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108-854: Hollow Tree is a Western red cedar tree stump and a popular landmark in Stanley Park in Vancouver , British Columbia. The tree was damaged during a December 2006 windstorm and was slated for removal. In 2009, the Stanley Park Hollow Tree Conservation Society was formed and began raising money from private donors to preserve the landmark. A ceremony for the restored tree was held in October 2011. Two "suspicious" fires were put out by firefighters in September 2014. Thuja plicata Thuja plicata

216-403: A pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleoecology , paleontology , archaeology , and forensics . Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of

324-771: A 54% increased chance of asthma attacks when exposed to pollen. The number of people in the United States affected by hay fever is between 20 and 40 million, including around 6.1 million children and such allergy has proven to be the most frequent allergic response in the nation. Hay fever affects about 20% of Canadians and the prevalence is increasing. There are certain evidential suggestions pointing out hay fever and similar allergies to be of hereditary origin . Individuals who suffer from eczema or are asthmatic tend to be more susceptible to developing long-term hay fever. Since 1990, pollen seasons have gotten longer and more pollen-filled, and climate change

432-409: A burglar who brushed against a Hypericum bush during a crime, and has even been proposed as an additive for bullets to enable tracking them. In some Native American religions , pollen was used in prayers and rituals to symbolize life and renewal by sanctifying objects, dancing grounds, trails, and sandpaintings . It may also be sprinkled over heads or in mouths. Many Navajo people believed

540-426: A continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are important exceptions. During microgametogenesis, the unicellular microspores undergo mitosis and develop into mature microgametophytes containing the gametes. In some flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain may begin even before it leaves

648-493: A harder wood such as hemlock . A variety of hand mauls , wedges, chisels, and knives are also used. Excavations done at Ozette, Washington , turned up iron tools nearly 800 years old, far before European contact. When James Cook passed the area, he observed that almost all tools were made of iron. There has been speculation on the origin of these iron tools. Some theories include shipwrecks from East Asia or possible contact with iron-using cultures from Siberia , as hinted in

756-753: A line of stakes. Redcedar wood is used to make huge monoxyla canoes in which the men went out to high sea to harpoon whales and conduct trade. One of those canoes, a 12-metre (38 ft) craft dug out about a century ago, was bought in 1901 by Captain John Voss , an adventurer. He gave her the name of Tilikum ('Relative' in Chinook jargon), rigged her, and led her in a hectic three-year voyage from British Columbia to London . Redcedar branches are very flexible and have good tensile strength. They were stripped and used as strong cords for fishing line, nets, rope cores, twine, and other purposes where bark cord

864-399: A lumen (plural lumina). These reticulations may also be referred to as brochi. The pollen wall protects the sperm while the pollen grain is moving from the anther to the stigma; it protects the vital genetic material from drying out and solar radiation. The pollen grain surface is covered with waxes and proteins, which are held in place by structures called sculpture elements on the surface of

972-510: A major disturbance occurs. It is considered to have low to moderate fire resistance, as its thin bark, shallow roots, low dense branching habit and flammable foliage confer little protection. Smaller trees are commonly killed by fire, but larger specimens often survive due to their size if they are not completely girdled . The intervals between fires within western redcedar stands tend to be very long, from 50 up to 350 years or more. Western redcedar shows susceptibility of varying degrees to

1080-508: A multitude of viruses and eukaryotic parasites are present in the pollen. It is currently unclear if the parasites are introduced by the bee that collected the pollen or if it is from the flower. Though this is not likely to pose a risk to humans, it is a major issue for the bumblebee rearing industry that relies on thousands of tonnes of honey bee collected pollen per year. Several sterilization methods have been employed, though no method has been 100% effective at sterilisation without reducing

1188-505: A pollen allergy is by preventing contact with the material. Individuals carrying the ailment may at first believe that they have a simple summer cold, but hay fever becomes more evident when the apparent cold does not disappear. The confirmation of hay fever can be obtained after examination by a general physician . Antihistamines are effective at treating mild cases of pollinosis; this type of non-prescribed drugs includes loratadine , cetirizine and chlorpheniramine . They do not prevent

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1296-466: A result of warmer, drier summers due to climate change . The authors of the study conceded that they were unable to incorporate the impacts of warmer winter temperatures into their model because research on the topic was lacking at the time of their study. They hypothesized that warmer winter temperatures could result in increased incidence of cedar leaf blight and cautioned that management decisions should take this uncertainty into account. Thuja plicata

1404-451: A revival of cedar weaving in some communities, and along with it, new forms of cedar bark products. For example, in some recent weddings cedar roses are used to decorate the tables. The soft red-brown timber has a tight, straight grain and few knots. It is valued for its distinct appearance, aroma, and its high natural resistance to decay, being extensively used for outdoor construction in the form of posts, decking, shingles , and siding. It

1512-473: A single flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this process takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower. Pollen is infrequently used as food and food supplement . Because of agricultural practices, it is often contaminated by agricultural pesticides. Pollen itself is not the male gamete. It is a gametophyte , something that could be considered an entire organism, which then produces

1620-492: A single glacial refugium near the south of the current distribution, with subsequent expansion northward and inland since the last glacial maximum. Refugial populations may have undergone repeated population bottlenecks during the glacial maxima of the Pleistocene . Pollen cores indicate that Thuja plicata only became common in southern coastal British Columbia starting at approximately 6,000 YBP . This coincides with

1728-528: A small number feed on pollen as larvae (including some ant larvae). Spiders are normally considered carnivores but pollen is an important source of food for several species, particularly for spiderlings , which catch pollen on their webs . It is not clear how spiderlings manage to eat pollen however, since their mouths are not large enough to consume pollen grains. Some predatory mites also feed on pollen, with some species being able to subsist solely on pollen, such as Euseius tularensis , which feeds on

1836-1008: A substrate on which western redcedar does not exhibit elevated mortality rates. Western redcedar is less cold-tolerant than many conifer species that it shares its range with and is vulnerable to frost damage in late spring and early fall. Its northern range limit in Southeast Alaska and its upper elevational limits on Vancouver Island are controlled by temperature. In Southeast Alaska, it is absent from areas with mean summer temperatures less than 11 °C (52 °F). It does not grow in areas of coastal British Columbia with minimum temperatures of less than −30 °C (−22 °F), although some interior populations experience colder temperatures. It has been introduced to other temperate zones, including further north in Alaska, western Europe , Australia (at least as far north as Sydney ), New Zealand , and higher elevations of Hawaii . The species

1944-441: A suitable alternative to other conifers when regenerating a site affected by these pathogens. Western redcedar foliage can become infected by the ascomycete fungus Didymascella thujina , which causes cedar leaf blight. The fungus causes leaves to turn brown and does not spread between adjacent leaves through hyphae . It is present throughout the native range of western redcedar, but reproduces best when western redcedar foliage

2052-1192: A thousand years, with the oldest verified aged 1,460. The foliage forms flat sprays with scale-like leaves in opposite pairs, with successive pairs at 90 degrees to each other. The foliage sprays are green above and green marked with whitish stomatal bands below; they emit a strong aroma reminiscent of pineapple when crushed. The individual leaves are 1 to 4 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 32 to 5 ⁄ 32  in) long and 1 to 2 mm ( 1 ⁄ 32 to 3 ⁄ 32  in) broad on most foliage sprays but up to 12 mm ( 1 ⁄ 2  in) long on strong-growing lead shoots. The foliage of individual branchlets turns orange-brown before falling off in autumn. Branches growing in full sunlight produce denser foliage with more overlap, while shaded branches grow more horizontally, with less self-overlap. The cones are slender, 10 to 18 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 to 11 ⁄ 16  in) long, and 4 to 5 mm ( 5 ⁄ 32 to 3 ⁄ 16  in) broad, with 8 to 12 (rarely 14) thin, overlapping scales. They are green to yellow-green, ripening brown in fall about six months after pollination, and open at maturity to shed

2160-540: A transition from the warmer, drier climate of the early Holocene to a cooler, wetter climate. The species arrived later in the Canadian Rockies , as recently as 4,000–5,000 YBP. Pollen Assemblages at Seeley Lake , on the eastern slope of the Coast Mountains east of Haida Gwaii , indicate that western redcedar became common there at approximately 2,200 YBP. The species name plicata derives from

2268-561: A wet, maritime climate, and only occurs where precipitation exceeds 71 centimetres (28 in) annually. It grows from the Cascade Range and Coast Mountains westward to the Pacific Ocean , from central South East Alaska (near the village of Kake) to northern California (growing closer to the coast at the northern and southern extremes). A disjunct population occurs inland from central-southeast British Columbia through

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2376-797: A widespread anemophilous plant. Arizona was once regarded as a haven for people with pollen allergies, although several ragweed species grow in the desert. However, as suburbs grew and people began establishing irrigated lawns and gardens , more irritating species of ragweed gained a foothold and Arizona lost its claim of freedom from hay fever. Anemophilous spring blooming plants such as oak , birch , hickory , pecan , and early summer grasses may also induce pollen allergies. Most cultivated plants with showy flowers are entomophilous and do not cause pollen allergies. Symptoms of pollen allergy include sneezing , itchy, or runny nose, nasal congestion , red, itchy, and watery eyes. Substances, including pollen, that cause allergies can trigger asthma. A study found

2484-482: Is a host to several destructive insect species such as the western cedar borer , cedar bark beetle , redcedar cone midge , and conifer seedling weevils . Redcedar cone midge ( Mayetiola thujae ) larvae hatch from eggs laid between the scales of immature cones, then feed on the cone scales and seeds. The application of insecticides has been used as a control measure. "Uncommonly hot, dry weather" in coastal Washington State, beginning in 2015, has been attributed as

2592-518: Is a large evergreen coniferous tree in the family Cupressaceae , native to the Pacific Northwest of North America. Its common name is western redcedar in the U.S. or western red cedar in the UK, and it is also called pacific red cedar , giant arborvitae , western arborvitae , just cedar , giant cedar , or shinglewood . It is not a true cedar of the genus Cedrus . T. plicata

2700-461: Is also associated with asthma exacerbations in some people, a phenomenon termed thunderstorm asthma . In the US, people often mistakenly blame the conspicuous goldenrod flower for allergies. Since this plant is entomophilous (its pollen is dispersed by animals), its heavy, sticky pollen does not become independently airborne. Most late summer and fall pollen allergies are probably caused by ragweed ,

2808-399: Is also associated with a long tradition of curing and cooking fish over the open fire. Roots and bark are used for baskets, bowls, ropes, clothing, blankets, and rings. A huge number of archaeological finds point to the continuous use of redcedar wood in native societies. Woodworking tools dating between 8,000 and 5,000 years ago, such as carved antlers, were discovered in shell middens at

2916-527: Is also less susceptible to H. annosum and A. ostoyae than other conifer species. Studies have found that western redcedar produces a phytochemical called thujaplicin which has been credited with granting the species its natural resistance to fungal attacks. Additional research has shown that western redcedar responds to A. ostoye infection by producing necrophylactic periderms and resin ducts near infection sites. Because of these natural defenses, it has been suggested that western redcedar may serve as

3024-630: Is also present in a wide variety of plants and plant-derived food products. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not found any harmful effects of bee pollen consumption, except for the usual allergies. However, FDA does not allow bee pollen marketers in the United States to make health claims about their produce, as no scientific basis for these has ever been proven. Furthermore, there are possible dangers not only from allergic reactions but also from contaminants such as pesticides and from fungi and bacteria growth related to poor storage procedures. A manufacturers's claim that pollen collecting helps

3132-423: Is also widely used throughout Europe and America for making beehive components. Pollen Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the female cone of gymnosperms . If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates , producing

3240-468: Is an extensive fossil record of pollen grains, often disassociated from their parent plant. The discipline of palynology is devoted to the study of pollen, which can be used both for biostratigraphy and to gain information about the abundance and variety of plants alive — which can itself yield important information about paleoclimates. Also, pollen analysis has been widely used for reconstructing past changes in vegetation and their associated drivers. Pollen

3348-440: Is an important aspect of the pollination process. Bee pollen for human consumption is marketed as a food ingredient and as a dietary supplement . The largest constituent is carbohydrates , with protein content ranging from 7 to 35 percent depending on the plant species collected by bees. Honey produced by bees from natural sources contains pollen derived p-coumaric acid , an antioxidant and natural bactericide that

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3456-508: Is available. Western redcedar foliage is more palatable for browsing herbivores than the commonly associated Sitka spruce and western hemlock. Browsing by introduced Sitka black-tailed deer is a major source of mortality for seedlings and saplings in old-growth forests on Haida Gwaii, where the deer lack natural predators. The presence of deer there has been linked to a decline in western redcedar recruitment . The seeds may be eaten by birds and rodents such as deer mice , but are apparently not

3564-463: Is believed to be the main irritant and contact allergen responsible for provoking allergic reactions and asthma exacerbation. This leads to occupational asthma in woodworkers that are exposed to western redcedar wood dust . Thujaplicins serve as natural fungicides which prevent the wood from rotting . This effect lasts around a century even after the tree is felled. However, thujaplicins are only found in older trees. Saplings do not produce

3672-423: Is commonly used for the framing and longwood in lightweight sail boats and kayaks. In larger boats it is often used in sandwich construction between two layers of epoxy resin and/or fiberglass or similar products. Due to its light weight – 390 to 400 kg/m (24 to 25 lb/cu ft) dried – it is about 30% lighter than common boat building woods, such as mahogany. For its weight it

3780-706: Is described as monosulcate , has two sulci, as bisulcate , or more, as polysulcate . Colpate pollen has furrows other than across the middle of the outer faces, and similarly may be described as polycolpate if more than two. Syncolpate pollen grains have two or more colpi that are fused at the ends. Eudicots have pollen with three colpi ( tricolpate ) or with shapes that are evolutionarily derived from tricolpate pollen. The evolutionary trend in plants has been from monosulcate to polycolpate or polyporate pollen. Additionally, gymnosperm pollen grains often have air bladders, or vesicles, called sacci. The sacci are not actually balloons, but are sponge-like, and increase

3888-440: Is detrimental to the traditional spirit of the art. Non-traditionalists simply buy redcedar logs or lumber at mills or lumber yards, a practice that is commonly followed by most working in smaller sizes such as for masks and staves. Because felling required such an extraordinary amount of work, if only planks for housing were needed, these would be split from the living tree. The bark was stripped and saved, and two cuts were made at

3996-485: Is first found in the fossil record in the late Devonian period, but at that time it is indistinguishable from spores. It increases in abundance until the present day. Nasal allergy to pollen is called pollinosis , and allergy specifically to grass pollen is called hay fever . Generally, pollens that cause allergies are those of anemophilous plants (pollen is dispersed by air currents.) Such plants produce large quantities of lightweight pollen (because wind dispersal

4104-602: Is frequently portrayed as a sequential process that begins with placement on the vector, moves through travel, and ends with deposition. This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as anemophilous (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering seed plants (e.g., pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers. Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that

4212-541: Is present on all landforms and soil classes on Vancouver Island, but is restricted to wet, low-lying areas and streamsides in the drier eastern portions of its range. Unlike its associates western hemlock and Douglas-fir, western redcedar can grow well in environments with stagnant groundwater present less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) below the soil surface in the winter. It does not grow as well in areas with flowing groundwater, unlike another common associate, Sitka spruce ( Picea sitchensis ). Western redcedars growing in

4320-468: Is produced in the microsporangia in the male cone of a conifer or other gymnosperm or in the anthers of an angiosperm flower . In angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, fertile sporogenous cells, the archespore , form within the anther. The sporogenous cells are surrounded by layers of sterile cells that grow into

4428-450: Is quite strong but can be brittle. It glues well with epoxy resin or resorcinol adhesive. Its light weight, strength, and dark, warm sound make it a popular choice for guitar soundboards , particularly among European guitar builders such as Lowden and Furch. Western redcedar wood is export-restricted in the United States . The tree is highly allergenic and woodworkers or loggers who work with it may have adverse reactions, including

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4536-563: Is random and the likelihood of one pollen grain landing on another flower is small), which can be carried for great distances and are easily inhaled, bringing it into contact with the sensitive nasal passages. Pollen allergies are common in polar and temperate climate zones, where production of pollen is seasonal. In the tropics pollen production varies less by the season, and allergic reactions less. In northern Europe, common pollens for allergies are those of birch and alder , and in late summer wormwood and different forms of hay . Grass pollen

4644-403: Is relatively heavy, sticky and protein -rich, for dispersal by insect pollinators attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores . In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber, located beneath the micropyle , underneath the integuments of the ovule. A pollen tube is produced, which grows into

4752-409: Is responsible, according to a new study. The researchers attributed roughly half of the lengthening pollen seasons and 8% of the trend in pollen concentrations to climate changes driven by human activity. In Denmark , decades of rising temperatures cause pollen to appear earlier and in greater amounts, exacerbated by the introduction of new species such as ragweed. The most efficient way to handle

4860-602: Is still lacking. Thuja plicata is one of two Thuja species native to North America, the other being T. occidentalis . Nuclear genome analysis indicates that it is likely more closely related to T. koraiensis , which is native to the Korean Peninsula. The two species are hypothesized to have diverged in the Miocene . A 2008 study found that western redcedar populations in coastal areas of Washington and Oregon are more genetically variable than populations in

4968-437: Is the largest species in the genus Thuja , growing up to 70 metres (230 ft) tall and 7 m (23 ft) in diameter. It mostly grows in areas that experience a mild climate with plentiful rainfall, although it is sometimes present in drier areas on sites where water is available year-round, such as wet valley bottoms and mountain streamsides. The species is shade-tolerant and able to establish in forest understories and

5076-463: Is then split lengthwise into the required width and woven or twisted into shape. Bark harvesting was mostly done by women, despite the danger of climbing ten meters in the air, because they were the primary makers of bark goods. Today bark rope making is a lost art in many communities, although it is still practiced for decoration or art in a few places. Other uses of bark are still common for artistic or practical purposes. In recent years there has been

5184-586: Is thought to be a severe underestimate as the feeding habits are only known for 1,000 species). Similarly, Ladybird beetles mainly eat insects, but many species also eat pollen, as either part or all of their diet. Hemiptera are mostly herbivores or omnivores but pollen feeding is known (and has only been well studied in the Anthocoridae ). Many adult flies, especially Syrphidae , feed on pollen, and three UK syrphid species feed strictly on pollen (syrphids, like all flies , cannot eat pollen directly due to

5292-527: Is thus considered a climax species . It is a very long-lived tree, with some specimens reaching ages of well over 1,000 years. Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest use the wood of this species for many purposes, such as building canoes, totem poles , and tools. The bark is harvested by indigenous peoples and processed into a fiber, which they use to make items such as rope, baskets, clothing, and rain hats. Because of its wide range of uses,

5400-571: Is used as a nest tree by cavity-nesting bird species such as yellow-bellied sapsuckers , hairy woodpeckers , tree swallows , chestnut-backed chickadees , and Vaux's swifts . Pileated woodpeckers on the Olympic Peninsula prefer very large western redcedars with heart rot when selecting roosting sites, but do not use them for nesting, instead relying on Pacific silver fir ( Abies amabilis ) for that purpose. Old-growth valley bottom forests of western redcedar and western hemlock are

5508-479: Is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus, species, or even cultivar or individual. The spines may be less than a micron in length (spinulus, plural spinuli) referred to as spinulose (scabrate), or longer than a micron (echina, echinae) referred to as echinate . Various terms also describe the sculpturing such as reticulate , a net like appearance consisting of elements (murus, muri) separated from each other by

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5616-483: Is wet for long periods of time, with minimal wind exposure. Significant variation in resistance to cedar leaf blight exists between populations of Thuja plicata ; trees sourced from coastal populations exhibit higher resistance than trees from interior populations. Additional variation also occurs within populations. A study published in 2013 projected a decrease in the incidence of cedar leaf blight among western redcedars in coastal British Columbia by late 21st century as

5724-547: The Coast Salish peoples describes the origins of the western redcedar. In this legend, there was a generous man who gave the people whatever they needed. When the Great Spirit saw this, he declared that when the generous man died, a great Red Cedar tree will grow where he is buried, and that the cedar will be useful to all the people, providing its roots for baskets, bark for clothing, and wood for shelter. The wood

5832-860: The Idaho Panhandle . The easternmost extent of its distribution occurs in Glacier National Park in Montana, where it is a major component of forests surrounding Lake McDonald . It is present east of the continental divide in the park, growing in a handful of small, isolated stands. It is usually found from sea level to elevations of 1,100 m (3,600 ft), but grows at altitudes of up to 2,290 m (7,510 ft) at Crater Lake in Oregon and 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in Idaho. Western redcedar grows on many types of soils. It

5940-1052: The North Shore Mountains of British Columbia have higher growth rates than associated western hemlock and Pacific silver fir when growing underneath a closed canopy. The study also found that western redcedars do not increase their growth rates in response to canopy gap formation that occurs after the death of a mature overstory tree as much as the two other species. This result indicates that western redcedar may be less reliant on canopy gaps for recruitment than western hemlock and Pacific silver fir. Western redcedar can also reproduce vegetatively via layering , as well as branch development from fallen branches or entire trees. On northeastern Vancouver Island, western redcedar grows along with western hemlock in relatively open-canopied forests with an understory dominated by salal ( Gaultheria shallon ). Another type of forest characterized by dense stands of western hemlock and Pacific silver fir with sparse understory vegetation also occurs in

6048-597: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit : Western redcedar is considered the Tree of Life by many of the First Nations of the Pacific Northwest, as the tree gave them everything that they needed for life – food, water (in the form of water tight woven cedar bark baskets), clothing, medicine, transportation (they made their canoes from the cedar tree), shelter (boards of wood from

6156-526: The Squamish language . Further south, in the Lushootseed language , the root for red cedar is x̌payʔ and x̌payʔac refers to a red cedar tree. Thuja plicata is among the most widespread trees in the Pacific Northwest . It is associated with Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) and western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) in most places where it grows. It grows best on moist sites in areas with

6264-421: The buoyancy of the pollen grain and help keep it aloft in the wind, as most gymnosperms are anemophilous . Pollen can be monosaccate , (containing one saccus) or bisaccate (containing two sacci). Modern pine , spruce , and yellowwood trees all produce saccate pollen. The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure ( pistil in angiosperms) is called pollination . Pollen transfer

6372-408: The nucellus to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of Pinophyta and Gnetophyta are without flagella , and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta have many flagella. When placed on the stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a pollen tube , which grows down the tissue of the style to

6480-514: The ovary , and makes its way along the placenta , guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an ovule . The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus, which divides (if it has not already) to form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen tube. Double-strand breaks in DNA that arise during pollen tube growth appear to be efficiently repaired in

6588-520: The American horticultural trade, it is also known as the giant arborvitae , by comparison with arborvitae for its close relative Thuja occidentalis . Other names include giant red cedar, Pacific red cedar, shinglewood, British Columbia cedar (being the province's official tree ), canoe cedar, and red cedar. Arborvitae comes from the Latin for 'tree of life'; coincidentally, Native Americans of

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6696-487: The Glenrose site, near Vancouver , British Columbia. In Yuquot , on the west coast of Vancouver Island, tools dating 4,000 to 3,000 years old have been found. The Musqueam site, also near Vancouver, yielded bark baskets woven in five different styles, along with ropes and ships dated to 3,000 years ago. At Pitt River , adzes and baskets were dated around 2,900 years ago. Wooden artefacts 1000 years old were unearthed on

6804-584: The Latin word plicāre and means 'folded in plaits' or 'braided,' a reference to the pattern of its small leaves. Most authorities, both in Canada and the United States transliterate the English name in two words as 'western redcedar', or occasionally hyphenated as 'western red-cedar', to indicate that it is not a true cedar ( Cedrus ), but it also appears as 'western red cedar' in some popular works. In

6912-555: The Rocky Mountains and along the eastern slope of the Washington Cascades are subject to higher mortality rates when growing on glacial till and sedimentary rocks than on other substrates. Western white pine ( Pinus monticola ) and Douglas-fir growing in these areas exhibit the opposite pattern, exhibiting low mortality rates on these substrates but high mortality rates on nutrient-poor metasedimentary rocks ,

7020-563: The Rocky Mountains and coastal British Columbia, indicating that the species most likely spread throughout its current range from a single refugium in the southern portion of its range after the Last Glacial Maximum . Some studies have suggested the existence of an inland refugium during the Last Glacial Maximum, likely in central Idaho. However, more recent genomic approaches corroborate the existence of only

7128-516: The West Coast also address the species as "long life maker". One endonymous name for the tree is the Halkomelem word xepá:y , from the roots xíp , meaning 'scratch' or 'line', and á:y , 'bark'; the former root may be in reference to both the lined or "folded/braided" appearance of the bark and the tree's ubiquity in carving and other forms of woodwork. It is called x̱ápay̓ay in

7236-469: The area. The two forest types occur in areas with very similar environmental conditions and are separated by sharp boundaries, often less than 10 metres (33 ft) wide. Western redcedar recruitment is nearly absent in the western hemlock-Pacific silver fir forest type, and there is no evidence of a transitional stage between the two types. It has been hypothesized that, once established, these forest types are self-sustaining and are unlikely to change unless

7344-416: The base and has shallow roots. The bark is thin, gray-brown, and fissured into vertical bands. Trees growing in the open may have a crown that reaches the ground, whereas trees densely spaced together will exhibit a crown only at the top, where light can reach the leaves. As the tree ages, the top is damaged by wind and replaced by inferior branches. The species is long-lived; some trees can live well over

7452-468: The bee colonies is also controversial. Pine pollen ( 송화가루 ; Songhwa Garu ) is traditionally consumed in Korea as an ingredient in sweets and beverages. The growing industries in pollen harvesting for human and bee consumption rely on harvesting pollen baskets from honey bees as they return to their hives using a pollen trap . When this pollen has been tested for parasites, it has been found that

7560-474: The body became holy when it traveled over a trail sprinkled with pollen. For agricultural research purposes, assessing the viability of pollen grains can be necessary and illuminating. A very common, efficient method to do so is known as Alexander's stain. This differential stain consists of ethanol , malachite green , distilled water , glycerol , phenol , chloral hydrate , acid fuchsin , orange G , and glacial acetic acid . (A less-toxic variation omits

7668-547: The cedar tree were used to build their long houses), and spirituality (in that the boughs were used in many ceremonies). Some northwest coast tribes refer to themselves as "people of the Red Cedar" because of their extensive dependence on the tree for basic materials. The wood has been used for constructing housing and totem poles , and crafted into many objects, including masks, utensils, boxes, boards, instruments, canoes, vessels, houses, and ceremonial objects. Western redcedar

7776-628: The chemical, causing them to often develop rot at an early stage, causing some trees to grow with a somewhat hollow trunk, as the tree moves to heal itself as it grows. Due to their fungicidal and anti- browning properties, thujaplicins are used in agriculture for fungal diseases and to prevent post-harvest decay . Thujaplicins, like other tropolones, are potent chelating agents and bind divalent metal ions. Basic and animal studies have shown that thujaplicins may have other biological properties, including antibacterial, antiviral, and antioxidant activities, however reliable evidence on their effectiveness

7884-843: The development of occupational asthma , exacerbation of existing asthma , reduction of lung function , and eye irritation. Approximately 5% of workers are allergic to western redcedar. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit for western redcedar dust of 2.5 mg/m as a time-weighted average over eight hours. The essential oil of western redcedar leaves contains natural compounds, such as α- thujone , β- thujone , fenchone , sabinene , terpinen-4-ol and beyerene, which have also been isolated from different other essential oils. Some of these substances are aroma compounds and are used in perfumery . Thujones are GABA A receptor competitive antagonists , but do not have any pharmacological use due to their high toxicity and convulsive activity. It

7992-557: The discharge of histamine , but it has been proven that they do prevent a part of the chain reaction activated by this biogenic amine , which considerably lowers hay fever symptoms. Decongestants can be administered in different ways such as tablets and nasal sprays . Allergy immunotherapy (AIT) treatment involves administering doses of allergens to accustom the body to pollen, thereby inducing specific long-term tolerance. Allergy immunotherapy can be administered orally (as sublingual tablets or sublingual drops), or by injections under

8100-540: The east coast of Vancouver Island. Western redcedar was used extensively wherever it was found along the northwest coast (British Columbia, Washington state , parts of Alaska). Evidence of this use is found in culturally modified trees (CMTs) that are found throughout the coast. When First Nations people removed the bark from cedars, it left a scar – which is considered a CMT. Other types of harvest (for planks, tinder, and other uses) leave different types of evidence of cultural modification. A legend amongst

8208-504: The ends of the planking. Then wedges would be pounded in along the sides and the planks slowly split off the side of the tree. Trees which have been so harvested are still visible in some places in the rainforest, with obvious chunks taken off of their sides. Such trees usually continue to grow perfectly well, since redcedar wood is resistant to decay. Planks are straightened by a variety of methods, including weighing them down with stones, lashing them together with rope, or forcing them between

8316-473: The following soil pathogens: Armillaria ostoyae , Fomitopsis pinicola , Heterobasidion annosum , Phaeolus schweinitzii , Phellinus weirii , Rhizinia undulata , and Postia sericeomollis . P. sericeomollis is responsible for brown cubical butt and pocket rot of cedar. It is the second-most common cause of decay in Western redcedar following P. weirii . Rather than forming a single column of decay in

8424-665: The formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed before cytokinesis , whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be

8532-427: The generative cell that carries the male genomic information to be passed on to the next plant generation. However, the vegetative cell that is responsible for tube elongation appears to lack this DNA repair capability. The sporopollenin outer sheath of pollen grains affords them some resistance to the rigours of the fossilisation process that destroy weaker objects; it is also produced in huge quantities. There

8640-475: The grain. The outer pollen wall, which prevents the pollen grain from shrinking and crushing the genetic material during desiccation, is composed of two layers. These two layers are the tectum and the foot layer, which is just above the intine. The tectum and foot layer are separated by a region called the columella, which is composed of strengthening rods. The outer wall is constructed with a resistant biopolymer called sporopollenin. Pollen apertures are regions of

8748-401: The heartwood, P. sericeomollis tends to cause rings or pockets of decay in the lower bole. While Western redcedar is a host to P. weirii, the fungus which causes the disease laminated root rot, it is rated as resistant while other conifers are rated as highly susceptible or susceptible. P. weirii in Western redcedar expresses as a butt rot. In addition to P. weirii, western redcedar

8856-544: The identification of classes of pollen. Pollen may be referred to as inaperturate (apertures absent) or aperturate (apertures present). The aperture may have a lid ( operculum ), hence is described as operculate . However the term inaperturate covers a wide range of morphological types, such as functionally inaperturate (cryptoaperturate) and omniaperturate. Inaperaturate pollen grains often have thin walls, which facilitates pollen tube germination at any position. Terms such as uniaperturate and triaperturate refer to

8964-504: The introduction of steel tools was a complex and time-consuming art. Typically the bark was removed around the base of the tree above the buttresses. Then some amount of cutting and splitting with stone adzes and mauls would be done, creating a wide triangular cut. The area above and below the cut would be covered with a mixture of wet moss and clay as a firebreak. Then the cut would be packed with tinder and small kindling and slowly burned. The process of cutting and burning would alternate until

9072-427: The male gamete. Each pollen grain contains vegetative (non-reproductive) cells (only a single cell in most flowering plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative (reproductive) cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the pollen tube , and the generative cell divides to form the two sperm nuclei. Pollen grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings characteristic of

9180-467: The microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells. Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen grain has a double wall. The vegetative and generative cells are surrounded by a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose called the endospore or intine , and a tough resistant outer cuticularized wall composed largely of sporopollenin called the exospore or exine . The exine often bears spines or warts, or

9288-744: The more advanced woodworking found in northern tribes such as the Tlingit . Harvesting western redcedar required some ceremony and included propitiation of the tree's spirits as well as those of the surrounding trees. In particular, many people specifically requested the tree and its brethren not to fall or drop heavy branches on the harvester, a situation which is mentioned in a number of different stories of people who were not sufficiently careful. Some professional loggers of Native American descent have mentioned that they offer quiet or silent propitiations to trees which they fell, following in this tradition. Felling of large trees such as western redcedar before

9396-621: The most shade-tolerant species in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest it is considered to be a climax species along with western hemlock. It will readily establish and grow in the shade of other, less shade-tolerant species such as red alder ( Alnus rubra ), black cottonwood ( Populus trichocarpa ), or Douglas-fir, and prevent seedlings of those species from establishing themselves in its shade. However, western hemlock and Pacific silver fir are more tolerant of shade. A 2010 study found that Thuja plicata growing in old-growth forests 300 to 700 metres (980 to 2,300 ft) above sea level in

9504-416: The number of apertures present (one and three respectively). Spiraperturate refers to one or more apertures being spirally shaped. The orientation of furrows (relative to the original tetrad of microspores) classifies the pollen as sulcate or colpate . Sulcate pollen has a furrow across the middle of what was the outer face when the pollen grain was in its tetrad. If the pollen has only a single sulcus, it

9612-495: The nutritional value of the pollen In forensic biology , pollen can tell a lot about where a person or object has been, because regions of the world, or even more particular locations such a certain set of bushes, will have a distinctive collection of pollen species. Pollen evidence can also reveal the season in which a particular object picked up the pollen. Pollen has been used to trace activity at mass graves in Bosnia , catch

9720-474: The pollen of dozens of plant species. Members of some beetle families such as Mordellidae and Melyridae feed almost exclusively on pollen as adults, while various lineages within larger families such as Curculionidae , Chrysomelidae , Cerambycidae , and Scarabaeidae are pollen specialists even though most members of their families are not (e.g., only 36 of 40,000 species of ground beetles , which are typically predatory, have been shown to eat pollen—but this

9828-455: The pollen wall that may involve exine thinning or a significant reduction in exine thickness. They allow shrinking and swelling of the grain caused by changes in moisture content. The process of shrinking the grain is called harmomegathy. Elongated apertures or furrows in the pollen grain are called colpi (singular: colpus) or sulci (singular: sulcus ). Apertures that are more circular are called pores. Colpi, sulci and pores are major features in

9936-471: The preferred food source for most species, possibly due to their small size or unpleasant odor. A 1937 study conducted in western Cowlitz County, Washington demonstrated a strong preference among deer mice for Douglas-fir and western hemlock seeds over western redcedar seeds. However, pine siskins apparently favor western redcedar seeds over those of Douglas-fir and western hemlock. Western redcedar appears in all stages of forest succession, but as one of

10044-481: The preferred habitat for white-tailed deer in the Priest River drainage of northern Idaho. The dense canopies of these forests prevent deep snow accumulation, which makes movement difficult for the deer. The foliage, especially that of saplings, is an important food source year-round for browsing ungulates such as Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer , especially during the winter months when little else

10152-606: The seeds. The seeds are 4 to 5 mm ( 5 ⁄ 32 to 3 ⁄ 16  in) long and 1 mm ( 1 ⁄ 32  in) broad, with a narrow papery wing down each side. The pollen cones are 3 to 4 mm ( 1 ⁄ 8 to 5 ⁄ 32  in) long, red or purple at first, and shed yellow pollen in spring. The heartwood of western redcedar contains numerous chemical substances, such as plicatic acid , thujaplicatin methyl ether , hinokitiol and other thujaplicins , β- thujaplicinol , thujic acid , methyl thujate , 1,4-cineole , and γ-eudesmol . Plicatic acid

10260-399: The shore. If the tree was to become canoes, then it would often be divided into sections and worked into rough canoe shapes before transport. If it were to be used for a totem pole or building materials, it would be towed in the round to the village. Many trees are still felled in this traditional manner for use as totem poles and canoes, particularly by artists who feel that using modern tools

10368-429: The skin (subcutaneous). Discovered by Leonard Noon and John Freeman in 1911, allergy immunotherapy represents the only causative treatment for respiratory allergies. Most major classes of predatory and parasitic arthropods contain species that eat pollen, despite the common perception that bees are the primary pollen-consuming arthropod group. Many Hymenoptera other than bees consume pollen as adults, though only

10476-413: The species (see electron micrograph , right). Pollen grains of pines , firs , and spruces are winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the forget-me-not ( Myosotis spp.), is 2.5–5  μm (0.005 mm) in diameter. Corn pollen grains are large, about 90–100 μm. Most grass pollen is around 20–25 μm. Some pollen grains are based on geodesic polyhedra like a soccer ball . Pollen

10584-538: The species is of great cultural importance to these people. Western redcedar wood is aromatic and rot-resistant and is used for applications such as the construction of shingles and siding. It has been introduced to cool temperate areas in other parts of the world, such as Northern Europe and New Zealand . Thuja plicata is a large to very large tree, ranging up to 45 to 70 metres (150 to 230 feet) tall and 2.4 to 7 m (8 to 23 ft) in trunk diameter, larger than any other species in its genus. The trunk swells at

10692-408: The structure of their mouthparts, but can consume pollen contents that are dissolved in a fluid). Some species of fungus, including Fomes fomentarius , are able to break down grains of pollen as a secondary nutrition source that is particularly high in nitrogen. Pollen may be valuable diet supplement for detritivores , providing them with nutrients needed for growth, development and maturation. It

10800-429: The tree are used and the harvester climbs by alternating between them for support. Since western redcedars lose their lower branches as all tall trees do in the rainforest, the harvester may climb 10 m (33 ft) or more into the tree by this method. The harvested bark is folded and carried in backpacks. It can be stored for quite some time as mold does not grow on it and is moistened before unfolding and working. It

10908-412: The tree was mostly penetrated through, and then careful tending of the fire would fell the tree in the best direction for handling. This process could take many days. A constant rotation of workers was involved to keep the fires burning through night and day, often in a remote and forbidding location. Once the tree was felled, the work had only just begun, as it then had to be stripped and dragged down to

11016-415: The tree. To prevent this, the harvester usually only harvests from trees that have not been stripped before. After harvesting, the tree is not used for bark again, although it may later be felled for wood. Stripping bark is usually started with a series of cuts at the base of the tree above any buttresses, after which the bark is peeled upwards. To remove bark high up, a pair of platforms strung on rope around

11124-430: The underlying cause of a large dieback of this species that could not otherwise be attributed to any "killer pest or known pathogen." Like its relative Thuja occidentalis and many other conifer species, T. plicata is grown as an ornamental tree , and for screens and hedges , throughout the world in gardens and parks. A wide variety of forms, sizes, and colors is available. The following cultivars have gained

11232-441: The wall of the pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the sporogenous cells. The archespore cells divide by mitosis and differentiate to form pollen mother cells (microsporocyte, meiocyte ). In a process called microsporogenesis , four haploid microspores are produced from each diploid pollen mother cell, after meiotic division . After

11340-818: Was described as invasive in Great Britain by a 2004 survey, although it is not listed as such by the United Kingdom Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as of September 2022. Its presence has also been recorded in Poland, where it has been identified as a potentially problematic exotic species in the Białowieża Forest . Western redcedar provides cover for bears, raccoons, skunks, and other animals which nest inside trunk cavities. It

11448-528: Was not strong enough or might fray. Both the branches and bark rope have been replaced by modern fiber and nylon cordage among the aboriginal northwest coast peoples, though the bark is still in use for the other purposes mentioned above. At the right time of year, the bark is easily removed from live trees in long strips. It is harvested for use in making mats, rope and cordage, basketry , rain hats, clothing , and other soft goods. The harvesting of bark must be done with care, as stripping too much bark will kill

11556-508: Was suggested that obtaining nutrients from pollen, deposited on the forest floor during periods of pollen rains, allows fungi to decompose nutritionally scarce litter. Some species of Heliconius butterflies consume pollen as adults, which appears to be a valuable nutrient source, and these species are more distasteful to predators than the non-pollen consuming species. Although bats , butterflies and hummingbirds are not pollen eaters per se , their consumption of nectar in flowers

11664-549: Was worked primarily with the adze , which was preferred over all other tools, even ones introduced by Europeans. Alexander Walker, an ensign on the fur trade ship Captain Cook , reported that the indigenous peoples used an elbow adze, which they valued over tools brought by the Europeans, such as the saw or the axe , going so far as to modify traded tools back into an adze. Tools were generally made from stone, bone, obsidian , or

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