-run refugee camp when he was twelve. In 1986 at seventeen years old, he and his wife Nou Vang immigrated to St. Paul, Minnesota and settled in Frogtown. In three years he gained college degrees in business and accounting. He has a master's degree in accounting. Prior to opening Hmongtown, the Xiongs owned and operated

3552-400: A reputation for quality produce, efficient market regulation and good amenities for visitors such as covered accommodation. By the thirteenth century, counties with important textile industries were investing in purpose built halls for the sale of cloth. London's Blackwell Hall became a centre for cloth, Bristol became associated with a particular type of cloth known as Bristol red , Stroud

3700-578: A second Hmongtown location in the former Sears space at the Maplewood Mall . The 14 acre space would be developed into a marketplace and additional services aimed at younger customers than the original Hmongtown targets. In 2009 a group of Hmong American entrepreneurs opened Hmong Village in St. Paul. Four miles from Hmongtown, Hmong Village offered a similar experience, with a large warehouse renting individual stalls to vendors to sell wares and goods. It

3848-580: A separate destiny. Phetsarath Rattanavongsa chose to remain in Bangkok. His stay was temporary. He would once again become the viceroy of Laos. Souvanna Phouma chose to return to Laos via an amnesty, believing that the Lao would soon free themselves. In 1951 he became Prime Minister for the first time and held that office until 1954. Souphanouvong, who had spent seven years in Nha Trang during his sixteen years in Vietnam , met Ho Chi Minh and acquired

3996-649: A sort of pleasant and wholesome, and very refreshing beer. Palm wine, acqua vita and spirits which they get from the Europeans, are kept in other shops, with restrictions on sale to prevent drunkenness and riots. Here slaves of both sexes are bought and sold, also oxen, sheep, dogs, hogs, shish and birds of all kind. Woollen cloths, linen, silks and calicoes of European and Indian manufacture, they have it in great abundance, likewise hard-ware, china and glass of all sorts; gold in dust and ingots, iron in bars, lead in sheets and everything of European, Asiatic or African production

4144-402: A system of formal, chartered markets from the 12th century. Throughout the medieval period , increased regulation of marketplace practices, especially weights and measures, gave consumers confidence in the quality of market goods and the fairness of prices. Around the globe, markets have evolved in different ways depending on local ambient conditions, especially weather, tradition, and culture. In

4292-625: A system of fresh produce hubs to serve as a platform for producers to market and distribute their produce. It is anticipated that these hubs will assist in curbing the number of sellers who take their produce to South Africa where it is placed on cold storage, only to be imported back into the country at a later date. Fresh produce markets have traditionally dominated the South African food chain, handling more than half of all fresh produce. Although large, vertically integrated food retailers, such as supermarkets, are beginning to make inroads into

4440-417: A systematic study of European market towns between the thirteenth and fifteenth century. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week while daily markets were common in larger cities. Over time, permanent shops began opening daily and gradually supplanted the periodic markets, while peddlers or itinerant sellers continued to fill in any gaps in distribution. During

4588-688: A united non-partisan effort. Two of its most important founders were members of the Indochinese Communist Party, which advocated overthrow of the monarchy as well as expulsion of the French. This got Laos involved in the First Indochina War, but it started off mainly against the French. On 23 December 1950, the Pentalateral Mutual Defense Assistance Pact was signed by the United States, France, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos; it

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4736-617: A variety of dishes such as roast meats, boba tea , papaya salad , and bánh mì . Home goods include green market , electronics, religious supplies, and garden tools. A bank branch staffed by Hmong-speaking employees was added in 2024. It's easy to forget, when you're walking past the crowded indoor stalls or outdoor vegetable stands in Hmongtown Marketplace that you're in the American Midwest. The sounds, smells, voices on TV and faces proclaim, "Southeast Asia!" In

4884-541: Is a "destination" for cooks. Five-time James Beard Award -nominee Diane Moua recommends the prepared food. Food critic Andrew Zimmern says it is "the country’s best little-known ethnic market." Minnesota Monthly included Hmongtown in their "'culinary canon' of essential local eats" list the "Foodie 40", saying Hmongtown is "one of the great, affordable flavor adventures in the Twin Cities" and calling it "ground zero" for good chicken wings. The average price of

5032-553: Is also a very large market with over 1500 stalls and covering 4.5 ha. In Morocco , markets are known as souks , and are normally found in a city's Medina (old city or old quarter). Shopping at a produce market is a standard feature of daily life in Morocco. In the larger cities, Medinas are typically made up of a collection of souks built amid a maze of narrow streets and laneways where independent vendors and artisans tend to cluster in sections which subsequently become known for

5180-659: Is also held daily in the Jemaa el-Fnaa (main square) where roaming performers and musicians entertain the large crowds that gather there. Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market in Morocco. Namibia has been almost entirely dependent on South Africa for its fresh produce. Dominated by rolling plains and long sand dunes and an unpredictable rainfall, many parts of Namibia are unsuited to growing fruit and vegetables. Government sponsored initiatives have encouraged producers to grow fresh fruit, vegetables, legumes and grains The Namibian Ministry of Agriculture has recently launched

5328-712: Is also known for its food and produce. In 2014 the Pacific Produce grocery store in Milwaukee, Wisconsin renovated part of their warehouse store into Hmong Town Market, which hosted ready-made food stands run by Wisconsin Hmong American entrepreneurs. Audio/visual Art Tours Marketplace Markets have existed for as long as humans have engaged in trade. The earliest bazaars are believed to have originated in Persia, from where they spread to

5476-480: Is appointed by the King for the inspection of goods, to hear and determine all grievances, complaints and disputes ... The market place is surrounded by butlers and booths, and places of refreshment for the conveniency of the people. They are only permitted to sell certain sorts of meats, pork, goats, beef and dog flesh. Other booths are kept by women who sell maize, millet, rice and corn bread. Other shops sell Pito ,

5624-423: Is capacity for more than 300 stalls. The interior footpath complexity due to the many stalls has been described as "labyrinthine" and "byzantine". Because of the wide variety of products and services offered at Hmongtown, it is referred to as many different kinds of markets, such as a mall , a supermarket , a flea market , a farmers market , a marketplace , and a food hall . Locally it is variously referred to as

5772-573: Is here found at reasonable prices. In the Kingdom of Benin (modern Benin City ), he commented on the exotic foods available for sale at a market there: Besides the dry merchandise of which the markets of Benin abound, they are also well stocked with eatables, a little particular in kind. Here they expose dogs to sale for eating, of which the negroes are very fond. Roasted monkeys, apes and baboons are every where to be seen. Bats, rats and lizards dried in

5920-661: Is known as the Secret War among the American CIA Special Activities Center , and Hmong and Mien veterans of the conflict. The Franco–Lao Treaty of Amity and Association (signed 22 October 1953) transferred remaining French powers to the Royal Lao Government (except control of military affairs), establishing Laos as an independent member of the French Union . However, this government did not include representatives from

6068-456: Is often cited as the world's oldest continuously operating, purpose-built market; its construction began in 1455. Dating the emergence of marketplaces in China is difficult. According to tradition, the first market was established by the legendary Shennong or the "Divine Farmer" who arranged for markets to be held at midday. In other ancient sayings, markets originally developed around wells in

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6216-643: Is prominent, including traditionally prepared and cold Hmong sausage ( nyhuv ntxwm hmoob ), which is a pork sausage flavored with Thai chili and herbs like lemongrass , and sai krok , a traditional fermented pork sausage. Dishes popular among Hmong such as pho (or the Hmong version of pho called fawm ), khaub poob (red curry noodle soup), larb (minced meat salad), nab vam (tapioca dessert), purple rice, boba tea, mangonada , and papaya salad are widely available from multiple restaurants. Notable vendors and dishes include: Hmongtown

6364-438: Is recommended for its cuisine in many travel guides such as Lonely Planet and Condé Nast Traveler . An outdoor market that sells much of the same merchandise as the indoor market operates from May to October. It has an emphasis on fresh produce and starter plants for gardening vegetables. Produce commonly available at Hmongtown has Southeast Asian origins and is difficult to find in mainstream groceries. A large portion of

6512-415: Is the oldest, having been founded in the 9th century. The medina at Fez has been named a UNESCO World Heritage site. Today it is the main fresh produce market and is noted for its narrow laneways and for a total ban on motorized traffic. All produce is brought in and out of the marketplace by donkey or hand-cart. In Marrakesh , the main produce markets are also to be found in the medina and a colourful market

6660-545: The 20th Tactical Air Support Squadron and Nail FACs from the 23rd Tactical Air Support Squadron , also directed strikes. Other air strikes were planned ahead. Overall coordination of the air campaign was directed by an Airborne Command and Control Center , such as those deployed in Operation Igloo White . The existence of the conflict in Laos was sometimes reported in the U.S., and described in press reports as

6808-909: The Arsi zone , Bahir Dar and Bure in the Gojjam zone, Dessie and Kombolcha in the Wollo zone, Mekele in the Tigray region , Dire Dawa and Harar in the Oromia region , and Addis Ababa. Some of the major retail markets in Ethiopia include: Addis Mercato in Addis Ababa, the largest open air market in the country; Gulalle and Galan, both in Addis Ababa; Awasa Lake Fish Market in Awasa, the Saturday market Harar , and

6956-572: The European West and the East or Orient ; us and the other . Europeans often saw Orientals as the photographic negative of Western civilisation; the peoples could be threatening – they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational". At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with

7104-473: The Lao Issara anti-colonial armed nationalist movement. The following years were marked by a rivalry between the neutralists under Prince Souvanna Phouma , the right wing under Prince Boun Oum of Champassak , and the left-wing Lao Patriotic Front under Prince Souphanouvong and half-Vietnamese future Prime Minister Kaysone Phomvihane . Several attempts were made to establish coalition governments, and

7252-760: The Laotian Civil War known as the Secret War and the Xiongs wanted a place for first generation immigrants such as themselves to gather as though they were at home. The marketplace originally had many video stores that sold footage of and movies set in Laos and Thailand as part of that nostalgia. Hmongtown serves a similar role to the Minnesota Hmong community as Hmong villages and ethnic Hmong marketplaces in countries of origin such as Vietnam and Laos, which are cultural and social hubs. Toua Xiong spent his childhood in Laos before his family escaped to

7400-698: The Little Mekong Cultural District , a business district with a high concentration of Asian businesses and cultural sites. While the focus is Hmong culture, the marketplace contains shops and stalls with proprietors and products from any of the cultures that can be found in the surrounding neighborhood Frogtown, which in the 20th century became the most ethnically diverse neighborhood in Saint Paul. Nepali , African American , and Mexican vendors have been noted. More than half of Hmongtown's visitors are white. Owner Toua Xiong aims for

7548-651: The Middle East - respectively extending to Northern Africa - as regards to numerous areas from retail towards resources, with trade amongst merchants commonplace, likewise with bartering amongst participants. They are often described as economic and cultural hubs within cities across the Islamic world , and are generally the most bustling areas within urban localities. Given such dense activity, bazaars became an attraction for foreigners in exchanging resources, such as spices , textiles , labour , et cetera, drawing

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7696-486: The National Liberation Front (Viet Cong). North Vietnam also had a sizable military effort in northern Laos, while sponsoring and maintaining an indigenous communist rebellion, the Pathet Lao, to put pressure on the Royal Lao Government. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), in an attempt to disrupt these operations in northern Laos without direct military involvement, responded by training

7844-534: The United States' healthcare system in the decade after Hmong began seeking refuge in the United States, author Anne Fadiman details a Hmong community leader in Merced, California named Blia Yao Moua who at one point pursued a Hmong American-oriented housing complex he called "Hmongtown" which would be designed to remind demoralized refugees of Laos. Hmong American poet Bryan Thao Worra describes Fresno as

7992-538: The caravanserai typically situated just outside the city walls. However, when the marketplace began to become integrated into city structures, it was transformed into a covered area where traders could buy and sell with some protection from the elements. Markets at Mecca and Medina were known to be significant trade centres in the 3rd century (CE) and the nomadic communities were highly dependent on them for both trade and social interactions. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul

8140-586: The "Belly of Paris", and was so named by author, Émile Zola in his novel Le Ventre de Paris , which is set in the busy 19th century marketplace of central Paris. Les Halles, a complex of market pavilions in Paris, features extensively in both literature and painting. Giuseppe Canella (1788 - 1847) painted Les Halles et la rue de la Tonnellerie. Photographer, Henri Lemoine (1848–1924), also photographed Les Halles de Paris. Markets have been known in parts of Africa for centuries. An 18th century commentator noted

8288-524: The 12th century. A pattern of market trading using mobile stalls under covered arcades was probably established in Italy with the open loggias of Mercato Nuovo (1547) designed and constructed by Giovanni Battista del Tasso (and funded by the Medici family ); Mercato Vecchio , Florence, designed by Giorgio Vasari (1567); and Loggia del Grano (1619) by Giulio Parigi . Braudel and Reynold have made

8436-647: The Asian grocery store Foodsmart (now doing business as Sun Foods), part of the Unidale Mall strip mall on University Avenue in Frogtown, with a second location in Brooklyn Park, Minnesota . Opened around 1996 with business loans, the grocery hosted an 80 stall farmers market in its parking lot, a ready-made hot food Thai and Hmong restaurant and buffet, an event hall, and a Hmong sausage processing facility which sold 700 pounds of sausage daily. Toua's goal

8584-472: The CIA's "Secret War in Laos" because details were largely unavailable due to official government denials that the war existed. The denials were seen as necessary considering that the North Vietnamese government and the U.S. had both signed agreements specifying the neutrality of Laos. U.S. involvement was considered necessary because North Vietnam had effectively gained control over a large part of

8732-727: The Central Corridor Business Advisory Council. It hosted fundraisers for local Hmong institutions such as the Hmong Cultural Center Museum , which was founded during a meeting at Foodsmart. The New York Times recommended Foodsmart's daily Hmong food buffet in 2002. Star Tribune recommended the Thai and Hmong food in 2001. Toua Xiong received a minority business leader award for Foodsmart from Minneapolis / St. Paul Business Journal in 2002. The Xiongs moved on to develop

8880-535: The European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar – calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World. Across the boroughs of England, a network of chartered markets sprang up between the 12th and 16th centuries, giving consumers reasonable choice in the markets they preferred to patronise. A study on

9028-710: The French Union Army, as part of its attempt to protect Laos from the PAVN, recaptured the Dien Bien Phu valley. In January 1954, the PAVN launched two assaults on Laos. One thrust crossed the top of the panhandle to the Mekong River town of Thakhek . The other was again aimed at Luang Prabang. Both were thwarted in a month. These were diversions to the famous Battle of Dien Bien Phu , which took place from March through May 1954 within ten kilometers of

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9176-483: The French Union troops at Savannakhet, to no avail; the attackers mustered paratroopers, artillery, armored cars, and Spitfire fighter-bombers. The Lao Issara troops suffered 700 killed. They fled, leaving behind 250 bodies and 150 prisoners. On 24 April, the French dropped a paratroop battalion on the outskirts of Vientiane, and took the city without resistance. On 9 May, they repeated their airborne tactics with

9324-426: The French. There was one paratroop battalion included. The French began training Lao officers and non-commissioned officers even as they continued to lead and train the new army. In opposition, the Viet Minh raised a subsidiary revolutionary movement, the Pathet Lao, starting with an initial guerrilla band of 25 in January 1949. In October 1949, the exiled Lao Issara dissolved and the three royal brothers each chose

9472-401: The Hmong Farmers Market or Hmong Flea Market, or simply "Hmongtown" to emphasize its role as a cultural hub like a Chinatown , not just a retail location. The idea of a "Hmongtown", so named as a Chinatown , has been documented in the Hmong American community for some time. In the 1997 book The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down , which documents one Hmong refugee family's difficulty with

9620-439: The Kingdom of Laos, thus beginning the civil war and technically the Second Indochina War while the First Indochina War was still ongoing. They were opposed by 10,000 Lao troops and 3,000 French regulars. The North Vietnamese invaders succeeded in conquering the border provinces of Phongsali and Xam Neua , which were adjacent to northern Vietnam and on the northeastern verge of the Plain of Jars. They then moved aside to allow

9768-406: The Latin mercatus ("market place"). The earliest recorded use of the term market in English is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 963, a work that was created during the reign of Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) and subsequently distributed, copied throughout English monasteries . The exact phrase was " Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun ", meaning "I desire that there be a market in

9916-410: The Mediterranean and Aegean, a network of markets emerged from the early Bronze Age. A vast array of goods were traded, including salt, lapis lazuli , dyes, cloth, metals, pots, ceramics, statues, spears, and other implements. Archaeological evidence suggests that Bronze Age traders segmented trade routes according to geographical circuits. Both produce and ideas travelled along these trade routes. In

10064-465: The Middle Ages, the physical market was characterised by transactional exchange. Shops had higher overhead costs, but were able to offer regular trading hours and a relationship with customers and may have offered added value services, such as credit terms to reliable customers. The economy was primarily characterised by local trading in which goods were traded across relatively short distances. Beach markets, which were known in north-western Europe, during

10212-414: The Middle East, documentary sources suggest that a form of bazaar first developed around 3000 BCE. Early bazaars occupied a series of alleys along the length of the city, typically stretching from one city gate to a different gate on the other side of the city. The bazaar at Tabriz, for example, stretches along kilometers of street and is the longest vaulted bazaar in the world. Moosavi argues that

10360-407: The Middle East, markets tend to be covered, to protect traders and shoppers from the sun. In milder climates, markets are often open air. In Asia , a system of morning markets trading in fresh produce and night markets trading in non-perishables is common. Today, markets can also be accessed electronically or on the internet through e-commerce or matching platforms. In many countries, shopping at

10508-488: The Middle Eastern bazaar evolved in a linear pattern, whereas the market places of the West were more centralised. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures, and Egyptian women frequented the market and carried on trade, while the men remained at home weaving cloth. He also described the Babylonian marriage market, an account that inspired an 1875 painting by Edwin Long . In antiquity, markets were typically situated in

10656-681: The National Liberation Front (NLF), and their Pathet Lao allies to a seesaw stalemate, greatly aiding U.S. interests in the war in Vietnam. The status of the war in the north throughout the year generally depended on the weather. As the dry season started, in November or December, so did North Vietnamese military operations, as fresh troops and supplies flowed down out of North Vietnam on newly passable routes, either down from Dien Bien Phu , across Phong Saly Province on all-weather highways, or on Route 7 through Ban Ban, Laos on

10804-536: The North Vietnamese out of Laos, but regardless of any agreements or concessions, Hanoi had no intention of withdrawing from the country or abandoning its Laotian communist allies. North Vietnam established the Ho Chi Minh trail as a paved highway in southeast Laos paralleling the Vietnamese border. The trail was designed to transport North Vietnamese troops and supplies to South Vietnam , as well as to aid

10952-404: The Pathet Lao and sent to labor camps, where most of them died in the late 1970s and 1980s, including King Savang Vatthana , Queen Khamphoui and Crown Prince Vong Savang . The 1954 Geneva Conference established Laotian neutrality. The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), however, continued to operate in both northern and southeastern Laos. There were repeated attempts from 1954 onward to force

11100-490: The Pathet Lao force with its mismatched scrounged equipment to occupy the captured ground, and Souphanouvong moved the Pathet Lao headquarters into Xam Neua on 19 April. The other strike, moving from Điện Biên Phủ and aimed downriver at Luang Prabang , was thwarted by oncoming monsoons and resistance by the French. The Vietnamese invasion was stalled, but only because the French had airlifted in battalions of Foreign Legionnaires and Moroccan Tirailleurs . In December,

11248-452: The Pathet Lao had mustered sufficient trained troops to join the Viet Minh in military operations. By October 1951, the Armée Nationale Laotienne had raised two more battalions of infantry and began training a battalion of paratroops. The ANL ended the year with a strength of 5,091. By the end of 1952, the Royal Lao Army had grown to include a battalion of troops commanded by Laotian officers, as well as 17 other companies. In April 1953,

11396-522: The Roman world, the central market primarily served the local peasantry. Market stall holders were primarily local primary producers who sold small surpluses from their individual farming activities and also artisans who sold leather goods, metalware and pottery. Consumers were made up of several different groups; farmers who purchased minor farm equipment and a few luxuries for their homes and urban dwellers who purchased basic necessities. Major producers such as

11544-568: The Saturday market in Axum . Ghanaian markets have survived in spite of sometimes brutal measures to eradicate them. In the late 1970s, the Ghanaian government used market traders as a scapegoat for its own policy failures which involved food shortages and high inflation. The government blamed traders for failing to observe pricing guidelines and vilified "women merchants". In 1979, the Makola market

11692-537: The Tang Dynasty, a metal market was known. Outside the city walls were sheep and horse markets. Marco Polo 's account of 13th century markets specifically mentions a silk market. He was also impressed by the size of markets. According to his account, the ten markets of Hangzhou , primarily a fish market, attracted 40,000 to 50,000 patrons on each of its three trading days each week. In China, negative attitudes towards mercantile activity developed; merchants were

11840-542: The Viet Minh's People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) invaded the northeastern part of what was still the French Protectorate of Laos with 40,000 troops commanded by General Võ Nguyên Giáp ; including 2,000 Pathet Lao soldiers led by Souphanouvong. The objective of the two-pronged invasion was the capture of the royal capital of Luang Prabang and of the Plain of Jars. On 9 November the Pathet Lao began its conflict with

11988-553: The Vietnamese communists would recede toward Vietnam. The war in the southeastern panhandle against the Ho Chi Minh Trail was primarily a massive air interdiction program by the USAF and United States Navy because political constraints kept the trail safe from ground assault from South Vietnam. Raven FACs also directed air strikes in the southeast. Other Forward Air Controllers from South Vietnam, such as Covey FACs from

12136-592: The Viking period, were primarily associated with the sale of fish. From around the 11th century, the number and variety of imported goods sold at beach markets began to increase. giving consumers access to a broader range of exotic and luxury goods. Throughout the Medieval period, markets became more international. The historian, Braudel, reports that in 1600, grain moved just 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and wollen cloth 20–40 miles. However, following

12284-444: The Xiongs bought the property from the lumber company and renamed it Hmongtown Marketplace. Hmongtown aimed to provide a social and economic hub to newly-immigrated Hmong. It has been credited with creating hundreds of jobs and other entrepreneurial opportunities for much of the Minnesota Hmong diaspora. Most of the vendors speak only a Hmong dialect and not English, which Toua Xiong says has allowed them to maintain employment and start

12432-602: The agora. At the agora in Athens, officials were employed by the government to oversee weights, measures, and coinage to ensure that the people were not cheated in market place transactions. The rocky and mountainous terrain in Greece made it difficult for producers to transport goods or surpluses to local markets, giving rise to the kapēlos , a specialised type of retailer who operated as an intermediary purchasing produce from farmers and transporting it over short distances to

12580-540: The attention of Arabs, Turks , Greeks , Persians , Jews as well as Indians , not to mention Westerners since the late-16th to early-17th centuries. In the modern era, bazaars remain a vital economic hub in numerous Arab nations. In Mesoamerica, a tiered system of traders developed independently. Extensive trade networks predated the Aztec empire by at least hundreds of years. Local markets where people purchased their daily necessities were known as tianguis , while

12728-545: The city markets. In ancient Rome , trade took place in the forum . Rome had two forums: the Forum Romanum and Trajan's Forum . Trajan's Market at Trajan's forum, built around 100–110 CE, was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with shops on four levels. The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shopfront. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling via merchants or peddlers and bartering systems were commonplace. In

12876-413: The counter drugs. Traditional Hmong herbal medicine is difficult to find, so vendors at Hmongtown attract customers from all over the world and play a role in preserving Hmong culture. Local hospitals such as M Health Fairview and Regions Hospital purchase post-partum Hmong herbs from Hmongtown as part of an effort to improve birth outcomes with culturally competent care. Because of its reputation as

13024-638: The counter medication. Vendors were subjected to full body searches. Cultural differences and language barriers were blamed, although Ramsey County Sheriff's office spokesperson Randy Gustafson said that vendors had been previously warned against selling the products confiscated. 14 vendors were ultimately charged with "selling misbranded drugs, possessing and selling drugs that require a license, selling syringes, and unlawfully possessing poison." The Minnesota Department of Health started an educational series with Hmongtown vendors to explain drug safety and American regulations in response. A similar incident occurred at

13172-532: The country. Despite these denials, however, the civil war was the largest U.S. covert operation prior to the Soviet–Afghan War , with areas of Laos controlled by North Vietnam subjected to years of intense U.S. aerial bombardment, representing the heaviest bombing campaign in history. Overshadowing it all was the struggle of the Cold War , with the United States' policy of the containment of communism and

13320-508: The edges of Yucatecan canoe trade such as Xicalanco and Ulua . The Spanish conquerors commented on the impressive nature of the local markets in the 15th century. The Mexica ( Aztec ) market of Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas and said to be superior to those in Europe. There are many different ways to classify markets. One way is to consider the nature of the buyer and

13468-668: The evening market. The marketplace also became the place were executions were carried out, rewards were published and decrees were read out. During the Qin empire and the Han dynasty which followed it, markets were enclosed with walls and gates and strictly separated from residential areas. Vendors were arranged according to the type of commodity offered, and markets were strictly regulated with departments responsible for security, weights and measures, price-fixing, and certificates. Over time, specialised markets began to emerge. In Luoyang, during

13616-449: The first Hmongtown Festival, a two-day music and cultural festival focusing on Hmong history and culture. The festival is held annually. Owner Toua Xiong who learned to sing and play guitar in a refugee camp played at the first festival. Minnesota Governor Tim Walz and Lieutenant Governor Peggy Flanagan took part in the festival in 2019. Hmongtown vendors sell traditional Hmong and Southeast Asian medicine such as herbs and imported over

13764-822: The fish from where it is immediately preserved using traditional methods and prepared for distribution to other West African countries; The Woodcarvers Market in Brikama which boasts the largest concentration of woodcarvers in the country; the Pottery Market in Basse Santa ; the Atlantic Road Craft Market at Bakau and the Senegambia Craft Market at Bakau. Produce markets in Asia are undergoing major changes as supermarkets enter

13912-689: The future. And if I had children, they would not know as well, and if my sisters did not know how to embroider, there would be no one who would know." Ten story cloths by Hmongtown textile artisans Sy Vang Lo and Khang Vang Yang were exhibited at the Mathers Museum of World Cultures and the Northern Illinois University Pick Museum . Vang Lo led the Hmong Folk Art Center in Eagan, Minnesota and

14060-417: The great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm gates, obviating the producers' need to attend local markets. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved importing and exporting. The nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii , multiple markets served

14208-479: The growth of the town. The Domesday Book of 1086 lists 50 markets in England; however, many historians believe this figure underestimates the actual number of markets in operation at the time. In England, some 2,000 new markets were established between 1200 and 1349. By 1516, England had some 2,464 markets and 2,767 fairs, while Wales had 138 markets and 166 fairs. From the 12th century, English monarchs awarded

14356-759: The larger towns. Notable markets include: the Serekunda Market in Gambia's largest city, Serekunda , which opens from early morning to late at night 7 days a week and trades in produce, live animals, clothing, accessories, jewellery, crafts, second hand goods and souvenirs; The Albert Market in the capital, Banjul , which sells fresh produce, colourful, locally designed fabrics, musical instruments, carved wooden masks and other local products. Other interesting markets include: Bakau Fish Market in Bakau ; Tanji Fish Market, Tanji, where brightly painted fishing boats bring in

14504-614: The local level. The Charter of Worcester, written between 884 and 901 provided for fines for dishonest trading, amongst other things. Such local regulations were codified in 13th century England in what became known as the Statute of Winchester . This document outlined the assizes for 16 different trades, most of which were associated with markets – miller, baker, fisher, brewer, inn-keeper, tallow-chandler, weaver, cordwainer, etc. For each trade, regulations covered such issues as fraud, prices, quality, weights, and measures and so on. The assize

14652-427: The lowest class of society. High officials carefully distanced themselves from merchant classes. In 627, an edict prohibited those of rank five or higher from entering markets. One anecdote from the time of Empress Wu relates the tale of a fourth rank official who missed out on the opportunity for promotion after he was seen purchasing a steamed pancake from a market. Since circa 3000 BCE, bazaars have dominated

14800-461: The lumber company, having only recently become a business owner and an English speaker. Renovations to meet regulations included a sprinkler system, more toilets, exhaust fans in restaurant spaces, and an upgraded larger sewer pipe to connect to the municipal system. Despite setbacks, he opened International Marketplace in 2004. It was one of the biggest Hmong-owned businesses in Minnesota. In 2009

14948-665: The many markets he visited in West Africa . He provided a detailed description of market activities at Sabi, in the Wydah (now the part of the Republic of Benin): Their fairs and markets are regulated with so much care and prudence, that nothing contrary to law is ever committed. All sorts of merchandise here are collected, and those who have brought goods are permitted to take what time they please to dispose of them, but without fraud or noise. A judge, attended by four officers armed,

15096-573: The market to be welcoming to those new to Hmong culture. Vendors at Hmongtown sell traditional Hmong textile art such as kawm (woven baskets) and forms of Paj Ntaub (flower cloth) such as batik dyed cloth ( Paj Ntaub nraj ciab/cab ) and story cloth, which depicts scenes from Hmong life and history. Basketry includes Blue Hmong baby carriers. Embroidery thread , coins, beads, metals, and other materials for making Hmong textiles are available from multiple vendors. Some textiles are made abroad and sold by family at Hmongtown. Hmongtown provides

15244-454: The market's importance to community life and trade. Markets were also important centres of social life. In early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services, both luxuries and necessities, and also afforded some protection to merchants and traders. These centres of trade attracted sellers which would stimulate

15392-461: The market's place within the distribution system. This leads to two broad classes of market, namely retail market or wholesale markets . The economist, Alfred Marshall classified markets according to time period. In this classification, there are three types of market; the very short period market where the supply of a commodity remains fixed. Perishables, such as fruit, vegetables, meat, and fish fall into this group since goods must be sold within

15540-522: The markets. Some of these early markets have been the subject of archaeological surveys. For instance, the market at Yong, the capital of the Qi state, measured 3,000 square metres and was an outdoor market. According to the Rites of Zhou , markets were highly organized and served different groups at different times of day; merchants at the morning market, every day people at the afternoon market and peddlers at

15688-478: The multi-vendor International Marketplace with a goal to provide Hmong with more economic opportunity. The 6-acre Hmongtown site was previously Shaw Stewart Lumber Co. on Como Avenue, north of the St. Paul Capitol building. The two original buildings remain as the East Building and West Building. Toua Xiong didn't realize the obstacles to redeveloping the property for grocery and retail when he rented it from

15836-399: The name in order to emphasize Hmongtown as "[n]ot just a bazaar but a community unto itself." Hmongtown was the first Hmong-owned and operated marketplace in the United States. The market was founded as International Marketplace in 2004 by Saint Paul, Minnesota entrepreneurs and real estate devlopers Toua Xiong and Nou (Vang) Xiong . Hmong people were persecuted in their homelands following

15984-481: The nearby Hmong Village shopping center in 2018. Hmongtown plans to expand to Hmong senior daycare and senior housing, and include more Hmong cultural activities such as an art gallery, music performance, and permanent history exhibits. Underground parking and an office building are also planned. In 2018 a joint state grant was issued to Hmongtown and the Saint Paul Port Authority to investigate

16132-499: The neighbouring counties come in to the fair every morning, with beef, mutton, fowls, bread, cheese, eggs, and such things; and go with them from tent to tent and from door to door, that there is no want of provision of any kind, either dress'd or undress'd." In the Asia Minor, prior to the 10th century, market places were situated on the perimeter of the city. Along established trade routes, markets were most often associated with

16280-479: The new government. Chinese troops, including the Chinese Nationalist 93rd Division, occupied cities as far south as Luang Prabang. The French-sponsored guerrillas controlled the southern provinces of Savannakhet and Khammouan . Prince Boun Oum , who sympathized with the French, occupied the rest of the southern panhandle. For these, and other reasons, Lao Issara could not hold the country against

16428-471: The new government. The Hmong were persecuted as traitors and "lackeys" of the Americans, with the government and its Vietnamese allies carrying out human rights abuses against Hmong civilians. The incipient conflict between Vietnam and China also played a role with Hmong rebels being accused of receiving support from China. Over 40,000 people died in the conflict . The Lao royal family were arrested by

16576-521: The north of the country, but that was largely unsuccessful and most commercial buyers travel to Johannesburg or Tshwane for supplies. Ethiopia is a major producer and exporter of grains and a number of wholesale markets assist with the distribution and export of such products. Important wholesale markets include: Nekemte in the East Welega zone , Jimma in the Jimma zone , Assela and Sagure in

16724-561: The northeast corner of the Plain of Jars . The CIA's covert operation's clandestine army would give way, harrying the PAVN and Pathet Lao as they retreated; Raven Forward Air Controllers would direct massive air strikes against the communists by USAF jets and RLAF T-28s to prevent the capture of the Laotian capitals of Vientiane and Luang Prabang . When the rainy season six months later rendered North Vietnamese supply lines impassable,

16872-399: The other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism . Artists focussed on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets and bazaars, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favourite subject matter, and the high vaulted market places features in numerous paintings and sketches. Individual markets have also attracted literary attention. Les Halles was known as

17020-515: The policies of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union of spreading communism via subversion and insurgency. The end of World War II left Laos in political chaos. The French, who had been displaced from their protectorate by the Japanese, wanted to resume control of Laos, and sponsored guerrilla forces to regain control. The Japanese had proclaimed Laos independent even as they lost

17168-471: The popular Hmong sausage with purple sticky rice meal on Bizarre Foods: Delicious Destinations in 2016. Hmong are the largest Asian diaspora in Minnesota, and Minnesota has the second-largest Hmong population in the United States. Hmongtown is a staple of local Hmong life and creates a sense of community and belonging. Less than four miles away is a similar Hmong American marketplace called Hmong Village . The markets and surrounding Asian businesses are in

17316-608: The population of Laos' six urban areas were Vietnamese, with the Vietnamese holding key positions in the civil bureaucracies and the police. Since the 1930s the Indochinese Communist Party had established wholly Vietnamese cells in Laos. Prince Phetsarath Ratanavongsa , as Viceroy and Prime Minister, established the Lao royal treasury account with the Indochinese treasury in Hanoi in an attempt to establish

17464-464: The population of approximately 12,000. Produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the city's perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, possibly a cereal market. On the opposite corner stood the macellum , thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid

17612-442: The produce is locally grown by Hmong farmers. Produce includes rambutan , Hmong yellow and red cucumbers, bitter melon , purple lemongrass , sugar cane , Thai chili, pea eggplant , dried imported bamboo , winter melon , radish greens , bok choy varieties such as Shanghai bok choy , Chinese broccoli , Thai basil , longan , lychee , pomelo , mangosteen , persimmon , okra , and jackfruit . In June 2016 Hmongtown held

17760-536: The purchasing habits of the monks and other individuals in medieval England suggests that consumers of the period were relatively discerning. Purchase decisions were based on purchase criteria such as the consumer's perceptions of the range, quality, and price of goods. Such considerations informed decisions about where to make purchases and which markets to patronise. As the number of charters granted increased, competition between market towns also increased. In response to competitive pressures, towns invested in developing

17908-415: The rehabilitation potential of a contaminated lot for future residential and commercial mixed use. Off-site expansion includes nonprofits and museums. Through Hi Hi LLC, Toua Xiong and his wife Nou Xiong founded a Hmong and Karen cultural center and museum a few blocks from Hmongtown. He also runs Hmongtown Connections, a cultural exchange program that runs Hmongtown Festival. In 2025, Xiong plans to open

18056-495: The renowned Walker Art Center and Hmongtown was praised by Walker’s curatorial fellow in visual arts Matthew Miranda as a "break in the art world decorum" that "subverts the white view in museums." Other featured artists have included Tetsuya Yamada and HOTTEA. Hmongtown is noted for its prepared food and quality produce, with the Star Tribune calling it "one of the state's top culinary gems" and Saveur enthusing it

18204-455: The rest of the Middle East and Europe . Documentary sources suggest that zoning policies confined trading to particular parts of cities from around 3000 BCE, creating the conditions necessary for the emergence of a bazaar. Middle Eastern bazaars were typically long strips with stalls on either side and a covered roof designed to protect traders and purchasers from the fierce sun. In Europe, informal, unregulated markets gradually made way for

18352-527: The retail scene and the growing middle classes acquire preferences for branded goods. Many supermarkets purchase directly from producers, supplanting the traditional role of both wholesale and retail markets. In order to survive, produce markets have been forced to consider value adding opportunities and many retail markets now focus on ready-to-eat food and take-away food. Laotian Civil War Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese victory Second Third Air operations The Laotian Civil War

18500-507: The returning French colonial government and its troops. The French negotiated a Chinese withdrawal from Laos prior to their own return, removing them from the field. In January 1946, the French began the reconquest of Laos by sweeping the Bolovens Plateau. They had organized six battalions of light infantry, to which they added a minor force of French troops. On 21 March 1946, Souphanouvong and his largely Vietnamese force fought

18648-575: The same town". Markets have existed since ancient times. Some historians have argued that a type of market has existed since humans first began to engage in trade. Open air and public markets were known in ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia , the Land of Israel, Greece, Egypt, and the Arabian peninsula. However, not all societies developed a system of markets. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that markets did not evolve in ancient Persia. Across

18796-404: The signing of a military cooperation treaty with the newly established North Vietnamese communist government, which was done. The French military mission was escorted out of Laos into Thailand by a contingent of Chinese troops. However, the Lao Issara never gained more than a tenuous hold on the entirety of Laos. Roving Viet Minh detachments ruled the northeast, but the Viet Minh declined to aid

18944-595: The summer the market nearly doubles in size with an outdoor market in the surrounding paved lot that brings the number of vendors up to 300 or more. The outdoor market is sometimes referred to as the Hmongtown Farmers Market and sells produce as well as meat, clothing and textiles, herbal medicine, live potted plants, and home products. The large size and foot traffic have led to the nickname "Hmong Mall of America ". 600 people work inside, as many as 20,000 customers have been noted during events, and there

19092-581: The sun, palm wine and fruit, form the must luxurious entertainments, and stand continually for sale in the streets. In Botswana , the sale of agricultural produce to the formal market is largely controlled by large corporations. Most small, local farmers sell their produce to the informal market, local communities and street vendors. The main wholesale market is the Horticultural market in Gaborone . The government made some attempts to build markets in

19240-535: The supply chain, traditional hawkers and produce markets have shown remarkable resilience. The main markets in Johannesburg are: Jozi Real Food Market, Bryanston Organic Market, Pretoria Boeremark specialising in South African delicacies, Hazel Food Market, Panorama Flea Market, Rosebank Sunday Market, Market on Main (a periodic arts market), and neighbourhood markets. The " Gambia is Good" initiative

19388-557: The titular founder of Lao Issara. Souphanouvong became commander in chief, as well as minister of foreign affairs. Souvanna Phouma became minister of public works. Independence began with an uprising of the Vietnamese residents in Savannakhet . Prince Souphanouvong took command of a band of partisans armed with weapons looted from the local militia. The band moved northward to the administrative capitol of Vientiane with its provisional revolutionary government. Souphanouvong then urged

19536-482: The town or village centre. Scholars, however, question the reliability of traditional narratives unless backed by archaeological evidence. The earliest written references to markets dates to the time of Qi Huanggong (ruled 685 to 643 BCE). Qi's Prime Minister, the great reformer, Guan Zhong , divided the capital into 21 districts ( xiang ) of which three were dedicated to farmers, three to hand-workers and three to businessmen, who were instructed to settle near

19684-476: The town's centre. The market was surrounded by alleyways inhabited by skilled artisans, such as metal workers, leather workers, and carpenters. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for sale on market days. Across ancient Greece , market places were to be found in most city states, where they operated within the agora (open space). Between 550 and 350 BCE, Greek stallholders clustered together according to

19832-613: The traditional work of her family is included in the Minneapolis Institute of Art collection. Light boxes of photography from Hmong American artist Pao Houa Her , whose work was selected for the Whitney Biennial , decorate the West Building food court seating area. The exhibit is accompanied by text from Hmong American poet and playwright May Lee-Yang . Her's artwork being displayed simultaneously at

19980-444: The type of goods carried – fish-sellers were in one place, clothing in another, and sellers of more expensive goods such as perfumes, bottles, and jars were located in a separate building. The Greeks organised trade into separate zones, all located near the city centre and known as stoa . A freestanding colonnade with a covered walkway, the stoa was both a place of commerce and a public promenade, situated within or adjacent to

20128-400: The types of goods, their quality and their region of origin. In this way, markets helped to provide an early form of product branding. Gradually, certain market towns earned a reputation for providing quality produce. Today, traders and showmen jealously guard the reputation of these historic chartered markets. The 18th century commentator Daniel Defoe visited Sturbridge fair in 1723 and wrote

20276-419: The war. Though King Sisavang Vong thought Laos was too small for independence, he had proclaimed the end of the French protectorate status while simultaneously favoring the French return. He let it be known he would accept independence if it should occur. Thus there was a nascent movement for independence amid the turmoil. Underlying all this was a strong undercurrent of Vietnamese involvement. Sixty percent of

20424-425: Was Vietnamese, and Kaysone Phomvihane was Vietnamese-Lao. These three men founded the military movement that would become the Pathet Lao (Land of Laos). Thao O Anourack established the initial Pathet Lao base at Con Cuong , Vietnam. Kaysone Phomvihane organized the first detachment of the new force. By the end of 1946, at least 500 Viet Minh agents had crossed into Laos. On 11 May 1947, King Sisavang Vong granted

20572-609: Was a formal codification of prior informal codes which had been practised for many years. The courts of assize were granted the power to enforce these regulations. The process of standardizing quality, prices and measures assisted markets to gain the confidence of buyers and made them more attractive to the public. A sixteenth century commentator, John Leland , described particular markets as "celebrate", "very good", "quik", and conversely as "poore", "meane", and "of no price". Over time, some products became associated with particular places, providing customers with valuable information about

20720-540: Was a tool to transfer American military aid to the French war effort in Indochina. This year also marked the infiltration of at least 5,000 more Viet Minh into Laos. In February 1951, the Indochinese Communist Party decided to split in three to sponsor war against the French in Cambodia and Laos, along with the war in Vietnam. The new Laotian branch consisted of 2,091 members, but included only 31 Lao. Also, by 1951,

20868-473: Was dynamited and bulldozed, but within a week the traders were back selling fruit, vegetables and fish, albeit without a roof over their head. Kenya 's capital, Nairobi , has several major markets. Wakulima market is one of the region's largest markets, situated on Haile Selassie Avenue in Nairobi. Other markets in Nairobi are: Kariakor Market, Gikomba Market, and Muthurwa Market. In Mombasa, Kongowea market

21016-462: Was established in 2004 with a view to encouraging a market for locally grown fresh produce rather than imported ones. The plan was designed to "stimulate local livelihoods, inspire entrepreneurship and reduce the environmental and social cost of imported produce". A great deal of the produce trade is carried out informally on street corners and many shops are little more than market booths. However, dedicated open air and covered markets can be found in

21164-667: Was fought around the northern Plain of Jars . From 1961 onward, the US trained Hmong tribesmen to disrupt North Vietnamese operations and in 1964, the US began bombing North Vietnamese supply routes . The North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao eventually emerged victorious in December 1975, following from North Vietnam's final victory over South Vietnam in April 1975 . After the communist takeover in Laos, up to 300,000 people fled to neighbouring Thailand , and Hmong rebels began an insurgency against

21312-441: Was in part due to the changing nature of the market system at that time. The public began to distinguish between two types of merchant, the meerseniers which referred to local merchants including bakers, grocers, sellers of dairy products and stall-holders, and the koopman , which described a new, emergent class of trader who dealt in goods or credit on a large scale. With the rise of a European merchant class, this distinction

21460-490: Was known for producing fine woollen cloth, the town of Worsted became synonymous with a type of yarn; Banbury and Essex were strongly associated with cheeses. In the market economy, goods are ungraded and unbranded, so that consumers have relatively few opportunities to evaluate quality prior to consumption. Consequently, supervision of weights, measures, food quality, and prices was a key consideration. In medieval society, regulations for such matters appeared initially at

21608-491: Was necessary to separate the daily trade that the general population understood from the rising ranks of traders who operated on a world stage and were seen as quite distant from everyday experience. During the 17th and 18th centuries, as Europeans conquered parts of North Africa and the Levant, European artists began to visit the Orient and painted scenes of everyday life. Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups –

21756-561: Was to "turn Frogtown into Hmongtown". (From 1981 to 2005, the number of Asian businesses on University Avenue in Frogtown grew from one business to more than sixty businesses.) Foodsmart was involved in community initiatives: hosting the Council on Asian-Pacific Minnesotans get-out-the-vote events and community engagement about the Metro Transit light rail Central Corridor construction in 2007. Representatives from Foodsmart served on

21904-713: Was waged between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government from 23 May 1959 to 2 December 1975. The Kingdom of Laos was a covert theater during the Vietnam War with both sides receiving heavy external support in a proxy war between the global Cold War superpowers. The fighting also involved the North Vietnamese , South Vietnamese , American and Thai armies, both directly and through irregular proxies. The war

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