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92-590: Hōkūleʻa is a performance-accurate waʻa kaulua , a Polynesian double-hulled voyaging canoe . Launched on 8 March 1975 by the Polynesian Voyaging Society , it is best known for its 1976 Hawaiʻi to Tahiti voyage completed with exclusively traditional navigation techniques. The primary goal of the voyage was to explore the anthropological theory of the Asiatic origin of native Oceanic people (Polynesians and Hawaiians in particular) as

184-416: A land-based seabird in mid-morning flight. Such birds generally fly seaward for food at morning and return to land in the evening. While it can usually be assumed that land lies opposite the birds' morning flight direction, this bird spotted mid-morning (during nesting season), carried a fish in its beak. This detail suggested to Mau that the bird's morning flight was not away from land but toward it. The bird

276-669: A century later (between 1788 and 1799), would come to call the Gilbert Islands and the Marshall Islands (Spaniards today call the Caroline islands Islas de las Hermanas , Hombres Pintados , and Los Jardines ). A Spanish royal decree, issued on 19 October 1707, authorized Spanish missionaries to make several expeditions to the Caroline Islands. However, in 1731, one such missionary, Juan Antonio Cantova,

368-478: A common source with the Dayaks , Tao , Ifugao , and Bajau . During the period following complete settlement of Polynesia, each local population developed politically in diverse ways, from fully developed kingdoms in some islands and island groups, to constantly warring tribes or extended family groups between various sections of islands, or in some cases, even within the same valleys on various islands. While it

460-613: A common understanding that a stone has a new owner. The Micronesian navigator Mau Piailug (1932–2010) was originally from the Carolinian island of Satawal . He learned the traditional navigation techniques of the Weriyeng school, which had been preserved after other traditional techniques had been forgotten (due partly to the remoteness of the Carolinian Islands). In the 1970s, Mau shared his knowledge with members of

552-731: A distance of approximately 3,540 kilometres (1,910 nmi), from the westernmost island, Tobi , in Palau, to the easternmost island, Kosrae , a state of the FSM . The group consists of about 500 small coral islands , east of the Philippines , in the Pacific Ocean. The distance from Yap (one of the larger Caroline islands) to Manila is 1,200 mi (1,900 km). Most of the islands are made up of low, flat coral atolls , but there are some that rise high above sea level. Some of

644-516: A genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia. The cultivation before western exploration by many Polynesian cultures of

736-589: A guiding zenith star for Hawaiian navigators. Arcturus passes directly overhead at Hawaiʻi 's latitude , helping sailors find the island. Hōkūle‘a navigates without instruments. In 1975, no living Hawaiian knew the ancient techniques for blue water voyaging. To enable the voyage, the Polynesian Voyaging Society recruited the Satawalese Master Navigator Mau Piailug (of the Weriyeng school in

828-476: A later report looking at the same specimens concluded: A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent

920-573: A roundtrip training sail to Palmyra Atoll , undertaken to develop skills of potential crewmembers for Hōkūle‘a's eventual circumnavigation of the Earth. On 18 May 2014 Hōkūle‘a and its sister vessel, Hikianalia embarked from Oahu for " Malama Honua ," a three-year circumnavigation of the earth. It returned to port in Hawaii on 17 June 2017. The journey covered 47,000 nautical miles with stops at 85 ports in 26 countries. In between voyages, Hōkūle‘a

1012-545: A surfboard 12–15 miles (19–24 km) to Lānaʻi for help. About nine hours later, flares launched by the crew were spotted by a Hawaiian Airlines flight which circled Hōkūleʻa and radioed the United States Coast Guard ("USCG"). Half an hour later, a USCG search and rescue helicopter was hovering overhead; Hōkūleʻa crew was rescued. The following morning, the USCGC Cape Corwin towed

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1104-421: A tremendous impact on the direction of the development of the various island societies. Accessibility of outside sources, as well as the tourism viability of individual islands, has played an important role to which the modern culture has adapted itself to accommodate the interests of outsiders, as opposed to the influences of those intent upon promoting the retention of native traditions. Because of this, Polynesia

1196-645: A united social and political structure, usually under the leadership of a strong monarch. An example is the Marquesas Islands , which, unlike other high-island groups in Polynesia, are not surrounded by fringing coral reefs , and consequently have no low coastal plains . Every valley in the Marquesas is accessible to other valleys only via boat, or by traveling over steep mountain ridges. The first Polynesian islands visited by European explorers were

1288-709: Is moored at the Marine Education Training Center (METC) of Honolulu Community College in Honolulu Harbor . Polynesian voyaging canoes were made from wood, whereas Hōkūle‘a incorporates plywood , fiberglass and resin . Hōkūle‘a measures 61 feet 5 inches (18.7 m) LOA , 15 feet 6 inches (4.72 m) at beam , displaces 16,000 pounds (7,260 kg) when empty and can carry another 11,000 pounds (4,990 kg) of gear, supplies and 12 to 16 crew. Fully laden, with its 540-square-foot (50.2 m) sail area, it

1380-579: Is a group dance performed by female counterparts only, also the taualuga is the main Samoan traditional dance that is performed by a village chief (manaia) or village chiefess (taupou). It is often performed at weddings , birthdays and other Samoan celebrations. Some researchers have characterised traditional Polynesian societies in general as theocratic . Chieftainship , generally hereditary and often associated with tapu , could be (semi-)divine. In Hawaii, Tahiti, and elsewhere, and especially if it

1472-461: Is capable of speeds of 4 to 6 knots (5 to 7 mph; 7 to 10 km/h). The twin wood masts were built by LeVan Keola Sequeira. They are rigged either crab claw or Marconi style with a small jib . It is steered with a long paddle . It has no auxiliary motor . Its escort vessel tows it into harbor when necessary. Its name means "star of gladness" in Hawaiian , which refers to Arcturus ,

1564-585: Is likely that population pressures caused tensions between various groups, the primary force that seems to have driven unity or division among tribes and family groups is geophysical: on low islands , where communications are essentially unimpeded, there does not appear to have developed any widely observable incidence of conflict. Meanwhile, on most volcanic islands , there were, historically, warring groups inhabiting various districts, usually delimited primarily by mountain ridges, with carefully drawn lowland boundaries. Early on, however, many such islands developed

1656-530: Is mostly domestic as most facilities cannot handle large aircraft. Caroline Islands Air is a chartered and the only domestic airline. Palau and Yap are the only places outside the Philippines where Callicarpa micrantha is native. Campnosperma brevipetiolatum was first named and classified by the German botanist Georg Volkens while carrying out research on Yap. He described the species in 1901 in

1748-412: Is supported by linguistic and archeological evidence. Recent studies into paternal Y chromosome analysis shows that Polynesians are also genetically linked to peoples of Melanesia . Between about 2000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages spread through Maritime South-East Asia – almost certainly starting out from Taiwan – into the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia . In

1840-490: Is the siva . The female siva is with gentle movements of the hands and feet in time to music. The sasa is a group dance performed sitting to a drum rhythm. Samoan males traditionally perform the fa'ataupati (slap dance), usually performed in a group with no music accompaniment. Other types of dance are modern dance by the younger generations. Traditional Samoan dance is arguably the one area of Samoan culture that has not been touched by Western Civilization. The maulu'ulu

1932-647: Is the only island group in the South Pacific that was never colonised by a European power. The remaining islands are a part of, or under the sovereignty of other countries: The various outliers lie in the sovereign territory of the nations of Vanuatu , the Solomon Islands , Fiji , the Federated States of Micronesia , and the French territory of New Caledonia . Hawaii became a state of

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2024-515: Is today an area in varying degrees of extreme cultural flux. The Polynesian Hula dance originates in Austronesian culture and is culturally similar to the types of dance that are known throughout similar linguistic cultures such as in Bali . Other dances of Polynesia include: Fakanau , Fakaseasea , Haka , Maulu'ulu , Taualuga , Titi torea , meke and Ura . The traditional Samoan dance

2116-540: The Allies as military bases , especially by the American forces, including as far east as Bora Bora . Following World War II, political change came more slowly to the islands of Polynesia than to the other parts of overseas colonies of European powers. Although sovereignty was granted by royal proclamation to New Zealand as early as 1907, this did not fully come into effect until 1947. Following in independence were

2208-460: The Americas . His suggestion was ignored at first, but, in 1885, a Spanish government representative called Butron signed an agreement with the tribal chiefs of Koror and Artingal establishing Spanish sovereignty over the Caroline Islands. At that point, Spain attempted to impose customs duties on commercial exchanges in the region. However, Spain's previous abandonment of the islands had allowed

2300-915: The California ports of San Francisco , Santa Barbara , and Long Beach . The voyaging canoes were shipped back to Hawaiʻi: Hōkūleʻa from San Pedro ; Hawai‘iloa from Seattle. This summer part of the voyage promoted cultural and educational exchanges with Hawaiians (some of whom had never been to Hawaiʻi), Native Americans , and other people living on the United States West Coast. Crew: Captains: Gordon Piʻianaiʻa, "Kimo" Lyman, Michael Tongg, Chad Baybayan; Crew: Gil Ane, Beth Atuatasi (née Saurer), Moana Doi, Laulima Lyman, Leon Sterling, Matthew Tongg Hōkūleʻa visited: Hōkūleʻa visited: Hōkūleʻa visited: Hōkūleʻa visited: Hōkūleʻa visited: Hōkūleʻa visited: Hōkūleʻa sailed from Hawaiʻi to Rapa Nui (Easter Island) and back, via

2392-593: The Caroline Islands ( map ) of the Federated States of Micronesia ( map )) to share his knowledge of non-instrument navigation. While as many as six Micronesian navigators had mastered these traditional methods as of the mid-1970s, only Mau was willing to share his knowledge. Mau, who "barely spoke English", decided that by reaching beyond his own culture, sharing what had been closely guarded knowledge, he could possibly save it from extinction. Through this collaboration, Mau's mentorship helped "spark pride in

2484-576: The Hawaiian and Polynesian culture ", leading to "a renaissance of voyaging, canoe building, and non-instrument navigation that has continued to grow, spreading across Polynesia ( map ) and reaching to its far corners of Aotearoa , New Zealand and Rapanui , Easter Island". Led by Captain Elia David Kuʻualoha "Kawika" Kapahulehua and Navigator Pius "Mau" Piailug, a Carolinian master navigator, Hōkūleʻa departed Honolua Bay , Maui , Hawaiʻi for Papeʻete , Tahiti, ( voyage map ) as part of

2576-514: The Marquesas Islands , first discovered by Europeans when the Spanish navigator, Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira , found the islands in 1595. Because of the paucity of mineral or gemological resources, the exploration of Polynesia by European navigators (whose primary interest was economic), was of little more than passing interest. The English navigator, James Cook , was the first to attempt to explore as much of Polynesia as possible. Following

2668-555: The Moluccas (by way of Celebes ). They ended up reaching several of the Caroline islands and staying there for several months, until 20 January 1526. Soon after, on 22 August 1526, the Spanish explorers Toribio Alonso de Salazar and Diego de Saavedra arrived in the area and recorded sighting the Island of San Bartolomé ( Taongui ). About 8 months later, on 1 January 1528, the explorer Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón claimed possession of

2760-552: The Polynesian Voyaging Society . This led to a revival of the practices of traditional Polynesian navigation techniques, and provided anthropologists with a greater understanding of the history of the Polynesian and Micronesian peoples . In 1985, a study was published that examined the origin of the sidereal compass used in the Caroline Islands. Different islands in the Carolines have passed down different legends about

2852-538: The Western Caroline islands (Yap and Palau [and from 1907 Saipan]) In the Eastern Caroline islands ( Ponape , and including the Marshall Islands from 1911) Two Jesuits , Juan Antonio Cantova (also known as John Anthony Cantova) and Victor Walter, attempted missionary work there in 1731; the former was soon murdered and the latter obliged to flee. Two other Jesuits were killed later. In 1767,

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2944-545: The Western Malayo-Polynesian languages of Palauan and Chamorro ; and the unclassified language Yapese (possibly one of the Admiralty Islands languages ). There are also a significant number of inhabitants who belong to non-indigenous ethnic groups and speak other languages, including Filipinos and Japanese . The lingua franca used for trade and commerce among islanders who do not speak

3036-488: The archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with a degree of certainty. In the mid-2nd millennium BC a distinctive culture appeared suddenly in north-west Melanesia, in the Bismarck Archipelago , the chain of islands forming a great arc from New Britain to the Admiralty Islands . This culture, known as Lapita , stands out in

3128-547: The sweet potato , a South American plant, is also evidence for contact. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000 AD, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia around 700 AD, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back, and spread across Polynesia to Hawaii and New Zealand from there. While the early Polynesians were skilled navigators, most evidence indicates that their primary exploratory motivation

3220-740: The ʻAlenuihāhā Channel and the northeast trade winds. The object was to determine whether Hōkūleʻa , departing from west of the 1976 departure point, would bisect the more easterly 1976 voyage track, and so likely reach Tahiti were it to continue. After heading south for two days, Hōkūleʻa did not bisect the 1976 voyage track, but likely would have (further south than anticipated). It came about and returned to Hawaiʻi. The traditional departure point would be used for subsequent sailings to Tahiti. Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Dave Lyman; Crew: Teené Froiseth, Sam Kaʻai, Sam Kalalau, John Kruse, "Kimo" Lyman, Jerome "Jerry" Muller, Gordon Piʻianaiʻa, Norman Piʻianaiʻa, Michael A. Tongg, Makaʻala Yates Following

3312-520: The "Voyage of Rediscovery", Hōkūleʻa traveled 12,000 miles (19,000 km) to destinations throughout Polynesia. Inviting fellow Polynesians to join the crew on legs of the voyage extended Hōkūleʻa's success in revitalizing interest in Polynesian culture. For instance, professional Tongan sea captain Sione Taupeamuhu was aboard during a night passage from Tongatapu to Nomuka in the northerly Haʻapai Islands group of Tonga ( map ). He

3404-458: The 1976 voyage, Nainoa Thompson attempted to teach himself how to navigate without instruments, using only the position of stars and ocean cues, based on information he learned from books, planetarium observations, and short voyages in Hawaiian waters. In 1978, the crew of Hōkūleʻa attempted a second voyage to Tahiti, which was aborted when Hōkūleʻa capsized in high wind and seas southwest of

3496-453: The 1978 disaster, Mau returned and gave Nainoa further training on traditional navigation techniques. In 1980, Nainoa Thompson recreated the 1976 voyage to Tahiti to become the first Native Hawaiian in modern times to navigate a canoe thousands of miles without instruments. Mau sailed as an observer. After 29 days at sea, before sighting Mataiva on the way to Tahiti, Mau offered Nainoa only one correction; of Nainoa's interpretation of sighting

3588-601: The Capuchin Father Callistus as its director. The station was able to identify that the East-Asiatic typhoons were originating in the Carolines. The station still makes weather observations twice a day, and sends advance notice of severe weather to Manila. During the period of German control, Germany issued postage stamps for the islands. Transportation within the islands is either by boat or air (if in close proximity of an airfield). Air travel

3680-413: The Island of Molokaʻi , five hours after departing Honolulu's Ala Wai Harbor. The crew hung on to the capsized canoe through the night. Flares were unseen by passing aircraft; the emergency radio reached no help. By mid-morning, with no sign of imminent rescue and the capsized canoe drifting farther from land, Eddie Aikau , a North Shore, Oʻahu , lifeguard and big-wave surfer , volunteered to paddle

3772-671: The Jesuits were suppressed in the Spanish dominions, and for the next 120 years there was no trace of a missionary in the islands. After the 1886 dispute between Germany and Spain over possession of the Carolines was settled by Pope Leo XIII in favour of Spain, the king of Spain directed Spanish Capuchins to go to the islands. The royal order was issued on 15 March 1886, and the Propaganda Fide officially established that mission on 15 May 1886, dividing it into two sections, named

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3864-587: The Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia. While in the Marquesas, short trips were made between principal islands of the group ( map ). A brief stop was made at Pitcairn Island on the Mangareva – Rapa Nui leg. A technically challenging voyage due to Rapa Nui's isolation and location over 1,000 miles upwind; it is known as "Closing the Triangle " because it took the canoe to the southeastern Pacific for

3956-532: The Melanesian archeological record, with its large permanent villages on beach terraces along the coasts. Particularly characteristic of the Lapita culture is the making of pottery, including a great many vessels of varied shapes, some distinguished by fine patterns and motifs pressed into the clay. Within a mere three or four centuries between about 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita culture spread 6000 km further to

4048-471: The Pelew Islands, 200 miles to the south, and must have been brought by native vessels or on rafts; later they were transferred on European vessels. The stones, which are rather tokens than money, do not circulate, but are piled up round about the chief's treasure-house, and appear to be regarded as public property. Some may not have been seen for some years, but the transfer of wealth is facilitated by

4140-654: The Saudeleur dynasty ended when another foreigner, called Isokelekel , invaded the islands, overthrew the Saudeleurs, and instituted the more decentralized nahnmwarki (tribal chief) system (which was maintained even during the later Colonial period, and still exists today). The first contact that European explorers had with the Caroline islands was in 1525, when a summer storm carried the Portuguese navigators Diogo da Rocha and Gomes de Sequeira eastward from

4232-531: The Sixth Festival of Pacific Arts , then, via Tahiti, sailed back to Hawaiʻi. This voyage, known as " No Nā Mamo " or "For the Children", was designed to train a new generation of voyagers to sail Hōkūleʻa , to share values and knowledge of voyaging and to celebrate the revival of canoe building and non-instrument navigation. The voyage included an educational component allowing Hawaiian students to track

4324-632: The Ulithi Islands on behalf of the king of Spain . He named them the Islands of the Kings ( Spanish : Islas de los Reyes ; French : Îles des Rois ) after his patron and the Three Wise Men honored in the approaching Catholic feast of Epiphany . Spanish explorers visited the archipelago again in 1542 (Matelotes Islands), 1543, and 1545. In 1565, the islands were briefly visited by

4416-507: The United States, giving it equal political status to the other 49 states. Independence and increasing autonomy is not the only influence affecting modern Polynesian society. The primary driving forces are, in fact, the ever-increasing accessibility of the islands to outside influences, through improved air communications as well as through vastly improved telecommunications capabilities. The economic importance of tourism has also had

4508-705: The West Caroline's and the East Carolines. Until that time, the islands had belonged ecclesiastically to the Vicariate Apostolic of Micronesia . The Spanish Capuchins caused a catechism and prayer book to be printed in the Ponape language, and Father Anthony of Valentia wrote a small grammar and dictionary of the Yap language in 1890. In 1899, after the Spanish priests had laid the foundations of

4600-439: The article 'Die Vegetation der Karolinen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der von Yap' in the periodical Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie (Leipzig). Crinum bakeri is endemic to the Caroline and Marshall Islands, and was first described by Karl Moritz Schumann in 1887. Psychotria hombroniana is endemic to the Caroline and Mariana Islands, with five subspecies being found on

4692-523: The celebration of the United States Bicentennial . Mau navigated from Hawaii to Tahiti without instruments. Due to a conflict between crew members which escalated into physical violence, Mau abruptly returned home to Micronesia after reaching Tahiti. Hōkūleʻa had to be navigated back using western instruments ( compass , nautical charts , sextant , chronometer , dividers , parallel rulers , pencil , nautical almanac ). On board

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4784-785: The crew in Papeʻete. Navigator and Captain: Nainoa Thompson; Crew; Chad Baybayan, Clay Bertelmann, "Wally" Froiseth, Rey Jonsson, Solomon Kahoʻohalahala, Will Kyselka, Charles Larson, Mel Paoa, Cary Sneider (California), "Tava" Taupu, Tracy Tong, Michael Tongg, Clifford Watson, Dr. Nathan Wong, Elisa Yadao, Aaron Young Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: "Shorty" Bertelmann; Crew: "Snake" Ah Hee, Dr. Pat Aiu, Chad Baybayan, Bruce Blankenfeld, Stanley Conrad (New Zealand), Eni Hunkin (Samoa), Tua Pittman (Cook Islands), Dixon Stroup, Puaniho Tauotaha (Tahiti), Sione Taupeamuhu (Tonga), "Tava" Taupu (Marquesas), Michael Tongg, Clifford Watson, Elisa Yadao Hōkūleʻa sailed to Tahiti, Raʻiatea , and on to Rarotonga for

4876-699: The east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji , Samoa and Tonga . In this region, the distinctive Polynesian culture developed, where Melanesian men would marry into the Lapita culture. Polynesians would not move further east for another 1,000 years. The Proto-Polynesians who find their origins in Maritime Southeast Asia were an adventurous seafaring people with highly developed navigation skills. They perfected their seafaring and boat-craft techniques as each successive generations "island-hopped", starting from

4968-618: The eastern corner at Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and lastly the southern corner in New Zealand. There have been suggestions that Polynesian voyagers reached the South American mainland. Carbon-dating of chicken bones found by Chilean archaeologists on the Arauco Peninsula in south-central Chile was thought to date from between 1321 and 1407 AD. This initial report suggested a Polynesian pre-Columbian origin. However,

5060-477: The establishment of German and British missions on the islands, and Germany and the United Kingdom disputed Spain's right to collect customs revenue . The European powers called on Pope Leo XIII to arbitrate this dispute. He decided that Spain would have these rights on the islands west of the 164th meridian east , and Germany would have these rights on the Marshall Islands . (He also assigned Germany

5152-445: The existence and location of islands. The name given to a star or constellation taken as a mark to steer by was kaweinga . The discovery of new islands and island groups was by means of entire small villages called vanua or "banwa" setting sail on great single and double-hulled canoes. Archaeological evidence indicates that by about 1280 AD, these voyagers had settled the vast Polynesian triangle with its northern corner at Hawaii ,

5244-461: The first governor-general of the Philippines , Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (in office from 1565 to 1572). Europeans did not visit the island again until 1686, when Francisco de Lezcano arrived in Yap. He called the islands Las Carolinas , in honor of Charles II of Spain . This name was later extended to include the Palau Islands and the archipelagos that British explorers, visiting them

5336-658: The first time. Kama Hele escorted the voyage. Navigator and Captain: Bruce Blankenfeld; Apprentice Navigator: Piʻikea Miller; Watch Captains: Dennis Chun, Terry Hee, Leon Paoa Sterling; Crew: Russell Amimoto, Desmon Antone, Darcy Attisani, Kekama Helm, Kaʻau McKenney, Atwood Makanani, Hauʻoli Smith, Wallace Wong Polynesian culture Maternal mitochondrial DNA analysis suggests that Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islanders, Tahitians, Hawaiians, Marquesans and Māori , are genetically linked to indigenous peoples of parts of Maritime Southeast Asia including those of Taiwanese aborigines . This DNA evidence

5428-466: The inaugural voyage was Hoku, a golden hair Hawaiian Poi Dog backbred by Jack L. Throp of the Honolulu Zoo . Razor-backed pigs and Polynesian chickens were also bred at the zoo for the voyage, but the director would not part with them at the last minute. Instead, the voyage hurriedly brought a white domesticated pig from Kōkeʻe, Kauai named Maxwell, and a cock and hen. The purpose of the animals

5520-502: The indigenous people adhere to the traditional belief in a supreme being called "Yalafar" and an evil spirit called "Can." For the most part, however, they do not engage in traditional religious rites. The inhabitants of Yap are noted for possessing an unusual currency. Besides the ordinary shell money , there is a sort of stone coinage, consisting of huge calcite or limestone discs or wheels from 6 inches to 12 feet in diameter, and weighing up to nearly 5 tons. These are all quarried in

5612-514: The individual islands which make up the Carolines include - Yap , Truk (Chuuk), Pohnpei , Kosrae , Palau , Takatik , Satawal , Kapingamarangi , Nukuoro , Fairchuk , Namonuito , Hall Island , Nomoi Islands , Weno , Rumung , Maap , Kanifay , Ngulu , Nett , Pingelap , and Lelu . The indigenous inhabitants speak a variety of languages, including: the Micronesian languages of Pohnpeian , Chuukese , Carolinian , and Kosraean ;

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5704-542: The initial European contacts with Polynesia, a great number of changes occurred within Polynesian culture, mostly as a result of colonization by European powers, the introduction of a large number of alien diseases to which the Polynesians had no immunity, slaving ventures to supply plantations in South America , and an influx of Christian missionaries . By the early 20th century, almost all of Polynesia

5796-550: The island of Taiwan through the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos and west to the Marianas, finally dispersing throughout the Pacific Ocean. They colonised previously unsettled islands by making very long canoe voyages, in some cases against the prevailing winds and tides. Polynesian navigators steered by the sun and the stars, and by careful observations of cloud reflections and bird flight patterns, were able to determine

5888-428: The islands). According to Pohnpeian legend: the Saudeleur rulers originally came from beyond the islands; they were the first to bring government to Pohnpei; they imposed absolute, centralized rule on the islanders, which became increasingly oppressive over the centuries; and their arbitrary and onerous demands, along with their offenses against Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment among Pohnpeians . Legend has it that

5980-674: The latter years of that war, during the Japanese withdrawal to the Japanese home islands, the Allies effectively neutralized Truk in Operation Hailstone . After the war, the islands (together with the Marshall Islands) became trust territories of the United States . The Federated States of Micronesia gained independence in 1986, followed by Palau in 1994. District officers (from 1889, styled Bezirksamtleute ): In

6072-466: The mainland United States , all using ancient wayfinding techniques of celestial navigation . On 19 January 2007, Hōkūle‘a left Hawaiʻi with the voyaging canoe Alingano Maisu on a voyage through Micronesia ( map ) and ports in southern Japan . The voyage was expected to take five months. On 9 June 2007, Hōkūle‘a completed the "One Ocean, One People" voyage to Yokohama , Japan. On 5 April 2009, Hōkūle‘a returned to Honolulu following

6164-531: The mission's fortunes suffered. In response, the Propaganda Fide decided on 7 November 1904 to replace the Spanish Capuchins with German missionaries, and on 18 December 1905 to erect a single Apostolic prefecture in place of the two separate missions. The Very Reverend Father Venantius of Prechtal , Germany, was appointed first prefect Apostolic at that time. In 1906, 24 missionaries (12 Fathers and 12 Brothers) were working in thirteen stations, and several Sisters of St. Francis left Luxembourg to take charge of

6256-404: The mission, the islands passed by purchase into the hands of Germany. Spain had contributed more than $ 5000 a year towards the mission, but Germany contributed no support. Spain had compelled the indigenous people to send their children to school; Germany allowed people to choose to send their children or not. As a result, many people stopped attending church and sending their children to school, and

6348-413: The nations (and the sovereign powers from which they obtained complete political independence) of: Tonga was never actually a colony, but a limited protectorate of the United Kingdom. Tonga never relinquished internal self-government, but when external foreign affairs were again decided by Tongans without reference to the United Kingdom in 1970, Tonga was said to have rejoined the Comity of Nations. Tonga

6440-440: The origins and early histories of their peoples. For example, on Pohnpei , the islanders describe their history before colonial times as divided into three eras: the Mwehin Kawa or Mwehin Aramas (era of building or peopling, before 1100); the Mwehin Sau Deleur (era of the reigns of the Saudeleur , from 1100 to around 1628); and the Mwehin Nahnmwarki (era of the tribal chiefs, from around 1628 to 1885, when Spain colonized

6532-1794: The progress of the canoe through daily radio reports. Kama Hele escorted the voyage. Crew: Nainoa Thompson, Sailing master; Chad Baybayan, Co-navigator; "Shorty" Bertelmann, Co-navigator; Clay Bertelmann, Captain; Nailima Ahuna, Fisherman; Dennis J. Chun, Historian; Maulili Dixon, Cook; Kainoa Lee; Liloa Long; Jay Paikai; Chadd Kaʻonohi Paishon; Ben Tamura, M.D.; "Tava" Taupu Crew: Nainoa Thompson, Sailing master; Chad Baybayan, Navigator; Keahi Omai, Navigator; "Billy" Richards, Captain; Gilbert Ane; John Eddy, Film Documentation; Clement "Tiger" Espere; Brickwood Galuteria, Communications; Harry Ho; Sol Kahoohalahala; Dennis Kawaharada, Communications; Reggie Keaunui; Keone Nunes, Oral Historian; Eric Martinson; Nalani Minton, Traditional Medicine; Esther Mookini, Hawaiian Language; Mel Paoa; Cliff Watson, Film Documentation; Nathan Wong, M.D. Crew: Nainoa Thompson, Sailing master; Chad Baybayan, Navigator; Gordon Piʻianaiʻa, Captain; Moana Doi, Photo Documentation; John Eddy, Film Documentation; Ben Finney, Scholar; "Wally" Froseith, Watch Captain; Brickwood Galuteria, Communications; Harry Ho; Kaʻau McKenney; Keahi Omai; Keone Nunes, Oral Historian; "Billy" Richards, Watch Captain; Cliff Watson, Film Documentation Cook Islands Additional Crew: Clive Baxter (Aitutaki); Tura Koronui (Atiu); Dorn Marsters (Aitutaki); Tua Pittman (Rarotonga); Nga Pouʻaʻo (Mitiaro); Maʻara Tearaua (Mangaia); Peʻia Tuaʻati (Mauke) Co-navigators: Bruce Blankenfeld, "Kimo" Lyman; Captain: Michael Tongg; Sailing Master: Nainoa Thompson; Watch Captain and Cook: "Snake" Ah Hee; Watch Captain: Aaron Young; Ship's Doctor: Pat Aiu, M.D; Historian: Carlos Andrade; Fisherman: Terry Hee; Communications: Scott Sullivan; Crew: Archie Kalepa, Suzette Smith, Wallace Wong, Gary Yuen In

6624-498: The result of purposeful trips through the Pacific , as opposed to passive drifting on currents or sailing from the Americas . DNA analysis supports this theory. A secondary project goal was to have the canoe and voyage "serve as vehicles for the cultural revitalization of Hawaiians and other Polynesians." Between the 1976 voyage and 2009, Hōkūle‘a completed nine additional voyages to Micronesia , Polynesia, Japan , Canada and

6716-680: The right to establish a coal mine in the area. Germany governed the archipelago as the Karolinen , and administratively associated it with German New Guinea . The islands were a popular resort for whaling ships in the 19th century. The first such vessel known to have visited was the London whaler Britannia , which called at Ngatik in December 1793. Such vessels—from Britain, the United States, Australia and elsewhere—came for water, wood, and food and, sometimes, for men willing to serve as crewmen on

6808-659: The right to maintain a naval station in one of the Caroline Islands, but Germany never exercised that right.) After the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain sold the Carolines and the Northern Marianas to the German Empire in the German–Spanish Treaty (1899) for 25 million pesetas (the equivalent of 17 million goldmarks or nearly one million pounds sterling ), while reserving to itself

6900-448: The same language is English. The indigenous people of these islands live mainly on horticultural products, fish, many different varieties of bananas, and taro (either the "swamp" or the "purple" variety). On some islands, housing is still built using local materials such as coconut-palm thatch. As a result of missionary work over the centuries, Christianity is the religion most commonly practiced in this region of Micronesia . Many of

6992-470: The spring, Hōkūleʻa , along with sister ships Hawai‘iloa and Makali‘i , sailed from Hawaiʻi to Tahiti. They participated in a gathering of voyaging canoes from across Oceania at nearby Marae Taputapuatea , Raʻiatea, which led to the lifting of a six-centuries-old tapu on voyaging from Raʻiatea. Then all the canoes returned to Tahiti, sailed to Nuku Hiva in the Marquesas and on to Hawaiʻi. This

7084-476: The squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Matsumura Tatsuo (1868–1932); while the Eastern Carolines were controlled by Vice-Admiral Yamaya Tanin (1866–1940). In 1920, after World War I, Japan received a League of Nations mandate to control the Caroline and Marshall Islands. During World War II , Japan operated a large base at Truk Lagoon which it used for expansion into the southeastern Pacific. In

7176-522: The summer: Hōkūleʻa and Hawai‘iloa sailed the West Coast of the United States . Both vessels were shipped from Hawaiʻi to Seattle , Washington, after which they sailed to Vancouver , British Columbia . They visited intermediate ports, where local American Indian tribes often hosted them to a dinner and gift exchange. From Vancouver, Hawai‘iloa sailed as far north as Haines, Alaska . Hōkūleʻa sailed south to San Diego via Portland, Oregon , and

7268-542: The ten primary schools, in which a total of 262 children were enrolled. The missionaries boasted 90 adult converts that year, and reported that there were 1900 Catholics, a few Protestants, and 11,600 inhabitants who had not converted to Christianity. On 1 July 1905, the United States sent a Jesuit from the Manila Observatory to the island of Yap to erect a meteorological station there, and appointed

7360-474: The vessel to landfall in Papeʻete, Tahiti. The crew may be the same as on the previous leg, but this is speculation. Navigator and Captain: Chad Baybayan; Navigator and Captain: Chad Baybayan; Co-assistant navigators: Moana Doi, Piʻikea Miller; Watch Captains: "Snake" Ah Hee, "Tava" Taupu, Michael Tongg; Medical Officer: Mel Paoa; Fisherman and Teacher: Nainoa Thompson; Cook: Gary Yuen; Crew: Clyde Aikau, Sam Pautu, Mau Piailug, Sesario Sewralur, Gary Suzuki In

7452-583: The vessel, from 22 miles southwest of Lāʻau Point, Molokaʻi, back to Honolulu. Despite intensive land, air and sea search, Eddie Aikau was never seen again. Hōkūleʻa carries a plaque in his memory. Subsequent voyages were accompanied by an escort vessel. Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Dave Lyman; First Mate: Leon Paoa Sterling; "Snake" Ah Hee, Edward Ryon Makua Hanai "Eddie" Aikau, Charman Akina, M.D., Wedemeyer Au, Bruce Blankenfeld, Kilila Hugho, Sam Kaʻai, John Kruse, Marion Lyman, Buddy McGuire, Norman Piʻianaiʻa, Curt Sumida, Teikiheʻepo "Tava" Taupu. After

7544-454: The vessels. These ships stimulated commerce and were significant vectors for change (both good and ill). The islands most commonly visited were Kosrae , Mokil , Ngatik , Pingelap and Pohnpei . Japan invaded and occupied the islands in 1914 during World War I , as part of their campaign to take and occupy German colonial possessions . They installed two naval squadrons as part of this occupation. The Western Carolines were controlled by

7636-523: The western Pacific Ocean , to the north of New Guinea . Politically, they are divided between the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) in the central and eastern parts of the group, and Palau at the extreme western end. Historically, this area was also called Nuevas Filipinas or New Philippines , because they were part of the Spanish East Indies and were governed from Manila in the Philippines . The Carolines are scattered across

7728-606: Was colonized or occupied to various degrees by Western colonial powers, as follows: All of the Polynesian outliers were subsumed into the sometimes-overlapping territorial claims of Japan, the United Kingdom and France. During World War II, a number of Polynesian islands played critical roles. The critical attack that brought the United States into the war was the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , in south-central Oahu , Hawaii . A number of islands were developed by

7820-401: Was killed. As a result, Spain ceased relations with the Caroline Islands. When they resumed relations in 1787, their emphasis was on trade and commerce. In 1852, a Spanish colonel named Coello suggested to the Spanish government that effective Spanish occupation of the Caroline Islands would help the Spanish engage in trade and commerce with the Philippines , Australia , New Guinea , and

7912-409: Was no widespread inter-island group communication, nor is there much indication during this period of any interest in such communications, at least not for economic reasons. However, almost all these isolated colonies originating from Maritime Southeast Asia still retained the strong influence of their ancestral culture. These are very obvious in social hierarchies, language, and technology which point to

8004-799: Was not flying seaward to find more fish, but rather, was returning to land, to feed its young. Leading up to the voyage, an extensive, formal crew training program helped to ensure a safe voyage. Escort boat Ishka followed for safety. Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Gordon Piʻianaiʻa; Chad Kalepa Baybayan, "Shorty" Bertelmann, Harry Ho, Sam Kaʻai, Michael "Buddy" McGuire, Marion Lyman-Mersereau, Mau Piailug, Steve Somsen, Joanne Kahanamoku Sterling, Leon Paoa Sterling, "Tava" Taupu; Patrick Koon Hung Piʻimauna Charles "Pat" Aiu, MD  Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Gordon Piʻianaiʻa; Wedemeyer Au, Chad Baybayan, Bruce Blankenfeld, "Snake" Ah Hee, John Kruse, Kainoa Lee, James "Kimo" Lyman, Mau Piailug, Steven Somsen, Leon Paoa Sterling, Michael Tongg, Nathan Wong In

8096-762: Was only the first part of a voyage spanning spring and summer known as " Nā ʻOhana Holo Moana " or The Voyaging Families of the Vast Ocean . Hōkūleʻa was escorted by Gershon II under Steve Kornberg; Rizaldar , under Randy Wichman, also escorted. Sailing Master: Nainoa Thompson; Navigators: Kaʻau McKenney, Keahi Omai; Crew: Shantell Ching, Junior Coleman, Catherine Fuller, Harry Ho, Mau Piailug, Sesario Sewralur (son of Mau Piailug), Ben Tamura, MD; "Tava" Taupu, Michael Tongg, Kamaki Worthington. After Hōkūleʻa sighted Tikehau on 2 March 1995, Navigators Kaʻau McKenney and Keahi Omai turned over navigation to their apprentices, Junior Coleman and Sesario Sewralur, who guided

8188-2960: Was skeptical that Hōkūleʻa navigator Nainoa Thompson could find Nomuka without instruments. When Nomuka appeared on the horizon at dawn as anticipated, Taupeamuhu remarked, "Now I can believe the stories of my ancestors." Dorcas and Maalea served as escort vessels. Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: "Shorty" Bertelmann; Crew: Clay Bertelmann, Dennis Chun, Richard Tai Crouch, Harry Ho, Dr. Larry Magnussen, "Buddy" McGuire, Mau Piailug, Thomas Reity (Satawal), James Shizuru, "Tava" Taupu Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Gordon Piʻianaiʻa; Crew: "Snake" Ah Hee, Dr. Pat Aiu, Chad Baybayan, Karim Cowan (Tahiti), Bob Krauss, John Kruse, Vic Lipman, Mel Paoa, Mau Piailug, Abraham Piʻianaiʻa, Chad Piʻianaiʻa, Michael Tongg, Andrew Tutai (Cook Islands), Peter Sepelalur (Satawal), Leon Paoa Sterllng, Puaniho Tauotaha (Tahiti), Cliff Watson. (Bob Krauss, journalist; Karim Cowan, and Puaniho Tauotaha were crew members only from Tahiti to Raʻiatea) Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain and 1st Watch Captain: "Shorty" Bertelmann; 2nd Watch Captain: Leon Paoa Sterling; 3rd Watch Captain: "Tava" Taupu (Marquesas); Crew: Dr. Pat Aiu, Chad Baybayan, Bruce Blankenfeld, Stanley Conrad (New Zealand), Dr. Ben Finney, Harry Ho, "Buddy" McGuire, "Billy" Richards, James Shizuru, Michael Tongg Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Leon Paoa Sterling; Crew: "Snake" Ah Hee, Dr. Pat Aiu, Carlos Andrade, Chad Baybayan, Philip Ikeda*, John Keolanui, "Kimo" Lyman, Mau Piailug, Scott Sullivan, Michael Tongg, Sione Uaine Ula (Tonga) Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: Leon Paoa Sterling; Crew: Dr. Pat Aiu, Carlos Andrade, Gilbert Ane, Gail Evenari (California), Chad Baybayan, Hector Busby (New Zealand), Philip Ikeda*, Sam Kaʻai, John Keolanui, "Kimo" Lyman, Mau Piailug, Scott Sullivan, Jo Anne Sterling, Sione Taupeamuhu (Tonga), Michael Tongg, Sione Uaine Ula (Tonga) Navigator: Nainoa Thompson; Captain: "Shorty" Bertelmann; Crew: Clay Bertelmann, Harry Ho, Pauahi Ioane, Bernard Kilonsky, Ben Lindsey, Mel Paoa, Mau Piailug, Tua Pittman (Cook Islands), "Tava" Taupu (Marquesas) Navigator and Captain: Nainoa Thompson; Crew: Dr. Pat Aiu, Chad Baybayan, Dede Bertelmann, Bruce Blankenfeld, "Wally" Froseith, Pauahi Ioane, "Jerry" Muller, Mau Piailug, Tua Pittman (Rarotonga), Rio Tuiravakai (Aitutaki), Raukete Tuiravakai (Aitutaki) Navigator and Captain: Nainoa Thompson; Crew: "Snake" Ah Hee, Dr. Pat Aiu, Chad Baybayan, Bruce Blankenfeld, Wallace "Wally" Froiseth, Harry Ho, Glen Oshiro, Mau Piailug, Richard Rhodes, Michael Tongg, Aaron Young Navigator and Captain: Nainoa Thompson; Crew: U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka , Chad Baybayan; "Wally" Froiseth, Harry Ho, Kilo Kaina, Michele Kapana, Will Kyselka, Russell Mau, Honolulu City Councilman Arnold Morgado ; Abraham Piʻianaiʻa, Tutaha Salmon (Tahiti), Cary Sneider (California), "Tava" Taupu (Marquesas), Michael Tongg, Aaron Young. Senator Akaka and Councilman Morgado joined

8280-463: Was to ease the demands of burgeoning populations . Polynesian mythology does not speak of explorers bent on conquest of new territories, but rather of heroic discoverers of new lands for the benefit of those who voyaged with them. While further influxes of immigrants from other Polynesian islands sometimes augmented the growth and development of the local population, for the most part, each island or island group's culture developed in isolation. There

8372-449: Was to one's advantage, descent could be traced through women (matrilineality). Thus, while descent through the male line was notionally preferred, in practice the descent system was often bilateral—traced through either or both parents. [REDACTED] Media related to Culture of Polynesia at Wikimedia Commons Caroline Islands The Caroline Islands (or the Carolines ) are a widely scattered archipelago of tiny islands in

8464-495: Was to study how to feed and care for these animals, which had been transported by the Polynesians during their voyages. In English, the Hawaiian "Ke ala i kahiki" means "the path to Tahiti." The "Kealaikahiki Project" recreated the traditional Kealaikahiki Point departure of ancient voyages to Tahiti. Gordon Piʻianaiʻa's idea to recreate traditional departures took Hōkūleʻa southeast, across Kealaikahiki Channel between Lānaʻi and Kahoʻolawe Islands, past Kealaikahiki Point, into

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