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45-549: Even though Aleksander Brückner claimed that the text was originally housed at the Holy Cross Monastery, this hypothesis has been criticized by some scholars. According to historian Władysław Semkowicz, the codex, already strengthened with strips of parchment, was delivered to a Benedictine monastery at Leżajsk , around 1459. The Leżajsk monastery, however, was not the location where the sermons were written. Language analysis carried out by Polish experts proved that

90-485: A sentence clause , although subject–verb–object and adjective-before-noun is the preferred order in the neutral style of speech . Modern Bulgarian differs from other Slavic languages, because it almost completely lost declension , it developed definite articles from demonstrative pronouns (similar to "the" from "this" in English ), and it formed indicative and renarrative tenses for verbs . Since

135-487: A history of Russian literature, an etymological dictionary of the Polish language ( Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego , 1927), works on Slavic and Baltic mythology, an encyclopedia of Old Poland, and a 4-volume history of Polish culture (Kraków, 1930–46). Brückner was a specialist on the older periods of Polish and Slavic culture and was the discoverer, interpreter, and publisher of the oldest known manuscript in Polish,

180-699: A part of interdisciplinary study of Slavic ethnogenesis, a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages. It was built using qualitative 110-word Swadesh lists that were compiled according to the standards of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project and processed using modern phylogenetic algorithms. The resulting dated tree complies with the traditional expert views on the Slavic group structure. Kassian-Dybo's tree suggests that Proto-Slavic first diverged into three branches: Eastern, Western and Southern. The Proto-Slavic break-up

225-945: A professorship at the Berlin University, where he long held (1881–1924) the chair in Slavic Philology. He received funds for travel and studies from his University and he resided in Berlin continuously for 58 years until his death. He was a member of many learned societies, including the Polish Academy of Learning in Kraków , the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences , the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lemberg, and

270-553: A recent past. Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European Slavic languages descend from Proto-Slavic , their immediate parent language , ultimately deriving from Proto-Indo-European ,

315-863: A variety of linguistic archaisms, for instance: 1) Hard-stem declension of the pronoun *tъnъ 'this one': Nom. sg. ten , Gen. sg. togo , Dat. sg. tomu ; 2) Aorist and Imperfect : - 1 sg. aor. widziech (cf. Lat. perf. vidi ) < PSl. *viděti 'to see, to look', *viděxъ 'I saw, I looked (at); I have seen, I have looked (at)'; - 3 sg. aor. postawi (cf. Lat. perf. posuit ) < PSl. *postaviti 'to place', *postavi 'he/she/it placed, has placed'; - 3 pl. aor. pośpieszychą się (cf. Lat. perf. venerunt ) < PSl. *pospěšiti 'to go, to go somewhere', *pospěšixǫ 'they went, they went somewhere, they went out'; - 3 sg. impf. biesze (cf. Lat. impf. erat ) < PSl. *byti 'to be', *běaše 'he/she/it was'; - 3 sg. impf. siedziesze (cf. Lat. impf. sedebat ) < PSl. *sěděti 'to sit', *sěděaše 'he/she/it sat,

360-702: Is among the most notable Slavicists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the first to prepare complete monographs on the history of the Polish language and culture . He published more than 1,500 titles and discovered the oldest extant prose text in Polish (the Holy Cross Sermons ). Brückner was born in Brzeżany (Berezhany) in Galicia , Austrian Empire , to an Austro-Polish family who had moved there from Stryj three generations earlier. He studied at

405-590: Is better for geographically adjacent languages and in the written (rather than oral) form. At the same time, recent studies of mutual intelligibility between Slavic languages revealed, that their traditional three-branch division does not withstand quantitative scrutiny. While the grouping of Czech , Slovak and Polish into West Slavic turned out to be appropriate, Western South Slavic Serbo-Croatian and Slovene were found to be closer to Czech and Slovak (West Slavic languages) than to Eastern South Slavic Bulgarian . The traditional tripartite division of

450-451: Is dated to around 100 A.D., which correlates with the archaeological assessment of Slavic population in the early 1st millennium A.D. being spread on a large territory and already not being monolithic. Then, in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., these three Slavic branches almost simultaneously divided into sub-branches, which corresponds to the fast spread of the Slavs through Eastern Europe and

495-444: Is within the boundaries of modern Ukraine and Southern Federal District of Russia. The Proto-Slavic language existed until around AD 500. By the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones. There are no reliable hypotheses about the nature of the subsequent breakups of West and South Slavic. East Slavic is generally thought to converge to one Old East Slavic language of Kievan Rus , which existed until at least

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540-512: The Holy Cross Sermons . He had an incomparable knowledge of medieval Polish literature, which he knew from the original manuscripts, and was an expert on Renaissance and early modern Polish literature. In general, Brückner tried to raise the prestige of old Slavic culture both in the eyes of the Germans among whom he worked and in the eyes of the Poles with whom he sympathized. He was critical of

585-682: The Balkans , Central and Eastern Europe , and all the way from Western Siberia to the Russian Far East . Furthermore, the diasporas of many Slavic peoples have established isolated minorities of speakers of their languages all over the world. The number of speakers of all Slavic languages together was estimated to be 315 million at the turn of the twenty-first century. It is the largest and most diverse ethno-linguistic group in Europe. The Slavic languages are conventionally (that is, also on

630-615: The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences , as well as academies in Prague and Belgrade . Brückner wrote extensively in both Polish and German on the history of the Slavic languages and literature, folklore, ancient Slavic and Baltic mythology , and the history of Polish and Russian literature. His most important works include a history of the Polish language (Lemberg, 1906), several histories of Polish literature in Polish and German,

675-599: The Latin script , and have had more Western European influence due to their proximity and speakers being historically Roman Catholic , whereas the East Slavic and Eastern South Slavic languages are written in Cyrillic and, with Eastern Orthodox or Uniate faith, have had more Greek influence. Two Slavic languages, Belarusian and Serbo-Croatian , are biscriptal, i.e. written in either alphabet either nowadays or in

720-597: The Rusyn language spoken in Transcarpatian Ukraine and adjacent counties of Slovakia and Ukraine. Similarly, the Croatian Kajkavian dialect is more similar to Slovene than to the standard Croatian language. Modern Russian differs from other Slavic languages in an unusually high percentage of words of non-Slavic origin, particularly of Dutch (e.g. for naval terms introduced during

765-629: The Slavic peoples and their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic , spoken during the Early Middle Ages , which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier Proto-Balto-Slavic language , linking the Slavic languages to the Baltic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the Indo-European family. The current geographical distribution of natively spoken Slavic languages includes

810-467: The Ukrainians in his native eastern Galicia. It was, however, scholarship, not politics, which always remained his main concern. On the most central questions of Slavic scholarship, he believed that in ancient times the Slavic and Baltic languages had a common ancestor and he always stressed this common Balto-Slavic bond. He placed the original homeland of the Slavs farther west than most Slavists, on

855-404: The suffix "-el" denotes past tense of masculine gender . The equivalent phrase for a feminine subject is "vyshla". The gender conjugation of verbs , as in the preceding example, is another feature of some Slavic languages rarely found in other language groups. The well-developed fusional grammar allows Slavic languages to have a somewhat unusual feature of virtually free word order in

900-587: The 12th century. Linguistic differentiation was accelerated by the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory, which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries already display some local linguistic features. For example, the Freising manuscripts show a language that contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovene dialects (e.g. rhotacism ,

945-521: The 14th or 15th century, major language differences were not between the regions occupied by modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, but rather between the north-west (around modern Velikiy Novgorod and Pskov) and the center (around modern Kyiv , Suzdal , Rostov , Moscow as well as Belarus) of the East Slavic territories. The Old Novgorodian dialect of that time differed from the central East Slavic dialects as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries. According to Zaliznyak,

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990-527: The Balkans during the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. (the so-called Slavicization of Europe). The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, as both Ljubljana koine and Literary Slovenian show mixed lexical features of Southern and Western Slavic languages (which could possibly indicate the Western Slavic origin of Slovenian, which for a long time was being influenced on the part of

1035-713: The German Gymnasium in Lwów (Lemberg) under Omelian Ohonovsky, in Vienna under Franz Miklosich , and in Berlin under Vatroslav Jagić . Brückner first taught at Lwów ( Lwów University ). In 1876 he received a doctorate at the University of Vienna and in 1878 his habilitation for a study on Slavic settlements around Magdeburg ( Die slawischen Aussiedlungen in der Altmark und im Magdeburgischen ). In 1881 he received

1080-882: The Holy Cross Sermons were taken to Canada for safekeeping. They are now preserved at the National Library in Warsaw (#8001), and their photocopy may be seen at The Digital National Library Polona ( See electronic version of the Holy Cross Sermons ). From May 2024, the manuscript is presented at a permanent exhibition in the Palace of the Commonwealth . The sermons , on the occasions of Church holy days, comprise fragments of five texts and one complete sermon (for St. Catherine's Day ). Written on parchment, they had been cut into thin strips and used to reinforce

1125-745: The Russian autocracy and the centralized Russian state of his time, including the Russian liberals ( Kadets ) who supported a centralized state and opposed either federalism or national autonomy for the non-Russian peoples of the Russian Empire. During the First World War , he favored the Central Powers but opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , which he believed was largely directed against a resurgent Poland, and made deep concessions to

1170-536: The Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, like those of Slovene. In certain cases so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e. standard) languages. For example, Slovak (West Slavic) and Ukrainian (East Slavic) are bridged by

1215-756: The West group), Bulgarian and Macedonian (eastern members of the South group), and Serbo-Croatian and Slovene (western members of the South group). In addition, Aleksandr Dulichenko recognizes a number of Slavic microlanguages : both isolated ethnolects and peripheral dialects of more well-established Slavic languages. All Slavic languages have fusional morphology and, with a partial exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian , they have fully developed inflection -based conjugation and declension . In their relational synthesis Slavic languages distinguish between lexical and inflectional suffixes . In all cases,

1260-594: The ancestor language of all Indo-European languages , via a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage. During the Proto-Balto-Slavic period a number of exclusive isoglosses in phonology, morphology, lexis, and syntax developed, which makes Slavic and Baltic the closest related of all the Indo-European branches. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in

1305-466: The basis of extralinguistic features, such as geography) divided into three subgroups: East , South , and West , which together constitute more than 20 languages. Of these, 10 have at least one million speakers and official status as the national languages of the countries in which they are predominantly spoken: Russian , Belarusian and Ukrainian (of the East group), Polish , Czech and Slovak (of

1350-416: The binding of a 15th-century Latin manuscript. The fifteen strips, put together by Bruckner, make one sheet (117 × 173 mm), and the remaining three strips make the bottom of a second sheet. Linguistically, the Holy Cross Sermons reflect an older stage of the language than the 14th century, the manuscript being a copy of original sermons composed some time from the end of the 13th century. They manifest

1395-473: The complicated text. Some time in the 15th century, the sermons were cut into strips, which were used to strengthen the binding of a Latin language codex . Most likely, other parts of the sermons were used in bindings of other books. This practice was common at the time, as parchment was both durable and expensive, so publications regarded as unnecessary or unimportant were frequently used to strengthen other, more precious books. Aleksander Brückner discovered

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1440-633: The following sub-branches: Some linguists speculate that a North Slavic branch has existed as well. The Old Novgorod dialect may have reflected some idiosyncrasies of this group. Although the Slavic languages diverged from a common proto-language later than any other groups of the Indo-European language family , enough differences exist between the any two geographically distant Slavic languages to make spoken communication between such speakers cumbersome. As usually found within other language groups , mutual intelligibility between Slavic languages

1485-564: The geographical separation between these two groups, also severing the connection between Slavs in Moravia and Lower Austria ( Moravians ) and those in present-day Styria , Carinthia , East Tyrol in Austria , and in the provinces of modern Slovenia , where the ancestors of the Slovenes settled during first colonization. In September 2015, Alexei Kassian and Anna Dybo published, as

1530-425: The interwar period, scholars have conventionally divided Slavic languages, on the basis of geographical and genealogical principle, and with the use of the extralinguistic feature of script, into three main branches, that is, East, South, and West (from the vantage of linguistic features alone, there are only two branches of the Slavic languages, namely North and South). These three conventional branches feature some of

1575-443: The last three decades, however, make this view very hard to maintain nowadays, especially when one considers that there was most likely no " Proto-Baltic " language and that West Baltic and East Baltic differ from each other as much as each of them does from Proto-Slavic. The Proto-Slavic language originated in the area of modern Ukraine and Belarus mostly overlapping with the northern part of Indoeuropean Urheimat , which

1620-409: The lexical suffix precedes the inflectional in an agglutination mode. The fusional categorization of Slavic languages is based on grammatic inflectional suffixes alone. Prefixes are also used, particularly for lexical modification of verbs. For example, the equivalent of English "came out" in Russian is "vyshel", where the prefix "vy-" means "out" , the reduced root "-sh" means "come", and

1665-476: The neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and the quality Swadesh lists were not yet collected for Slovenian dialects. Because of scarcity or unreliability of data, the study also did not cover the so-called Old Novgordian dialect, the Polabian language and some other Slavic lects. The above Kassian-Dybo's research did not take into account the findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak who stated that, until

1710-493: The period 1500–1000 BCE. A minority of Baltists maintain the view that the Slavic group of languages differs so radically from the neighboring Baltic group ( Lithuanian , Latvian , and the now-extinct Old Prussian ), that they could not have shared a parent language after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European continuum about five millennia ago. Substantial advances in Balto-Slavic accentology that occurred in

1755-407: The reign of Peter I ), French (for household and culinary terms during the reign of Catherine II ) and German (for medical, scientific and military terminology in the mid-1800's). Another difference between the East, South, and West Slavic branches is in the orthography of the standard languages: West Slavic languages (and Western South Slavic languages – Croatian and Slovene ) are written in

1800-831: The sermons on March 25, 1890, at the Imperial Public Library in St. Petersburg , Russian Empire . He was studying an ancient Latin codex, which had belonged to the Warsaw University library, and was confiscated by the Russians after the November Uprising (1831). In the binding of the book, Brückner to his surprise found eighteen long strips. After putting them together, it turned out that they contained one whole, and five incomplete sermons. They were brought back to Poland in 1925. During World War II,

1845-550: The territory of today's Poland. He believed that the apostles of the Slavs, Cyril and Methodius , had originated the idea of their mission on their own, and he played down the invitation from Moravia ; finally, in a polemic with the Ukrainian historian Mykhailo Hrushevsky , he took a Normanist position on the origins of the Rus' , stressing the linguistic and historical evidence for a Scandinavian connection. In 1924, he retired from

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1890-518: The text was probably written in a monastery in Miechów , which was famous for its sermons and library, and which cooperated with the Leżajsk monastery. On the other hand, if sermons were written in the 13th century, then their Miechów origins are dubious. At that time, the monks of this monastery were of Czech and German origin, who either did not speak Polish, or spoke it poorly and were unable to write down

1935-518: The university and spent most of his time writing concise histories of Polish culture and language, especially of the Old Polish period. After he died in Berlin, his final book, a short German-language synthetic history of Polish culture, went unpublished. Slavic languages The Slavic languages , also known as the Slavonic languages , are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by

1980-658: The word krilatec ). The Freising manuscripts are the first Latin-script continuous text in a Slavic language. The migration of Slavic speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the Byzantine Empire expanded the area of Slavic speech, but the pre-existing writing (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. Frankish conquests completed

2025-432: Was sitting'. The strips contain a whole sermon for St. Catherine's Day (November 25), and parts of sermons for the following days: Aleksander Br%C3%BCckner Aleksander Brückner ( Polish pronunciation: [alɛkˈsandɛr ˈbryknɛr] ; 29 January 1856 – 24 May 1939) was a Polish scholar of Slavic languages and literature ( Slavistics ), philologist , lexicographer , and historian of literature . He

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