A riot or mob violence is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority , property or people .
136-491: The Hough riots were riots in the predominantly African-American community of Hough (pronounced "Huff") in Cleveland , Ohio , United States which took place from July 18 to 23, 1966. During the riots, four African Americans were killed and 50 people were injured. There were 275 arrests and numerous incidents of arson and firebombings . City officials at first blamed black nationalist and communist organizations for
272-532: A Republican appointee generally considered part of the commission's conservative bloc, criticized her colleagues' investigation into the New Black Panther Party voter intimidation case , describing it as motivated by a partisan "fantasy ... [that] they could bring Eric Holder down and really damage [President Obama]" and arguing that only "a moron" could believe the commission's theory that Obama appointees had ordered DoJ attorneys not to protect
408-623: A Vice Chair. The Staff Director is also appointed by the President with the concurrence of a majority of the Commissioners. The commission has appointed 51 State Advisory Committees (SACs) to function as the "eyes and ears" of the Commission in their respective locations. The commission's enabling legislation authorizes the creation of these SACs and directs the commission to establish at least one advisory committee in every state and
544-403: A box at the bar so patrons could donate money for the care of Sullivan's children. The owners refused to permit the collection. Louise returned about 5 PM on Monday, July 18. The owners argued with her, allegedly using defamatory and racist language, and she was thrown out. A short while later, another racially charged incident occurred, although the exact details are unclear. In one account, one of
680-622: A command post in a van at E. 73rd Street and Hough Avenue, but it took heavy fire from buildings located on E. 73rd and E. 75th Streets. The police were for a time unable to control the situation, and police Captain Richard Sherry called the scene "sheer bedlam". Rioters grabbed tear gas grenades and threw them back at the police, hurled Molotov cocktails , and destroyed police vehicles. At one point, police were briefly pinned down by sniper fire at Hough and E. 75th Street. Police sealed off eight blocks around Hough Avenue in an attempt to contain
816-534: A curfew. During the afternoon of July 22, Major General Erwin C. Hostetler, Adjutant General of the Ohio Army National Guard, issued an order authorizing his troops to shoot looters and arsonists. Chief Wagner continued to claim that black nationalists were fomenting the riot, and specifically named the leaders of the JFK House, a privately run African American community center, for orchestrating
952-417: A federal law that would give "all persons, Negro as well as white, the right to be served in public places such as hotels, restaurants, and similar establishments," and 42 percent were opposed. By September of the same year, a majority of 54 percent was in favor, and 38 percent opposed. In February 1964, support had climbed to 61 percent and opposition had declined to 31 percent. In 1977 the Commission produced
1088-493: A field like civil rights, where the problems are enduring, and range widely [and where] ... a temporary, sporadic approach can never finally solve these problems. Nowhere in the federal government in there an agency charged with the continuous appraisal of the status of civil rights, and the efficiency of the machinery with which we hope to improve that status. ... A permanent Commission could perform an invaluable function by collecting data. ... Ultimately, this would make possible
1224-597: A lack of jobs, welfare (which encouraged excessive pregnancies), and common-law marriage (which allowed men to escape their marital and child-rearing duties) as social evils which allowed frustration and bitterness to arise among African Americans. This, in turn (the report said), allowed communist and black nationalist groups to find support and foment riot. The grand jury report pointedly declined to discuss allegations of police brutality. The grand jury report also called for new laws defining and providing for harsh penalties for incitement to riot, arson or attempted arson during
1360-556: A long time, that subversive and Communist elements in our community were behind the rioting." The "official narrative" also received support in other quarters. On June 22, during the riot, five members of a local W.E.B. Du Bois Club —including staff members Steve Shreefter and Mike Bayer—were riding in a car. Stopped by a National Guardsmen, posters were found in their vehicle which The Plain Dealer characterized as inflammatory. The United States Department of Justice had attempted to have
1496-403: A mob of about 100 people seized control of a fire pumper , and the fire department withdrew its personnel from the area. Attacks on firefighters were so numerous, many considered resigning the next day. James Higginbotham, a lieutenant with the fire department, said "we're not hired to fight a guerrilla war and this is what this is". The rioting largely died down after a heavy thunderstorm struck
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#17327876073601632-509: A number of people have died or been injured as a result of their use. For example, seventeen deaths were caused by rubber bullets in Northern Ireland over the thirty five years between 1970 and 2005. A high risk of being arrested is even more effective against rioting than severe punishments. As more and more people join the riot, the risk of being arrested goes down, which persuades still more people to join. In India, rioting
1768-509: A pattern in the false reports of arson or gunfire. Cleveland City Council President James V. Stanton said, "I definitely feel this was organized", and Bertram E. Gardner, executive director of the Cleveland Community Relations Board, claimed, "There's a fringe element in the streets, and they're fighting for control of the streets. They've got to be removed." Gardner demanded that the police significantly step up
1904-706: A periodic audit of the extent to which our civil rights are secure. ... [The Commission should also] serve[] as a clearing house and focus of coordination for the many private, state, and local agencies working in the civil rights field, [and thus] would be invaluable to them and to the federal government. A permanent Commission on Civil Rights should point all of its work toward regular reports which would include recommendations for action in ensuing periods. It should lay plans for dealing with broad civil rights problems. ... It should also investigate and make recommendations with respect to special civil rights problems. As then-Senator and Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson put it,
2040-484: A press conference on July 26, Seltzer stated, "The grand jury saw enough to realize the violence was organized and planned because of specific targets singled out for burning and looting." The report strongly praised the Cleveland Police for their courage and restraint during the crisis. Although it issued no indictments, the grand jury specifically named Lewis G. Robinson, director of JFK House and organizer of
2176-402: A public bus and also suffered minor injuries. Another five civilians were shot (but only lightly injured), and three were injured by rocks or bottles, while 12 policemen were injured (although only slightly). Ten buildings were destroyed by fire, and 53 African Americans—most of them teenagers—were arrested. During the day on July 19, Cleveland Mayor Locher and Police Chief Richard Wagner assured
2312-683: A record. Their first project was to assess the administration of voter registration and elections in Montgomery , Alabama . But they immediately ran into resistance. Circuit Judge George C. Wallace , who was elected as governor in support of white supremacy , ordered voter registration records to be impounded. "They are not going to get the records," he said. "And if any agent of the Civil Rights Commission comes down to get them, they will be locked up. ... I repeat, I will jail any Civil Rights Commission agent who attempts to get
2448-592: A relatively small area, but the population density in the neighborhood was one of the highest in Cleveland. Housing was often substandard in Hough, with a fifth of all housing units considered dilapidated and absentee landlords (most of them white) were common. The deindustrialization of Cleveland hit the African American community hard, and unemployment was over 17 percent. Median income for black residents
2584-412: A riot, and assault against a police officer or firefighter while engaged in official duties. The report also called for the state to redefine "riot" under the law, to make it easier for law enforcement to arrest rioters. The grand jury report was embraced by city officials and local law enforcement. Mayor Locher praised the grand jury for "the guts to fix the approximate cause which has been hinted at for
2720-453: A series of National Guard/police guardposts was established in Hough. When a large crowd gathered at Stephen E. Howe Elementary School (where clergyman Bruce Klunder had died in 1964 protesting against segregation in Cleveland schools), worried law enforcement officials stationed about 100 police and Guardsmen around the school and on its roof to prevent it from being burned down. Military vehicles were stationed at every other intersection along
2856-618: A specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion. Sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team or athlete. Fans of the two teams may also fight. Sports riots may happen as a result of teams contending for a championship, a long series of matches, or scores that are close. Sports are the most common cause of riots in the United States, accompanying more than half of all championship games or series. Almost all sports riots in
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#17327876073602992-558: A state of emergency in Cleveland. At 5 PM, Locher announced the arrival of the National Guard was imminent, and ordered all bars and cafes in the Hough neighborhood closed. This marked the first time the Ohio National Guard had been mobilized to counter a racial incident. Most African American residents of Cleveland believed Locher to be completely out of touch with the black community, and the rioting spread outside
3128-511: A white male shot at him from an automobile. Cleveland police, however, said they were unsure if Winchester's death was riot-related. By dawn on July 23, a total of 10 people had been wounded by gunfire during the Hough Riots, bring to 40 the number of people injured by guns and hand-thrown missiles. Cleveland police made an additional 72 arrests during the night. The New York Times reported that "scores" of small fires had been set throughout
3264-709: Is a bipartisan, independent commission of the United States federal government , created by the Civil Rights Act of 1957 during the Eisenhower administration, that is charged with the responsibility for investigating, reporting on, and making recommendations concerning civil rights issues in the United States. Specifically, the CCR investigates allegations of discrimination based on race, sex, national origin, disability. In March 2023, Rochelle Mercedes Garza
3400-423: Is a riot for political purposes or that develops out of a political protest . A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers, or other groups of prisoners. It is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape. In a race riot , race or ethnicity is the key factor. The term had entered
3536-583: Is an offense under the Indian Penal Code (IPC). In 1988 the Israeli army issued rules of engagement for the use of plastic bullets which defined a "violent riot" as a disturbance with the participation of three or more persons, including stone throwing, erection of a barrier or barricade, burning a tire. Riot is a statutory offence in England and Wales . It is created by section 1(1) of
3672-421: Is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters. Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest. Food riots are caused by harvest failures, incompetent food storage, hoarding, poisoning of food, or attacks by pests like locusts . When
3808-472: Is shown there were at least twelve present using or threatening unlawful violence. The word "violence" is defined by section 8. The violence can be against the person or against property. The mens rea is defined by section 6(1). In the past, the Riot Act had to be read by an official – with the wording exactly correct – before violent policing action could take place. If the group did not disperse after
3944-733: The 2005 civil unrest in France lasted over three weeks and spread to nearly 300 towns. By the end of the incident, over 10,000 vehicles were destroyed and over 300 buildings burned. Over 2,800 suspected rioters were arrested and 126 police and firefighters were injured. Estimated damages were over €200 Million. Riots are typically dealt with by the police, although methods differ from country to country. Tactics and weapons used can include attack dogs , water cannons , plastic bullets , rubber bullets , pepper spray , flexible baton rounds , and snatch squads . Many police forces have dedicated divisions to deal with public order situations. Some examples are
4080-603: The Central neighborhood of Cleveland, citing a few scattered incidents of vandalism, urgently pressed Mayor Locher to expand the National Guard's patrol area to include their neighborhood. Locher agreed, and expanded the patrol zone to 10 square miles (26 km) (centered on Hough). This expanded the patrol zone as far south as Woodland Avenue, with about 40 Guardsmen and police patrolling the Central neighborhood. At dusk, Mayor Locher again ordered all bars in Hough to close. By
4216-640: The President pro tempore of the Senate (upon the recommendations of the Senate majority leader and minority leader), and two by the Speaker of the House of Representatives (upon the recommendations of the House majority leader and minority leader). As of December 2022, the members of the commission are: Presidential appointees (2D, 2R): Senate appointees (1D, 1I): House appointees (1D, 1R): The commission
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4352-577: The Public Order Act 1986 . Sections 1(1) to (5) of that Act read: (1) Where 12 or more persons who are present together use or threaten unlawful violence for a common purpose and the conduct of them (taken together) is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his personal safety, each of the persons using unlawful violence for the common purpose is guilty of riot. A single person can be liable for an offence of riot when they use violence, provided that it
4488-478: The Territorial Support Group ( London ), Special Patrol Group ( London ), Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité ( France ), Mobiele Eenheid ( Netherlands ), and Arrest units ( Germany ). The policing of riots has been marred by incidents in which police have been accused of provoking rioting or crowd violence. While the weapons described above are officially designated as non-lethal ,
4624-517: The Tyne to riot in 1709, tin miners to plunder granaries at Falmouth in 1727." In the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots , hundreds of thousands of people rioted after food subsidies stopped and prices rose. A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians. This term is commonly used to describe a police attack on civilians or provoking civilians into violence. A political riot
4760-505: The United Freedom Movement , a coalition of African American civil rights groups, led a nine-month protest campaign against poor-quality, racially segregated schools and racial discrimination against blacks by labor unions . Cleveland Mayor Ralph S. Locher , who was white, dismissed these concerns. This was not unusual: The political culture of Cleveland had long been dominated by the mayor, city council, big business,
4896-745: The "official narrative" was that it was willfully blind to the problems which sparked the riots. Carl Stokes and many African American community leaders called the grand jury report a whitewash designed to insulate and absolve the Locher administration. In response to the 1966 grand jury report, leaders from the local chapters of the Congress of Racial Equality , National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , National Association of Social Workers , National Council of Churches , Negro American Labor Council , and Urban League , in association with
5032-548: The "official narrative") that the Hough Riots had been caused by black nationalists or communists. During the riots, Mayor Richard Locher, Police Chief Richard Wagner, Safety Director John N. McCormick, Cleveland City Council President James V. Stanton, and The Plain Dealer newspaper all claimed that, while the initial violence on the night of July 23 may have been spontaneous, the riot had long been planned by violent, black nationalist or communist organizations, and had been sustained by them for several days. The "official narrative"
5168-416: The 1980s. Under United States federal law , a riot is defined as: A public disturbance involving (1) an act or acts of violence by one or more persons part of an assemblage of three or more persons, which act or acts shall constitute a clear and present danger of, or shall result in, damage or injury to the property of any other person or to the person of any other individual or (2) a threat or threats of
5304-527: The 21st century, all scholars reject the "official narrative" and its assertion that the riots were fomented and sustained by radical groups, and instead point to social problems like racism and poverty as the riot's cause. "Hough cast a pall of fear and resentment that took years to dissipate, if it ever truly passed", said Michael D. Roberts, who covered the Hough Riots as a reporter in 1966. Riot Riots typically involve destruction of property, public or private. The property targeted varies depending on
5440-590: The Act was read, lethal force could legally be used against the crowd. See also the Black Act . Riot is an indictable-only offence . A person convicted of riot is liable to imprisonment for any term not exceeding ten years, or to a fine , or to both. See the following cases: In the case of riot connected to football hooliganism, the offender may be banned from football grounds for a set or indeterminate period of time and may be required to surrender their passport to
5576-656: The Cleveland Fire Department had responded to 115 fires (52 started by firebombs), and just 12 false alarms. One firefighter was allegedly shot at. A total of 30 individuals had been injured during the four nights of rioting. One person was arrested for arson and 11 were arrested for carrying firebombs on the night of July 21–22, bringing the total number of individuals arrested (regardless of charge) to 150. The shooting of citizens heightened racial tension in Hough on July 22. Cleveland City Councilman M. Morris Jackson, who represented Hough, had been pressing for
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5712-499: The Commission in the last days of his administration, keeping the commission to six Democratic and two Republican appointees. In June 2017 the commission voted unanimously to begin a wide-ranging investigation of the Trump administration's civil rights enforcement practices, and 6–2 along party lines to express their concern about the administration's actions. The eight commissioners serve six-year staggered terms. Four are appointed by
5848-524: The Commission itself – argued that it no longer served any useful purpose and conducted partisan investigations meant to embarrass Republicans. After 2004, when Bush appointed two conservative Commissioners who had recently canceled their Republican Party registrations to the two "independent" seats, obtaining a six-member conservative majority bloc, the Commission dramatically scaled back its activities and canceled several ongoing investigations. On September 5, 2007, Commissioner Gail Heriot testified about
5984-421: The Commission on Civil Rights contributed to that change. In 1956, the year before the 1957 Act, less than half of white Americans agreed with the statement, "White students and Negro students should go to the same schools." By 1963, the year before the 1964 Act, that figure had jumped to 62%. In 1956, a healthy majority of white Americans—60%—opposed "separate sections for Negroes on streetcars and buses." By 1963,
6120-497: The District of Columbia. Each state committee has a charter that enables it to operate and identifies its members. Each charter is valid for a term of two years, and the committee terminates if the charter is not renewed by the commission. Each committee has a minimum of eleven members. The SACs are supported by regional offices whose primary function is to assist them in their planning, fact-finding, and reporting activities. Like
6256-759: The Electoral Law Act (Northern Ireland) 1962. There is an offence under the law of Scotland which is known both as " mobbing " and "mobbing and rioting". In July 1981, both Dundee and Edinburgh saw significant disorder as part of the events of that July, while in 1994 and in 2013, two years after the English riots of August 2011, Edinburgh saw rioting, albeit localised to one specific area and not part of any bigger 'riot wave'. Events in 1981 were very similar to those in England, although sources are severely limited. Both Niddrie and Craigmillar saw riots in
6392-408: The English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the term referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races. In a religious riot , the key factor is religion . Historically, these riots could involve groups arguing who possesses the primate of orthodoxy . The rioting mob targets people and properties of
6528-458: The Guard, although no police patrolled in the Hough neighborhood itself. Hough was so quiet during the night that only a handful of National Guardsmen were needed there. The National Guard did, however, close Hough Avenue between E. 79th and E. 93rd Streets. Most police patrolled around the perimeter of the expanded patrol zone, where most of the reports of gunfire, vandalism, and arson occurred during
6664-882: The Hough Area Council (a neighborhood improvement association), Hough Community Opportunity Board (the Hough neighborhood branch of the Council for Economic Opportunities in Greater Cleveland, a private nonprofit which served low-income people), the local Negro Pastors' Association, and the Wade Park Citizens' Association created the Citizens' Committee for Review of the Grand Jury Report. After holding several public hearings, during which extensive testimony about police brutality during
6800-419: The Hough Riots. Cleveland historian Leonard N. Moore notes that two undercover Cleveland police officers spent more than a year investigating the JFK House and black nationalist and communist groups in Hough, but found no evidence that these groups or individuals had planned or sustained the riots. In 2003, noted Ohio historian George W. Knepper called the grand jury report a "simplistic and comfortable conclusion"
6936-479: The Hough Riots. Police made a few more arrests during the night, primarily for looting, bringing the total number of arrestees to 150. Cleveland fire officials said they had responded to between 45 and 50 blazes during the two nights of rioting, which spread into the adjacent Glenville neighborhood, and a total of 10 buildings had been lost. During the day on July 21, Hough was calm, with no incidents of gunfire, vandalism, or arson reported. Nine people arrested during
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#17327876073607072-473: The Hough and other riots in the United States in the 1960s. How could something like this happen here? There was an obvious answer to this: Life in the ghetto seemed futile and hopeless. Couple that with the recently passed civil-rights legislation, which Washington heralded as historic, and the measure of expectation and frustration in America's black neighborhoods was at a peak. ... But the city's leadership
7208-554: The Hough neighborhood on the night of July 19–20. Locher ordered the entire police force on duty for 12 hours, beginning at 7 PM. Violence began to erupt about 8:30 PM, when police arrested two men, a woman, and a child at E. 87th and Hough Avenue. A large crowd gathered and began jeering the police. Snipers on the rooftop of a nearby building exchanged fire with police, and the crowd dispersed. The National Guard, armed with M1 Garand rifles equipped with bayonets , did not arrive until nearly 11 PM. Only 275 Guardsmen made it to Cleveland on
7344-497: The Medgar Evers Rifle Club; Harllel Jones, a city sewer department employee; and Albert D. Ware-Bey, a member of several clubs to which Robinson and Jones belonged. Chief Wagner said he was not surprised that no indictments were forthcoming, since Ohio lacked an anti-criminal syndicate law. In addition to the focus on black nationalists and communist groups, the report listed a number of social ills which it said
7480-437: The National Guard easily dispersed any small groups which formed in the Hough area. Some police officers claimed to have seen two or three cars with out-of-state license plates (each vehicle carrying several African American men), but these were unsubstantiated claims. The only substantiated incident occurred when police found two automobiles full of white youths inside the patrol zone, and ordered them to leave. By dawn on July 22,
7616-539: The National Guard rushed to the scene, however, they found no arsonists, no crowds, no rioting, and no vandalism. The New York Times claimed that the Cleveland Police Department appeared to be contributing to the riot. The National Guard was much more respectful toward citizens than the police, the newspaper claimed, noting that "police appeared to be adding to the problem by being chronic under-achievers in diplomacy". The night of July 23–24 saw
7752-529: The President, two by the President Pro Tempore of the Senate and two by the Speaker of the House of Representatives. No more than four Commissioners can be of the same political party. In addition, neither the two Senate appointees nor the two House appointees may be of the same political party. With the concurrence of a majority of the commission's members, the President designates a chair and
7888-691: The Public Order Act 1986 now provides: As to this provision, see pages 84 and 85 of the Law Commission's report. The common law offence of riot was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987. The Riot Act 1414 ( 2 Hen. 5. Stat. 1 . c. 8) was an Act of the Parliament of England . Section 1 of, and Schedule 1 to, the Statute Law Revision Act 1948 repealed: The whole chapter, so far as unrepealed,
8024-600: The Seventy-Niner's Café fire claimed they came under small arms fire. When the first contingent of 75 Cleveland Police finally arrived at 9:30 PM, the crowd began throwing rocks at them. Initially, about 200 rioters roamed over a 30-square block area centered on Hough Avenue. Police first came under fire shortly before 10 PM at the intersection of E. 75th and Hough Avenue, returning fire and lobbing tear gas grenades onto building roofs to clear out gunmen. The police responded by sending more than 300 additional officers into
8160-431: The Seventy-Niner's Café was robbed about an hour after the water incident. A crowd of angry African Americans, some bar patrons and some residents, gathered around the bar. The Feigenbaums said they received a report that their establishment had been robbed at about 8 PM, and arrived at the Seventy-Niner at 8:20 PM. They claimed that a crowd of about 300 people had already gathered outside the bar, and began throwing rocks at
8296-633: The Toney killing, a crowd of about 125 white people gathered at the foot of Murray Hill in the Little Italy neighborhood on the far eastern border of Cleveland. This was the site of a riot in January 1964, and worried Cleveland police dispersed the crowd as swiftly as they could. Another murder occurred at 4 AM, when 54-year-old African American Sam Winchester was shot at the corner of E. 116th and Regalia Avenue. As he lay dying in an ambulance, he claimed
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#17327876073608432-502: The United States occur in the winning team's city. The economic and political effects of riots can be as complex as their origins. Property destruction and harm to individuals are often immediately measurable. During the 1992 Los Angeles riots , 2,383 people were injured, more than 12,000 were arrested, 63 people were killed and over 700 businesses burned. Property damage was estimated at over $ 1 billion. At least ten of those killed were shot by police or National Guard forces. Similarly,
8568-643: The agency's value on the 50th anniversary of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Heriot told the Senate Committee on the Judiciary: If the value of a federal agency could be calculated on a per dollar basis, it would not surprise me to find the Commission on Civil Rights to be among the best investments Congress ever made. My back-of-the-envelope calculation is that the Commission now accounts for less than 1/2000th of 1 percent of
8704-464: The area around midnight, and gunfire ended around 1 AM. Joyce Arnett, a 26-year-old African American mother of three, was shot in the head by an unidentified gunman when she leaned out a window. African American man Alton Burks was shot in the hip and African American man Wallace Kelly was shot in the jaw by unidentified gunmen as well. A White man and wife, the Nopwaskis, were hit by rocks while riding
8840-400: The area remained white-owned, however. Residents of the Hough neighborhood complained extensively of inferior and racially segregated public schools, poor delivery of welfare benefits, a lack of routine garbage collection, no street cleaning , and too few housing inspections. Recreational facilities in Hough were nonexistent except for minimal equipment at a few school playgrounds. Hough was
8976-436: The area. They fanned out throughout the neighborhood, but came under attack as rioters threw bricks and bottles at them. The police responded by launching tear gas grenades into any crowds they encountered. When fired upon, the police used extremely aggressive tactics to find the snipers, especially on Hough Avenue—where they broke down doors and "rampaged" through apartments to try to find and arrest their attackers. Police set up
9112-465: The bar and asked for a glass of water. One of the owners denied his request and told a waitress that there was "no water for niggers". This co-owner then posted a sign on the door which read "No Ice Water". In an interview with The Plain Dealer newspaper, the Feigenbaums denied being present at the bar during the incident, and denied that one of their employees had denied a man water. Allegedly,
9248-427: The bar owners denied water to an African American man who had entered the bar, and then posted a sign on the door which read "No Water for Niggers". In another account, an African American man purchased a bottle of liquor in the bar, and then requested a cup of ice. One of the owners denied his request, and then posted a sign on the door which read "No water for niggers". In a third account, an African American man entered
9384-477: The bar, but the attempt failed. At 9:11 PM, the Cleveland Division of Fire arrived at the Seventy-Niner's Café. Worried fire officials notified the Cleveland police of the large crowd, and the police arrived at 9:30 PM. About 8:30 PM, the crowd—which included youth, adults, and even senior citizens—began to move down Hough Avenue, looting stores and setting fires as it went. Firefighters responding to
9520-401: The blame for the riots on welfare, which encouraged women to have large numbers of illegitimate children and allowed unemployed husbands to "sponge" off their welfare-supported wives. Police Chief Wagner declared that he saw a pattern in the making of false alarms which "indicate there was some form of organization behind them", and The Plain Dealer said unnamed police officers believed they saw
9656-497: The cause of the Hough Riots Arguments against the "official narrative" fell into two categories. The first was that there was no evidence for any black nationalist or communist involvement in the Hough Riots. For example, Maj. Gen. Erwin C. Hostetler, Ohio National Guard Adjutant General, criticized Seltzer's conclusions, saying, "There is absolutely nothing to substantiate his statement". Another argument against
9792-399: The cause of the riots. McCormick asserted that between 200 and 300 teenagers were being directed by adults, and he blamed black nationalist groups for the riots. Representatives of some of these groups, which were extensively active in Hough, denied encouraging the violence. United States Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach scoffed at McCormick's claims. A group of local businessmen in
9928-412: The city had engaged in some urban renewal housing projects in Hough, these had displaced more people than they housed and those displaced had received little to no help in finding new housing. Moreover, failed urban renewal to the east of Hough had displaced several thousand poor families, most of whom moved into Hough. A racially segregated Cleveland Division of Police also led to interracial tension in
10064-423: The city. Twenty percent of Cleveland's major crimes were committed in Hough, even though it had just 7 percent of the city's population. Only 165 of Cleveland's 2,100 police officers were African American , the city routinely declined to promote black patrolmen, and the police had a reputation for exhibiting "crude racism" and ignoring the needs of the black community. The police were perceived as unwilling to enforce
10200-463: The city; that the city immediately implement a 16-point urban renewal agreement previously negotiated with the federal government; that the mayor begin meeting regularly with representatives of the Hough neighborhood; that the city study the constitutionality of a law giving police immunity from false arrest ; that the city call for a U.S. Department of Justice investigation into the Cleveland police and their practice of holding people without charge; that
10336-405: The commission of an act or acts of violence by one or more persons part of an assemblage of three or more persons having, individually or collectively, the ability of immediate execution of such threat or threats, where the performance of the threatened act or acts of violence would constitute a clear and present danger of, or would result in, damage or injury to the property of any other person or to
10472-641: The commission's recommendations were presented not just to Congress and the President but the American people generally, and they become part of the foundation upon which the Civil Rights Act of 1960 , the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968 were built. A revolution in public opinion occurred during the late 1950s and early 1960s on issues of civil rights. The activities and reports of
10608-503: The commission's task is to "gather facts instead of charges. ... [I]t can sift out the truth from the fancies; and it can return with recommendations which will be of assistance to reasonable men." Since the 1957 Act, the commission has been re-authorized and re-configured by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Acts of 1983 and 1991 and the Civil Rights Commission Amendments Act of 1994. Soon after
10744-477: The commission, the SACs produce written reports that are based on fact-finding hearings and other public meetings. The commission studies alleged discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, age, disability, or national origin. It also studies alleged deprivations of voting rights and discrimination in the administration of justice. Though the commission has no enforcement powers, its commissioners try to enhance
10880-511: The commission. They sued the administration in federal court to stay on. The authorizing legislation stated that a president could only fire a commissioner for "misbehavior in office," and it was clear that the terminations were the result of disagreements over policy. A compromise brokered in the Senate resulted in the current hybrid group of eight, half appointed by the president and half by the Congress, with six-year terms that do not expire with
11016-422: The entire 50-block length of Hough Avenue, and three Guardsmen were posted at every intersection on Hough Avenue between E. 55th and E. 105th Streets. Police and National Guard continued to patrol the riot zone on Jeeps on which .30 caliber machine guns were mounted. A police helicopter (which occasionally drew gunfire) was used to help identify where mobs formed and where extensive looting was occurring. Throughout
11152-473: The evening of July 19, and 75 of these were stationed at the main point of violence at E. 79th and Hough Avenue, where a Cleveland Police mobile command post was once more established. Guardsmen began patrolling the neighborhood in Jeeps , with a Cleveland Police officer riding with them. In the early morning hours of July 20, more Guardsmen arrived in Cleveland and augmented these patrols. Gunfire directed at police
11288-409: The expanded patrol zone. Cleveland police made 72 arrests for public intoxication, which they said was about usual for a Friday night. There were far fewer fires set the night of July 22–23 (only 14), and only a few false alarms. Cleveland fire investigators determined that none of the fires had been caused by a firebomb, and no firefighters were harassed as they put out blazes. The first trouble during
11424-481: The failure to achieve significant progress taught the black community that negotiation and legal action produced only limited results. Although 10 of the city council's 22 members were African American, black council members were seen as too conservative and out of touch with the vast majority of Cleveland's African Americans. Throughout the first half of 1966, there had been a large number of incidents (such as roving gangs of youth, and rock throwing) indicating unrest in
11560-399: The federal budget; back in the late 1950s its size would have been roughly similar. And yet its impact has been dramatic. In 2008, President George W. Bush announced that he would oppose the proposed Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act shortly after the commission issued a report recommending rejection of the bill. In 2018 the Commission reversed its position in a report evaluating
11696-507: The federal government's efforts to meet its trust obligations to Native Americans and Native Hawaiians. During the Barack Obama administration, this conservative bloc reversed its position and began using the commission as a vigorous advocate for conservative interpretations of civil rights issues, such as opposition to the Voting Rights Act and the expansion of federal hate crimes laws . In 2010, Commissioner Abigail Thernstrom ,
11832-403: The firebombing campaign. When pressed by the media, Wagner declined to say what evidence he had for the accusation. Wagner also claimed that firebombing "forays emanated" from JFK House, but declined to elaborate on his claim. Racial tensions worsened on the night of July 22–23. Initially, the night was quieter than previous nights. The police and National Guard largely deployed toward the edge of
11968-769: The group declared a Communist front organization in March 1966 under the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950 . In 1967, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released a report characterizing the literature as "communist" In 1967, Phillip Abbott Luce, a former member of the Communist Party USA , asserted in his book Road to Revolution that the Communist Party played a significant role in causing and sustaining
12104-581: The inauguration of a new president. Since that time the commission has struggled to remain independent, and its agenda has oscillated between liberal and conservative aims as factions among its members have ebbed and waned. In 1990, Congress relied on a commission report to enact the Americans with Disabilities Act . (ADA) The Commission became increasingly polarized under the George W. Bush administration, as conservatives –including Republican appointees on
12240-435: The larger newspapers, and a few powerful white ethnicities . The city had a long history of ignoring social ills, while favoring low taxes and small government. African American protests in the past had been small and died out swiftly, and progress (what little there was of it) was generally achieved through traditional behind-the-scenes deal-making. The school protests were Cleveland's first large, lengthy racial protests, and
12376-410: The law and slow to respond in black communities, and police harassment of African Americans was the norm. Subsequently, African Americans in Cleveland tended to strongly distrust the police. There had also been several incidents of brutality committed by the police in Cleveland in the last few years, which worsened the tension between the police and the city's African American citizens. In 1963 and 1964,
12512-414: The mayor to declare martial law in the area since the riots first began. In a front-page editorial on the morning of July 22, The Plain Dealer also demanded the imposition of martial law. Mayor Locher refused these requests. Mayor Locher also decided not to ask the governor for additional National Guard troops, saying that the riot situation had improved over the past two nights. He also declined to impose
12648-644: The morning of July 20, 1,700 National Guardsmen were in Cleveland, although only about 1,000 were actually on patrol duty. Rioting had continued during the day, with firebombing and vandalism occurring throughout Hough. Police uncovered a number of caches of Molotov cocktails, which were destroyed. Throughout the day and night, Cleveland firefighters continued to respond to blazes, although they moved in convoys and were protected by National Guardsmen armed with rifles and machine guns . Seven teenagers were arrested during daylight hours, six of them for looting. Extensive rioting began again in Hough before dark. As night fell,
12784-609: The nearly all-white city administration was more than willing to accept. Kyle Swenson, writing in Cleveland Scene in July 2016, called the grand jury report "almost laughable. Instead of scratching at the deep economic and political grievances that led to a mass group of people to express their frustrations through violence, the official Cuyahoga County explanation was that the commies did it. Seriously." The report, he said, helped reinforce racial tension in Cleveland for decades. In
12920-480: The neighborhood. In April 1966, the United States Commission on Civil Rights held hearings in Cleveland, during which time it gathered extensive evidence about employment discrimination, police brutality, poor housing, ongoing school segregation, and racism in the community. Televised locally, "the hearings revealed that the city's racial powder keg was about to explode". The Seventy-Niner's Café
13056-565: The night began at 7:20 PM, when a jeering crowd of about 30 individuals gathered at E. 79th and Hough Avenue as the National Guard, bayonets fixed, told an African American man to move his car from the intersection. Another incident occurred at 10:30 PM, when Cleveland police arrested 15 juveniles and three adults in Glenville (on the border with the city of East Cleveland ) for harassing a National Guard unit. The situation deteriorated at about 3 AM, when 29-year-old African American Benoris Toney
13192-456: The night of July 21. The first indication of trouble occurred at about 7:45 PM, when a large number of small fires were set and false reports of fire were made. The only large fire of the evening occurred when a vacant apartment building just south of E. 79th Street and Hough Avenue burned to the ground. Later in the evening, Cleveland Police shot a mother, three of her young children, and her teenaged nephew near E. 107th Street and Cedar Avenue near
13328-432: The night, police and the firefighting personnel were harassed by hundreds of false alarms, which tended to disperse their forces and allow crowds to form and continue the rioting and looting. Police later said that most reports of gunfire were inaccurate, the result of people lighting firecrackers to distract police. Rioting in Hough largely ended around midnight. By dawn on July 21, a total of 24 people had been injured in
13464-465: The number had grown to 79% opposed—an overwhelming majority. Even in the South, minds were being changed. In 1956, 27% of Southern whites opposed separate sections on public transportation for blacks and whites. By 1963, the number had become a majority of 52%. The change in views about the desirability of a federal law was even more dramatic. As late as July 1963, 49 percent of the total population favored
13600-527: The numbers of arrests. Representative Michael A. Feighan , a Democrat who represented Cleveland's west side, said that he had evidence that the rioters "have had training in firearms and Molotov cocktails", and pledged to have the House Judiciary Committee hold hearings into the cause of the riots. As dusk approached on July 21, police and Guardsmen maintained the expanded patrol zone. About 400 Cleveland police officers patrolled with
13736-420: The open window of Toney's automobile. The assailants' vehicle then sped away. The police gave chase and stopped it, arresting six white adults and teenagers. Another 100 Cleveland police and Guardsmen, as well as a Cleveland police helicopter, rushed to the scene. Police later released four of the suspects, but sought a third man who allegedly fled the vehicle. Toney died on the afternoon of July 23. Shortly after
13872-411: The outbreak of lawlessness and disorder was both organized, precipitated, and exploited by a relatively small group of trained and disciplined professionals of this business. They were aided and abetted willingly or otherwise by misguided people of all ages and colors, many of whom are avowed believers in violence and extremism, and some of whom are either members of, or officers in the Communist Party." At
14008-510: The outcome of a sporting event (e.g., sports riot , football hooliganism ) or frustration with legal channels through which to air grievances. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently "chaotic and exhibit herd behavior ." There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior (sometimes called mob mentality ), but actually follow inverted social norms. Dealing with riots
14144-618: The passage of the 1957 Act, the then-six-member, bipartisan Commission, consisting of John A. Hannah , President of Michigan State University; Robert Storey, Dean of the Southern Methodist University Law School; Father Theodore Hesburgh , President of the University of Notre Dame; John Stewart Battle , former governor of Virginia; Ernest Wilkins , a Department of Labor attorney; and Doyle E. Carlton , former governor of Florida, set about to assemble
14280-636: The person of any other individual. 18 U.S.C. § 2102 . Each state may have its own definition of a riot. In New York , the term riot is not defined explicitly, but under § 240.08 of the New York Penal Law , "A person is guilty of inciting to riot when one urges ten or more persons to engage in tumultuous and violent conduct of a kind likely to create public alarm." Sources: [REDACTED] Media related to Riots at Wikimedia Commons United States Commission on Civil Rights The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights ( CCR )
14416-600: The police for a period of time in the event of a club or international match, or international tournament, connected with the offence. This prevents travelling to the match or tournament in question. (The measures were brought in by the Football (Disorder) Act 2000 after rioting of England fans at Euro 2000 . ) See the Riot (Damages) Act 1886 and section 235 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1995 . Section 10 of
14552-432: The previous three days of rioting were charged with felonies , the first felony charges to be made during the event. Many Cleveland-area officials and reporters spent much of July 21 blaming black nationalists and outsiders for fomenting and sustaining the riots. Doris O'Donnell, a reporter with The Plain Dealer , wrote that "A 'hate whitey' revolution, plotted and predicted for many months" by "a small band of extremists"
14688-489: The public becomes desperate from such conditions, groups may attack shops, farms, homes, or government buildings to obtain bread or other staple foods like grain or salt. T. S. Ashton , in his study of food riots among colliers , noted that "the turbulence of the colliers is, of course, to be accounted for by something more elementary than politics: it was the instinctive reaction of virility to hunger." Charles Wilson noted, "Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on
14824-534: The public that they had the situation under control. Very early in the morning, Locher toured the area and then later conferred with white and black city leaders. Locher initially resisted pleas to send in the Ohio Army National Guard , but Cleveland City Council members John W. Kellogg and Edward F. Katalinas both pressured him to do so. At 3:30 PM, Locher asked Governor James A. Rhodes to send in 1,500 National Guardsmen. Governor Rhodes declared
14960-633: The records." The hearing went forward with no shortage of evidence. Witness after witness testified to inappropriate interference with his or her right to vote. The Commissioners spent the night at Maxwell Air Base, because all the city's hotels were segregated. From there, the Commission went on to hold hearings on the implementation of Brown v. Board of Education in Nashville, Tennessee and on housing discrimination in Atlanta, Chicago and New York. The facts gathered in these and other hearings along with
15096-451: The report Sex Bias in the U.S. Code . In 1981 President Ronald Reagan , looking to move the commission in a more conservative direction, appointed Clarence M. Pendleton, Jr. , as the first black chairman of the commission. A Howard University graduate, he was a conservative who opposed affirmative action and many of the commission's activities. Pendleton reduced its staff and programs. In 1983, Reagan attempted to fire three members of
15232-470: The riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops , cars , restaurants , state-owned institutions, and religious buildings. Riots often occur in reaction to a grievance or out of dissent . Historically, riots have occurred due to poverty, unemployment, poor living conditions , governmental oppression , taxation or conscription , conflicts between ethnic groups ( race riot ) or religions (e.g., sectarian violence , pogrom ),
15368-530: The riot patrol zone area, but that only a handful of them had been large blazes. Contradicting the statement of The Plain Dealer , the Times reported that nearly all fires had been set by firebombs. Hysteria appeared to be driving the public perception of the riots, The New York Times said. It quoted unnamed National Guard sources who said that law enforcement had received hundreds of calls for help from individuals claiming to be besieged by mobs or firebombers. When
15504-419: The riot was heard, the panel released its own report on October 5, 1966. The citizens' committee report condemned the grand jury report as specious, and concluded that despair, police brutality, poverty, racism, and a city government heedless of the plight of African Americans caused the riots. The citizens' panel requested that the grand jury report be legally quashed ; that fair housing legislation be adopted by
15640-435: The rioting largely end. No roving gangs were seen in the expanded patrol zone area. The Cleveland Division of Fire responded to about five alarms an hour, and the number of fire alarms in the Hough area was actually below normal for an average night. Cleveland Safety Director McCormick announced on July 24 that he was surprised by the extent to which the rioting had died down overnight. Calm continued Sunday morning, and Cleveland
15776-523: The riots, but historians generally dismiss these claims today, arguing that the cause of the Hough Riots were primarily poverty and racism. The riots caused rapid population loss and economic decline in the area, which lasted at least five decades after the riots. During the 1950s, middle-class whites largely left the neighborhood of Hough in Cleveland, Ohio, and working-class African Americans moved in. By 1966, more than 66,000 people, nearly 90 percent of them African American, lived in Hough. Most businesses in
15912-400: The scene of a five-alarm fire. During the attack on the mother's car, a National Guardsman was hit in the leg by a ricocheting police bullet. Later, four policemen were injured when two police vehicles collided at the intersection of E. 105th Street and Chester Avenue. Most of the evening's disturbances were minor, as no widespread rioting occurred. Minor incidents of vandalism were reported, and
16048-581: The state pass a law giving citizens a mechanism to file grievances against government workers; that a grand jury investigate the shootings of Arnett, Giles, and the Townes family; and that the state of Ohio increase the level of welfare payments. Contemporary historical analyses of the Hough Riots do not find evidence for claims of communist influence. As early as 1972, historians Estelle Zannes and Mary Jean Thomas pointed out that no evidence existed to implicate either black nationalists or communist organizations in
16184-465: The violence, and a police helicopter was used to direct the police toward suspected gunmen on top of buildings and report incidents of looting. Police initially shot out streetlights, and later were forced to bring in searchlights to illuminate dark streets and alleys, searching for rioters and gunmen. The Cleveland Division of Fire responded to the numerous small fires set by the rioters. Shots were fired at them, Molotov cocktails were tossed at them, and
16320-470: The voting rights of white people. In October 2010, Michael Yaki , one of the two Democratic commissioners, walked out of a meeting in protest. In doing so, Yaki deprived the panel of a quorum and delayed a vote on a draft report, which Yaki claimed, is unfairly biased against the Obama administration. Yaki described the panel as a "kangaroo court". President Obama eventually appointed two staunch liberals to
16456-440: The windows once the owners had gone inside. Abe Feigenbaum then said he went outside with a .44 caliber Ruger Model 44 rifle in his hands, followed by his brother Dave armed with a pistol. The rock-throwing stopped, they said, but resumed when they went back inside. After four calls to the police for help went unanswered, the Feigenbaums called the fire department in desperation and fled the café. The crowd now attempted to burn down
16592-430: The windows or on their front doors as a "signal not to fire bomb the place", and that agitators had worked up lists (one for businesses to be firebombed, one for business to be protected). Quoting unnamed black residents of Hough, she said that unnamed organizations had created a "ready-made army", which had drilled for months in use of firearms, burn-and-run tactics, and the manufacture and use of firebombs. O'Donnell placed
16728-565: Was a Jewish-owned bar located on the southeast corner of E. 79th Street and Hough Avenue, and popular with African American residents of the community. Seventy-Niner's suffered from a number of problems, including drug dealing, the sale of stolen goods, and prostitution, and the owners had begun barring certain individuals from the establishment. Local sex workers Margaret Sullivan and her friend, Louise (an African American), were among those who had been banned. Sullivan died on July 16, leaving three young children. On July 17, Louise attempted to leave
16864-421: Was appointed to serve as Chair of the CCR. She is the youngest person to be appointed to the position. Pursuant to 42 U.S.C. 1975d, all statutory authority for the commission terminated on September 30, 1996, and Congress has not passed new legislation, but has continued to pass appropriations. The commission is composed of eight commissioners. Four are appointed by the President of the United States , two by
17000-609: Was assaulted by a small group of African American youth at E. 105th and Superior Avenue and suffered minor cuts and abrasions. During the day on July 20, Mayor Locher spoke to Vice President Hubert Humphrey , and asked for the federal government's assistance in rebuilding Hough after the riots. A group of African American clergy asked the President of the United States to declare Hough a disaster area , so that it would qualify for federal disaster relief personnel and funds. In separate press conferences, both Locher and Cleveland Safety Director John N. McCormick said that "outsiders" were
17136-404: Was created by the Civil Rights Act of 1957 , which was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to a recommendation by an ad hoc President's Committee on Civil Rights. In calling for a permanent commission, that committee stated: In a democratic society, the systematic, critical review of social needs and public policy is a fundamental necessity. This is especially true of
17272-470: Was drenched with heavy rains on the afternoon of July 24 which kept most people indoors. The total number of those killed in the riots was four, and the total number of injured was 50. On July 26, the first 528 National Guard troops left Hough. The remainder withdrew to camps around the city. Withdrawals continued until the last 800 troops left on July 31. During the event as well as immediately after, some individuals asserted (in what one scholar has called
17408-562: Was in denial. No one in the community could do this, they reasoned. There had to be outside conspirators or instigators. No group was more suspect than the Communists, and Cleveland, with its Middle European population for whom conspiracy was part of the culture, was easy to convince. Surely, it was the work of the Red Menace or Black Nationalists, concluded City Hall and the police. — Veteran reporter Michael D. Roberts discussing
17544-440: Was just 65 percent the median income of whites. Although Hough contained just 7.3 percent of Cleveland's population, it had more than 19 percent of its welfare cases. Single mothers (half of them teenagers) bore one-third of the children in Hough in 1966, and infant mortality was twice as high as the rest of the city. High unemployment and the rapid deterioration of the neighborhood created extensive racial tension in Hough. Although
17680-528: Was much less frequent than the night before, but bottle and rock throwing and looting was widespread and extensive. Most of the rioting ended about 1 AM again. During the night, arsonists attacked abandoned houses and commercial buildings, setting 67 fires (small and large). Firefighters were able to respond without being attacked or fired upon. The hardest-hit area was on Hough Avenue between E. 84th and E. 86th, where 11 buildings burned. Another death occurred on July 19 when 36-year-old African American Percy Giles
17816-480: Was reinforced when Cleveland law enforcement officials formed a grand jury on July 25 to investigate the causes of the riot. The jury foreman was Louis B. Seltzer, an editor of the Cleveland Press who had retired early in 1966. On August 9, 1966, the grand jury issued its 17-page report, blaming the riots on black nationalists and communist organizations. The grand jury reported that "This jury finds that
17952-681: Was repealed by section 10(2) of, and Part I of Schedule 3 to, the Criminal Law Act 1967 . The statute 2 Hen. 5. Stat. 1, of which this chapter was part, was repealed for the Republic of Ireland by section 1 of, and Part 2 of the Schedule to, the Statute Law Revision Act 1983 . Riot is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008. See paragraph 13 of Schedule 5 to
18088-451: Was shot in the back of head by a Cleveland police officer according to witnesses at E. 86th Street and Hough Avenue at about 8:30 PM. Another man, 26-year-old Mallory Richardson, was shot in the leg at E. 31st and Euclid Avenue at about 10 PM, and 39-year-old Paul Richardson was grazed in the arm by gunfire at 10:30 PM while standing outside near his home on E. 79th Street. In all, 60 people were arrested that night. A white male, Joseph Brozich,
18224-472: Was shot in the head in the parking lot of the Dougherty Lumber Co. at 12100 Euclid Avenue . Toney had been traveling on Euclid when, according to police eyewitnesses, another vehicle began to parallel him. Toney pulled into the parking lot, where police had been stationed all night long, and the other vehicle followed him. The men in the second vehicle then shot Toney twice with a shotgun through
18360-473: Was the "uneasy backdrop" to the riots. The report also made several recommendations, including stronger enforcement of gambling, liquor, and prostitution laws; more frequent housing code inspections; improved garbage collection; and much greater and swifter efforts at urban renewal. The report also listed too-dense housing, substandard housing, overly high rents, a lack of neighborhood recreational facilities, excessive food prices, substandard educational facilities,
18496-400: Was the real cause of the riots, and said the riots were implemented "as if by a diversionary enemy". She reported that the police, city hall, and unnamed federal agencies had extensive evidence that "points to certain groups and certain individuals as the suspected plotters" behind the riots. O'Donnell reported that black activists told her that certain businesses had been told to place a sign in
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