124-684: Hollandsch-Inlandsche School (HIS) (Dutch school for natives) was a school during the Dutch colonial era in Indonesia . The school, was first established in 1914, following with the enactment of the Dutch Ethical Policy . The school was at the Low Education level ( Lager Onderwijs ) or at the level of basic education today. The school was intended for the population of indigenous Indonesian descent. Generally reserved for children from
248-774: A New Guinea Council . Following the Vlakke Hoek incident , Indonesia launched a campaign of infiltrations designed to place pressure on the Dutch. Facing diplomatic pressure from the United States, fading domestic support and continual Indonesian threats to invade the territory, the Netherlands decided to relinquish control of the disputed territory in August 1962, agreeing to the Bunker Proposal on condition that
372-523: A referendum to determine the final fate of the territory be conducted at a later date. The territory was administered by the UN temporarily before being transferred to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. A plebiscite, the Act of Free Choice , was eventually held in 1969, but the fairness of the election is disputed. Before 1898, Papuans lived in isolated, competitive, and autonomous clan and tribal environments. However in 1898,
496-687: A Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ). Sukarno 's government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963. In 2013
620-742: A cease-fire on 14 October (a month after its arrival in Batavia) and a draft agreement on 15 November with the negotiators for the Republik Sutan Sjahrir , Prime Minister, Amir Sjarifuddin , Defense Minister, and Johannes Leimena , Junior Minister of Health, chairman of the Indonesian Christian Party. This so-called Linggadjati Agreement was first "elucidated" by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan Jonkman on 10 December, and in this form accepted by
744-406: A homeland to the sidelined Eurasians, a kind of tropical Holland, where Eurasians could create an existence. These associations succeeded in sending settlers to New Guinea and lobbied successfully for the establishment of a government agency to subsidise these initiatives (in 1938). However, most settlements ended in failure because of the harsh climate and natural conditions, and because of the fact
868-414: A problem until the mid-19th century. Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1806, with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination, Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General of
992-538: A small portion of the indigenous population was able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad
1116-736: A staged transition from Dutch to Indonesian control via UN administration, on the condition that a plebiscite would be held in future in the territory. The agreement was signed on 15 August 1962 at the UN Headquarters in New York and the territory was placed under the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority in October 1962. It was subsequently transferred to Indonesia in May 1963. The territory formally became part of Indonesia in 1969 after
1240-691: A treaty outlining "spheres of influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere. The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil. On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch East Indies Campaign , Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific War . The rubber plantations and oil fields of
1364-754: The Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated. All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as POWs . Twenty-five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment. Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948–1949, Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and
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#17327916740641488-657: The Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers included: Suharto , second president of Indonesia; A. H. Nasution , commander of the Siliwangi Division and Chief of Staff of the Indonesian army; and A. E. Kawilarang , founder of the elite special forces Kopassus . Dutch New Guinea Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea ( Dutch : Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea , Indonesian : Nugini Belanda )
1612-581: The Indonesian National Revolution . The Dutch, aiming to re-establish control of the archipelago, responded by deploying roughly 220,000 troops, who fought the Indonesian nationalists in attrition warfare . The United States threatened to terminate financial aid for the Netherlands under the Marshall Plan if they did not agree to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia, leading to Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty at
1736-571: The Papuan people , the inhabitants of New Guinea. Probably this referred to some Papuan islands (Raja Ampat) near the Maluku Islands as well as coastal areas like Fakfak , through familial relations with local rulers, although Tidore never exercised actual control over the interior and highlands of New Guinea. In 1872, Tidore recognised Dutch sovereignty and granted permission to the Kingdom of
1860-721: The Portuguese in 1512 who established a network of trading posts and fortresses throughout the region, including at the spice islands of the Maluku islands . In 1580 Portugal formed a union with Spain , and therewith entered the war with the Dutch Republic . Following disruption of Dutch access to spices, the first Dutch expedition set sail to reach the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. After many skirmishes and hardships , only one third of
1984-507: The Strait of Malacca . Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti-piracy campaign. The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan, but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both sides. Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against
2108-650: The United States of Indonesia and would remain linked to the Netherlands in the Netherlands-Indonesian Union . The Indonesian side agreed to this plan during the Linggadjati conference in November 1946. Van Mook thought a federal structure would safeguard Indonesia's cultural and ethnic diversity. Van Mook and his supporters referred to the right of self-determination in this respect: the different ethnic communities of Indonesia should have
2232-516: The 17th and 18th century. Punishments for slaves could be extremely harsh— for instance, runaway slaves and their accomplices could be subject to whipping, chain gangs, or death. Other punishments included the cutting of hands, ears, breasts and noses, forms of scaphism , being burned alive and the breaking wheel . In theory, slave masters did not have free rein to punish their own slaves as they wished. Punishments of slaves had to be decided in court, and certain punishments could only be applied when
2356-519: The 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Indonesia became one of the leading nations of the Asian independence movement after World War II. During the revolution and after Indonesian independence, almost all Dutch citizens repatriated to the Netherlands. In 1962, the Dutch turned over their last possession in Southeast Asia, Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ), to Indonesia under
2480-644: The 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s. Another source of profit were the so-called coolies , a name for low-wage indentured laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, the economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company , which was founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak and Indian people were shipped to
2604-526: The 19th century, the Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar. Through this system considerable profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue. The system proved disastrous for
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#17327916740642728-631: The British secured the Dutch settlement of Singapore as well as Dutch possessions in the Malay Peninsula ( Malaya ) and Dutch India . The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia. Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch 's governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as
2852-645: The Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered in Java. Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda and the Indonesian National Awakening , a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from
2976-547: The Dutch East Indies. In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General Jan Willem Janssens , but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year , leading to Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna , independent Dutch control
3100-563: The Dutch Parliament on 20 December 1946. It was formally signed by the parties on 25 March 1947 in Djakarta, with the Indonesian side rejecting the "elucidation". After this high point in the relations between the two countries, the situation rapidly deteriorated. On both sides more extreme parties got the upper hand. The Dutch unilaterally instituted an interim government for the colony on a "federal" basis, with representation for
3224-590: The Dutch came and established their presence. Their claim, which was made in 1848, was based on the Sultanate of Ternate's claim on Papua based on Ternatean tributary relation. The Dutch first divided Papua into two afdeelings: Afdeeling Noord-Nieuw-Guinea (Manokwari), and Afdeeling West-En-Zuid-Nieuw-Guinea (Fakfak), both led by controleurs under the Residentie Ternate. The afdeelings were led by controleurs normally responsible for onderafdeeling instead of
3348-721: The Dutch colonial government shuffled a new territorial division in the residency. The residency was divided into two afdeelings, namely the Afdeeling Noord-Nieuw-Guinea which oversaw 5 onderafdeelings (Manokwari, Sorong, Central Vogelkop, Serui and Hollandia); and the West-En-Zuid-Nieuw Guinea Afdeeling also oversaw 5 onderafdeeling (Fak-Fak, Inanwatan, Mimika, Boven Digul and South Nieuw Guinea) In 1937 Onderafdeeling Boven Digul and Onderafdeeling Zuid-Nieuw-Guinea were placed back under Afdeeling Tual. The Afdeeling West-Niuew-Guinea
3472-478: The Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost de facto control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects. From 1910,
3596-541: The Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia . Politically, the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship, was carried over into the new Indonesian republic. A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only
3720-567: The Dutch way of life. In the colonial society of the Netherlands Indies, they held a higher social status than indigenous Indonesians (" inlanders "). They were mostly employed as office workers. As the educational level of indigenous Indonesians was on the rise, more and more Indonesians got jobs previously held by Eurasians. These had no other means of making a living, because, as Europeans, they were forbidden to buy land on Java . This situation caused mental and economic problems to
3844-688: The Eurasians. In 1923, the first plan to designate New Guinea as a settlement territory for Eurasians was devised. In 1926, a separate Vereniging tot Kolonisatie van Nieuw-Guinea (Association for the Settlement of New Guinea) was founded. In 1930, it was followed by the Stichting Immigratie Kolonisatie Nieuw-Guinea (Foundation Immigration and Settlement New Guinea). These organisations regarded New Guinea as an untouched, almost empty land that could serve as
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3968-499: The European legal class and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a 'Home guard' ( Dutch : Landstorm ) for European conscripts older than 32. Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After
4092-789: The Governor-General decided to merge the residency into Residentie Amboina. It followed the fate of Residentie Ternate which was also merged into Residentie Amboina in 1922. The merging process was done on 1 April 1924. The Afdeelings themselves were kept the same at the time. In 1925, the status of the Residentie Amboina was upgraded to the Gouvernement der Molukken, which was divided into two residencies, namely Residentie Amboina and Residentie Ternate. Six onderafdeelings of New Guinea (Manokwari, Sorong, Schouteneilanden, Jappengroep, Hollandia dan West-Nieuw Guinea) were under
4216-700: The Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their mixed-race children were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia. The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, Hungary , Italy and Japan signed
4340-554: The Indonesian Republic, as successor state to the Netherlands East Indies, claimed Dutch New Guinea as part of its natural territorial bounds. The dispute over New Guinea was an important factor in the quick decline in bilateral relations between the Netherlands and Indonesia after Indonesian independence. The dispute escalated into low-level conflict in 1962 following Dutch moves in 1961 to establish
4464-419: The Indonesian flag in that country, and be ready for mobilisation at any time. In 1962 Indonesia launched a significant campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations against the disputed territory, beginning with a seaborne infiltration launched by Indonesian forces on 15 January 1962. The Indonesian attack was comprehensively defeated by Dutch forces including the Dutch destroyers Evertsen and Kortenaer ,
4588-466: The Indonesian government, who shifted to New Order under President Suharto starting from 1966, conducted a Bunker proposal-based plebiscite termed the Act of Free Choice . The result, which under strong pressure from the military, unanimously wanted to become part of Indonesia. The UN General Assembly later accepted the result via the UN Resolution 2504 . This act has been criticised by some in
4712-604: The Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four-and-a-half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented
4836-430: The Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links among the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations. According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation. Following
4960-731: The Linggadjati Agreement in Parliament in 1946 by stating that the government wished for New Guinea to remain under Dutch sovereignty, arguing it could be a settlement for Eurasians. A motion entered by the Catholic People's Party (KVP) and the Labour Party, which was accepted by parliament, stated that the declaration of Jonkman in parliament should become a part of the Linggadjati agreement. Duly accepted,
5084-849: The Nederlandsche Nieuw Guinea Petroleum Maatschappij (NNGPM) in Babo which began its activities in New Guinea on 23 April 1935. In 1938, Gouvernement Groote Oost was created to encompass all Dutch East Indies residencies east of Java and Kalimantan. In 1940 there was another shuffle, and Afdeeling Noord-Niuew-Guinea oversaw five onderafdeeling, namely Manokwari, Sorong, Serui, Sarmi and Hollandia. West New Guinea included three onderafdeelings, namely Fak-Fak, Inanwatan and Mimika. While Onderafdeeling Boven Digul and Onderafdeeling Zuid-Nieuw-Guinea were placed under Afdeeling of Tual. Until after World War II ,
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5208-404: The Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in 2020. To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the Netherlands. Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era
5332-607: The Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949. The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military . At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army. Key officers in
5456-528: The Netherlands thus unilaterally 'amended' the Linggadjati agreement to the effect that New Guinea would remain Dutch. Labour parliamentary group leader Marinus van der Goes van Naters said afterwards the Labour Party entered the motion with the KVP because it feared the Catholics otherwise might reject the Linggadjati agreements. The Indonesians did not accept this unilateral amendment. In order not to jeopardise
5580-457: The Netherlands to establish administration in its territories whenever the Netherlands Indies authorities would want to do so. This allowed the Netherlands to legitimise a claim to the New Guinea area. The Dutch established the 141st meridian as the eastern frontier of the territory. In 1898, the Netherlands Indies government decided to establish administrative posts in Fakfak and Manokwari , followed by Merauke in 1902. The main reason for this
5704-401: The Residentie Ternate. While only one, the Onderafdeeling of Zuid-Nieuw Guinea was under the Residentie Amboina. The reduction in the status of the three afdeelings in Papua to onderafdeeling, and before that the Residentie Nieuw Guinea into Amboina, was caused by the decline in the regional income since the ban of hunting Cendrawasih in 1922. In 1934, the status of the Gouvernement der Molukken
5828-431: The Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six councils of justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The land councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population
5952-647: The VOC arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, they started to use and expand upon the then-existing indigenous system of slavery. In certain places slaves were used on plantations such as on the Maluku islands, namely the Banda islands where most of the local population had been deported or exterminated by the VOC to be replaced with slaves. Dutch slaves worked in agriculture, manufacturing, and services, but most were used as domestic servants including housemaids and houseboys, cooks, seamstresses, musicians, and concubines. Slaves could be acquired through trade at indigenous slave markets or captured on raids. In certain cases
6076-414: The VOC stirred up ethnic tensions between rivalling populations in the hope they could cheaply buy war captives at slave markets after the conflict. Slaves were transported from islands in Indonesia itself, or from other countries such as India and China. Estimates of the scale of the slave trade in the Dutch East Indies are scant, but it is suggested that around 1 million slaves were active during its peak in
6200-462: The absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law. Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925)
6324-482: The archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions . As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence. The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War (1821–38) and the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance. The Banjarmasin War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in
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#17327916740646448-458: The bankruptcy of the VOC in 1798, but continued under Dutch state rule. Due to growing international criticism slavery was eventually abolished in the Dutch East Indies in 1860. In reality this was mostly limited to the slaves present on Java and Madura, whose masters were financially compensated for the loss of their workforce. However, on many other islands where slave masters were more often indigenous rulers, little changed. The main reason for this
6572-446: The colonial Government Navy . The KNIL was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army , but a separate military arm commanded by the governor-general and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a ' Foreign Legion ' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries). While most officers were Europeans,
6696-429: The colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government. The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although the top positions were held by
6820-558: The colonial justice system. The Coolie Ordinances ("Poenale sanctie") of 1880, which allowed the plantation owners to serve as judge, jury and executioner resulted in widespread atrocities. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included whippings or beatings, after which the open wounds were rubbed with salt. Other punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for
6944-464: The colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials: the residents, the assistant residents, and district officers called controllers . Traditional rulers who survived displacement by
7068-427: The coming months over 500 Indonesian paratroops and special forces were covertly inserted into Dutch New Guinea, only to be decisively defeated by Dutch forces with the assistance of the indigenous population. Facing mounting international diplomatic pressure and the prospect of an Indonesian invasion force, the Dutch conceded to re-entering negotiations and agreed to the Ellsworth Bunker proposal on 28 July 1962, for
7192-469: The coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common. The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was published by J. van den Brand. The document described abuses committed against coolies including
7316-485: The correctional facility. In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea . As of 1927, political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands. The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen —Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra—and three provincies in Java. Provincies and gouvernementen were both divided into residencies, but while
7440-481: The declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh , Bali , Lombok and Borneo . There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces. Piracy remained
7564-411: The declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives volunteered. The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During
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#17327916740647688-409: The defeat of the Sultan. After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848 , an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during
7812-425: The early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië , Indies , the Dutch East Indies , the Netherlands Indies , and colonial Indonesia interchangeably. At the time when Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most important were Srivijaya and Majapahit ). Since centuries BCE
7936-451: The end of that decade. The Dutch endorsed the council's selection of a new national anthem and the Morning Star as the new national flag on 1 December 1961. Following the raising of the Papuan National Flag on 1 December 1961, tensions further escalated. On 19 December 1961 Sukarno issued the Tri Komando Rakjat (People's Triple Command), calling the Indonesian people to defeat the formation of an independent state of West Papua, raise
8060-423: The foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka . However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands. Motivations included the protection of areas already held, the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion, and the aim to establish Dutch claims throughout
8184-400: The governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial army ( KNIL ). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets. Until 1815 the governor-general had
8308-449: The governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague . From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with its treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by
8432-422: The house they worked in as so-called "Indigenous Furniture" ( Inlands Meubel ). Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children would be taken away. By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied
8556-431: The island was unknown, and numerous explorations were made into the interior from the turn of the 20th century on. The indigenous inhabitants of New Guinea were Papuans, living in tribes. They were hunter-gatherers. Pre- World War II economic activity was limited. Only coastal and island dwellers traded to some extent, mostly with the Maluku Islands. A development company was founded in 1938 to change this situation, but it
8680-412: The islands were part of migratory and commercial exchange within Southeast Asia , India , Arabian peninsula and east-Africa . From classical antiquity onwards the archipelago was also a major part of the global spice trade . For centuries Hindu-Buddhist civilizations were dominant; however, increasing trade links instigated the spread of Islam . By the 16th century, a large part of the archipelago
8804-407: The late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines . While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with
8928-473: The local population; at its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops. The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s. According to one estimate,
9052-456: The majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were Javanese and Sundanese . Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh , in northern Sumatra, where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in
9176-505: The mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden, documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede . The independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians. After
9300-539: The modern state of Indonesia , which declared independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence , Indonesia and the Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 , the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia . The Dutch East Indies was formed from
9424-576: The mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period. Due to widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished. The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during
9548-531: The name Irian Jaya , and now comprise the Papua region of the country. During the Indonesian Revolution , the Dutch launched politionele acties to capture territory from the Indonesian Republic. However, the harsh methods of the Dutch had drawn international disapproval. With international opinion shifting towards support of the Indonesian Republic, the Dutch managed in 1949 to negotiate for
9672-499: The nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company , which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800. During the 19th century, the Dutch fought many wars against indigenous rulers and peoples, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths. Dutch rule reached its greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century with the occupation of Western New Guinea . The Dutch East Indies
9796-487: The noble class, prominent figures, or civil servants. The length of the school was seven years. This Indonesia -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies , also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( Dutch : Nederlands(ch)-Indië ; Indonesian : Hindia Belanda ), was a Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising
9920-480: The occupation the Indonesian nationalist movement went through a rapid development. After Japan's surrender, Sukarno issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence , which was to encompass the whole of the Netherlands Indies. The Dutch authorities returned after several months under the leadership of Lieutenant-Governor-General Hubertus van Mook . Van Mook decided to reform Indonesia on a federal basis. This
10044-486: The ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java , parts of Sumatra , much of Maluku , and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar , Manado and Kupang ) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. When
10168-536: The original crew made it back to Holland and other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC). In March 1602 the VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia. A capital
10292-466: The part of Dutch New Guinea from Cape Jamoer Seba to Cape Steenboom and surrounding islands, including the group of Radja Ampat, under a Controller at Fakfak. While Afdeeling Zuid-New-Guinea consisted of the part of Dutch New Guinea from Cape Steenboom to the mouth of the Bensbach river and surrounding islands, under an assistent-resident with a to be determined capital. Later it would be Merauke which
10416-560: The parts of the colony not represented by the Republik. This was unacceptable to Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed a compromise, but this was rejected by the Dutch. Sjahrir resigned and was replaced by Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared a state of emergency in the areas that were in the hands of the Republik and assumed charge of the negotiations. The situation deteriorated further, and the Dutch resorted to military intervention under Operation Product (or first "politionele actie" ). The Commission General
10540-802: The plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century. The precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard to estimate due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25% in certain places, with a possible death toll of many tens of thousands. While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced labour by
10664-645: The political situation in Indonesia devolved into a deadlock the new Dutch government, led by Louis Beel of the Catholic People's Party, formed a Commissie-Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië (Commission General for the Dutch Indies) on 14 September 1946. This Commission-General consisted of Willem Schermerhorn , Dutch Prime Minister from 1945 to 1946; F. De Boer, Liberal politician; Max van Poll, Catholic Party politician; and Hubertus van Mook , Lieutenant-Governor General (ex officio). The Commission achieved
10788-412: The population by means of a 'strategy of awe'. When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of destruction. By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all male conscripts in
10912-557: The provisions of the New York Agreement . At that point, the entirety of the colony ceased to exist. The word Indies comes from Latin : Indus ( Names for India ). The original name Dutch Indies ( Dutch : Nederlandsch-Indië ) was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies , to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies . The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company 's documents of
11036-526: The remainder of the 19th century. This included the Banten Peasant's Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as
11160-756: The remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908 , as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara . Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan) and Palembang in Sumatra , requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule. The Bird's Head Peninsula ( Western New Guinea ),
11284-694: The residencies under the provincies were divided again into regentschappen , residencies under gouvermenten were divided into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen . The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) and its air arm, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL), were established in 1814 and 1915, respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in Surabaya , supplemented by
11408-488: The right to govern themselves. To many Dutchmen, the idea of parting with Indonesia was shocking. Many Dutch thought their country had a mission to develop Indonesia. The Indonesian wish for independence to many Dutch came as a complete surprise. Because Indonesian nationalists, which had no electoral or official legitimacy—save ethno-state nationalism, under Sukarno cooperated with the Japanese, they were branded as traitors and collaborators . Almost every Dutch political party
11532-587: The scheduled transfer of sovereignty, the Indonesian vice-president Mohammad Hatta offered to maintain Dutch sovereignty over New Guinea for one year and reopen the negotiations afterwards. Thus in 1949, when the rest of the Dutch East Indies became fully independent as Indonesia, the Dutch retained sovereignty over western New Guinea, and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Some five thousand teachers were flown there. The Dutch put an emphasis upon political, business, and civic skills. On 8 February 1950, Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg
11656-476: The second politionele actie, or Operation Kraai , in December 1948. This was militarily successful (the Dutch managed to capture Sukarno), but again international political pressure forced the Dutch to back down and be party to the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement (7 May 1949). The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference then started on 22 August 1949, which led to the agreement to transfer sovereignty to
11780-417: The separation of Dutch New Guinea from the broader Indonesian settlement, with the fate of the disputed territory to be decided by the close of 1950. However, the Dutch in coming years were able to argue successfully at the UN that the indigenous population of Dutch New Guinea represented a separate ethnic group from the people of Indonesia and thus should not be absorbed into the Indonesian state. In contrast,
11904-566: The settlers, previously office workers, were not skilled in agriculture. The number of settlers remained small. In the Netherlands proper, some organisations existed that promoted a kind of "tropical Holland" in New Guinea, but they were rather marginal. They were linked to the NSB party and other fascist organisations. In 1942, most parts of the Netherlands Indies were occupied by Japan . Behind Japanese lines in New Guinea, Dutch guerrilla fighters resisted under Mauritz Christiaan Kokkelink . During
12028-484: The slave was found guilty in an official court case. In reality however abuse of slaves by their masters was rampant and often went unpunished. Beatings and whippings were a commonplace punishment for disobedient slaves. Rape of female slaves by their masters was a common occurrence as well, as these women and girls were obliged to provide sexual services for their masters. Refusing to do so could result in severe physical punishment. Slavery and its excesses did not end with
12152-694: The so-called Vlakke Hoek incident . Amongst the casualties was the Indonesian Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff; Commodore Yos Sudarso . Unbeknown to the Indonesians, Dutch Signals Intelligence had been able to intercept Indonesian communications, allowing Dutch forces to successfully anticipate Indonesia's infiltration attempts throughout 1962. Forced to regroup, the Indonesians relaunched their campaign of infiltrations in March 1962. In
12276-399: The technology gap widened. Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law. Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from
12400-602: The territory. Sukarno responded by allowing the seizure of Dutch enterprises operating in Indonesia and announcing the intended expulsion of Dutch residents from Indonesia. The increased tensions surrounding the dispute encouraged the Dutch to accelerate their plans to move the disputed territory towards an act of self-determination. Elections were held in January 1961 and the New Guinea Council officially took office on 5 April 1961, to prepare for full independence by
12524-478: The torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year-old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was eventually abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s. During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In
12648-600: The unruliest inmates. In the Sawahlunto prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the Bulu women's prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making batik . This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women once they were outside
12772-409: The usual asistent-resident due to newly established nature of the land. The colonial government set Tanjung Goede Hoop or Jamoer Seba (Yamursba) as the boundary of the two afdeeling In 1901 to subdue the headhunting Ugeris and increase colonial control, Afdeeling West-En-Zuid-Nieuw-Guinea was split into Afdeeling West-Nieuw-Guinea and Afdeeling Zuid-New-Guinea. Afdeeling West-Nieuw-Guinea consisted of
12896-606: The western part of the island of New Guinea was part of the Great East ( Groote Oost ) governorate of the Dutch East Indies. The Netherlands claimed sovereignty over New Guinea within the colony through its protection over the Sultanate of Tidore , a sultanate on an island west of Halmahera in the Maluku Islands . In a 1660 treaty, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) recognised the Sultanate of Tidore's supremacy over
13020-522: Was against Indonesian independence. The Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP) were very supportive of the Dutch Ethical Policy in Indonesia. The newly established liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy campaigned for a hard-line policy against the nationalists. Even the Labour Party , which supported Indonesian independence in principle, was hesitant, because of the policies of Sukarno. Minister of Colonies Jan Anne Jonkman defended
13144-542: Was appointed the first Governor ( De Gouverneur ) of Dutch New Guinea. The first local naval cadets graduated in 1955 and the first army brigade become operational in 1956. Tensions regarding the Dutch-Indonesian dispute over Dutch New Guinea escalated in December 1957 following Indonesia's defeat in the UN General Assembly on 29 November 1957 to pass a resolution in favour of Indonesia's claim to
13268-473: Was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia . The colonial wars in the Dutch East Indies exacted a heavy toll on the Indonesian population, with around 3 to 4 million deaths including both direct war casualties and indirect victims of war due to famine and disease. Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in
13392-511: Was discussed. The new Grooter Nederland-Actie (Extended Netherlands Action) send delegates to this conference, who opined that New Guinea should be declared as separate entities in a similar manner to Surinam. Furthermore, this conference stipulated specific territories could have special relations with the Kingdom of the Netherlands if they wanted to. Van Mook's plan was to divide Indonesia into several federal states, negaras , with possible autonomous areas, daerahs . The whole would be called
13516-478: Was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation. The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration— Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the indigenous— which were subject to their own legal systems that were all simultaneously in force. The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of law,
13640-518: Was dissolved on 15 November 1947 after Schermerhorn and Van Poll resigned. The Politionele Actie did not achieve its goals, and international pressure forced the Dutch government to accept a cease-fire and the Renville Agreement (17 January 1948). This agreement, however, did not lead to a solution. Provocative actions from both sides led to a tense military situation, and the Dutch for the second time resorted to military intervention with
13764-464: Was downgraded into Residentie der Molukken. The residency oversaw Afdeeling Ternate, Ambon, Tual, and North and West New Guinea. The Onderafdeeling Zuid-Nieuw-Guinea and Onderafdeeling Boven Digul were placed under Afdeeling Tual. Afdeeling Noord-Nieuw-Guinea and Afdeeling West-Nieuw-Guinea were combined into one afdeeling called Afdeeling Noord-En-West-New Guinea which oversaw 5 onderafdeeling namely Manokwari, Sorong, Serui, Hollandia and Fak-Fak. In 1936
13888-476: Was established in Batavia (now Jakarta ), which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network. To their original monopolies on nutmeg , peppers , cloves and cinnamon , the company and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory. Smuggling,
14012-409: Was financial, as the Dutch state at that time did not want to spend the money necessary to free the slaves on the more distant islands. Another reason was to appease local rulers and to prevent political turmoil. Due to the lax policy of the Dutch state slavery persisted in parts of the Dutch East Indies well into the 20th century. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to
14136-557: Was founded on 12 February 1902 for the express purpose of being the capital. Since their creation, Afdeeling West-Nieuw-Guinea would remain part of the Residentie Ternate until it was transferred into Residentie Amboina in 1911. While the Afdeeling Zuid-Nieuw-Guinea would be an independent afdeeling until it was put under Residentie Amboina in 1913. In 1920, the three Afdeelings were made into its own residentie Nieuw Guinea. However it did not last as in August 1923
14260-605: Was not a completely new idea, but it was contrary to the administrative practice in the Netherlands Indies until then and contrary to the ideas of the nationalists, who wanted a centralist Indonesia. The ethnic diversity of Indonesia was initially discussed at two conferences in Malino and Pangkalpinang . During the Pangkalpinang conference, the right of self-determination of the Eurasian, Chinese, and Arab ethnic minorities
14384-413: Was not very active. So, until World War II, New Guinea was a disregarded and unimportant territory within the Netherlands Indies. The group that was most interested in New Guinea before the war were the Eurasians or Indo people . Before the war, some 150,000 to 200,000 Eurasians were living in the Netherlands Indies. They were of mixed European and Indonesian descent and identified with the Netherlands and
14508-414: Was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule, though its profits depended on exploitative labor. The colony contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th century, and coal and oil exploration in the 20th century. The colonial social order was rigidly racial with the Dutch elite living separately from but linked to their native subjects. The term Indonesia
14632-509: Was restored in 1816 on the basis of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 . The Commissioners-General of the Dutch East Indies reformed the public finances of the colony and drew up a new Regeringsreglement that would define the government of the colony for a century. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty the Dutch secured the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak and British settlements such as Bengkulu , both in Sumatra , and
14756-560: Was ruled under Islamic kingdoms , except Bali that retained a Hindu majority. Sultanates, city states , local kingdoms and tribes were all connected through trade, creating a mixed Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture , and Malay as a lingua franca throughout the region. The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Italians Marco Polo in 1292 and Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were
14880-438: Was separated from the afdeeling of Zuid-Niuew-Guinea. Both Afdeling Noord-Niuew-Guinea and Afdeling West-Niuew-Guinea oversaw 4 onderafdeeling each. Afdeling North New Guinea oversaw Fak-Fak, Central Vogelkop, Inanwatan and Mimika, while Afdeeling West New Guinea oversaw Manokwari, Sorong, Serui and Hollandia. The return of West Guinea's Afdeeling status was related to the increase in private oil exploration activities carried out by
15004-494: Was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges. Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established. By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated
15128-474: Was the western half of the island of New Guinea that was a part of the Dutch East Indies until 1949, later an overseas territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1949 to 1962. It contained what are now Indonesia 's six easternmost provinces, Central Papua , Highland Papua , Papua , South Papua , Southwest Papua , and West Papua , which were administered as a single province prior to 2003 under
15252-463: Was the expansion of British and German interests in the east. The Dutch wanted to make sure the United Kingdom and Germany would not move the border to the west. This resulted in the partition of the island of New Guinea. In reality, most of New Guinea remained outside colonial influence. Little was known about the interior; large areas on the map were white and the number of inhabitants of
15376-481: Was used for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals conceived Indonesia as a nation state , setting the stage for an independence movement. Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared independence , instigating
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