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97-706: Prior to his imperial coronation, he was duke of the Inner Austrian lands of Styria , Carinthia and Carniola from 1424, and also acted as regent over the Duchy of Austria from 1439. He was elected and crowned King of Germany in 1440. His reign of 53 years is the longest in the history of the Holy Roman Empire or the German monarchy. Upon his death in 1493 he was succeeded by his son Maximilian . During his reign, Frederick concentrated on re-uniting

194-469: A 104-day trip. Her dowry would help Frederick alleviate his debts and cement his power. The couple met at Siena on 24 February and proceeded together to Rome. As per tradition, they spent a night outside the walls of Rome before entering the city on 9 March, where Frederick and Pope Nicholas V exchanged friendly greetings. Because the emperor had been unable to retrieve the Iron Crown of Lombardy from

291-528: A candidate for the 1440 imperial election . On 2 February 1440, the prince-electors convened at Frankfurt and unanimously elected him King of the Romans as Frederick IV; his rule was still based on his hereditary lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, or Inner Austria. In 1442, Frederick allied himself with Rudolf Stüssi , burgomaster of Zürich , against the Old Swiss Confederacy in

388-685: A credible claim on the imperial title and a secure grip on the Austrian lands, now organized as a single state, for his son. This imperial revival (as well as the rise of the territorial state) began under the reign of Frederick. Born at the Tyrolean residence of Innsbruck in 1415, Frederick was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron , a member of the Leopoldian line of

485-663: A formality. After these lines ended in extinction, the electors began to elect kings from different families so that the throne would not once again settle within a single dynasty. All kings elected from 1438 onwards were from among the Habsburg dynasty until 1740, when Austria was inherited by a woman, Maria Theresa , sparking the War of the Austrian Succession and the short-lived rule of a Bavarian Wittelsbach emperor. In 1745, Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I of Lorraine ,

582-564: A great benefactor to the Jews – his enemies described him as "more of a Jew than a Holy Roman Emperor". He favoured such Jewish scholars like Jacob ben Jehiel Loans  [ de ] , who was the teacher of the Hebraist Johann Reuchlin . His empress Eleanor also favoured Jews. For unknown reasons, their son Maximilian developed a dislike for the Jews as a child though, to the horror of both parents. His own relationship with

679-402: A great part in the choice. From the sixteenth century on, electors drafted a Wahlkapitulation , or electoral capitulation, which was presented to the king-elect. The capitulation may be described as a contract between the princes and the king, the latter conceding rights and powers to the electors and other princes. Once an individual swore to abide by the electoral capitulation, he assumed

776-408: A means of coping with political challenges in far-flung territorial possessions. Frederick is credited with having the ability to sit out difficult political situations patiently. According to contemporary accounts, Frederick had difficulties developing emotional closeness to other persons, including his children and wife Eleanor . Unlike his brother Albert and his son Maximilian, Frederick maintained

873-428: A reserved lifestyle. Although he was willing to appear in social events like festivals and tournaments, he disliked lavish feasts. Later he became horrified when his son, still in early teen years, displayed a tendency towards wine, feasts and women. As Frederick was rather distant to his family, Eleanor had a great influence on the raising and education of Frederick's children, and she therefore played an important role in

970-520: A secular prince-elector was known as an electoral prince ( German : Kurprinz ). Electors were rulers of reichsstände ( Imperial Estates ), enjoying precedence over the other Imperial Princes . They were, until the 18th century, exclusively entitled to be addressed with the title Durchlaucht (Serene Highness). In 1742, the electors became entitled to the superlative Durchlauchtigste (Most Serene Highness), while other princes were promoted to Durchlaucht . As rulers of Imperial Estates,

1067-502: A step that no previous Duke of Austria had been able to achieve. Frederick failed to gain control over Hungary and Bohemia in the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–78) . Frederick proclaimed himself King of Hungary on 27 February 1459, but this did not intimidate Mathias Corvinus . Frederick decided to invade, but his army never got far, as he was no general. From Mantua, Pius II (who was also Frederick's former secretary) urged

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1164-708: A term used from the late 14th to the early 17th century for the Habsburg hereditary lands south of the Semmering Pass , referring to the Imperial duchies of Styria , Carinthia and Carniola and the lands of the Austrian Littoral . The residence of the Inner Austrian archdukes and stadtholders was at the Burg castle complex in Graz . The Inner Austrian territory stretched from the northern border with

1261-468: Is one of the most important works of sculptural art of the Late Middle Ages . (His amputated leg was buried with him.) The heavily adorned tomb was not completed until 1513, two decades after Frederick's death, and has survived in its original condition. Inner Austria Inner Austria ( German : Innerösterreich ; Slovene : Notranja Avstrija ; Italian : Austria Interiore ) was

1358-601: Is unknown. A letter written by Pope Urban IV in 1265 suggests that by " immemorial custom ", seven princes had the right to elect the King and future Emperor. The pope wrote that the seven electors were those who had just voted in the election of 1257, which resulted in the election of two kings. The three Archbishops oversaw the most venerable and powerful sees in Germany. Since 1214, the Palatinate and Bavaria were held by

1455-656: The Archbishop of Cologne became Archchancellor of Italy , and the Archbishop of Trier became Archchancellor of Burgundy . The secular electors were granted heraldic augmentations to their coats of arms reflecting their positions in the Household. These augmentations were displayed in three alternative ways: firstly, as an inescutcheon on their coat of arms (as in the case of the Arch-Steward, Treasurer, and Chamberlain); secondly: as dexter impalements (as in

1552-948: The Archduchy of Austria on the Alpine divide over Upper and Lower Styria down to Carniola , where the Lower and White Carniolan lands (the former Windic March ) bordered on the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia . In the west, the Carinthian lands stretched to the Archbishopric of Salzburg and the Habsburg County of Tyrol , while in the east, the Mur River formed the border with the Kingdom of Hungary . In

1649-683: The Babenberg dukes of Austria since 1192 and were finally seized with the Austrian lands by the Habsburg king Rudolph I of Germany upon his victory in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld . In 1335 Rudolph's grandson Duke Albert II of Austria also received the Carinthian duchy with the adjacent March of Carniola at the hands of Emperor Louis the Bavarian as Imperial fiefs. When in 1365 Albert's son Duke Rudolf IV of Austria suddenly died at

1746-583: The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) , however, and instead listed him with the Grand Dukes as a "Royal Highness". Believing the title of Prince-Elector to be superior in dignity to that of Grand Duke, the Elector of Hesse-Kassel chose to remain an Elector, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor to elect. Hesse-Kassel remained the only Electorate in Germany until 1866, when the country backed

1843-736: The Duke of Württemberg , the Margrave of Baden , the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel , and the Duke of Salzburg , bringing the total number of electors to ten. When Austria annexed Salzburg under the Treaty of Pressburg (1805) , the Duke of Salzburg moved to the Grand Duchy of Würzburg and retained his electorate. None of the new electors, however, had an opportunity to cast votes, as the Holy Roman Empire

1940-586: The Holy Roman Empire . The French monarchy eventually became hereditary , but the Holy Roman Emperors remained elective. While all free men originally exercised the right to vote in such elections, suffrage eventually came to be limited to the leading men of the realm. In the election of Lothar III in 1125, a small number of eminent nobles chose the monarch and then submitted him to the remaining magnates for their approbation. Soon,

2037-763: The Old Zürich War (Alter Zürichkrieg) but lost. In 1448, he entered into the Concordat of Vienna with the Holy See , which remained in force until 1806 and regulated the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Holy See. In 1452, at the age of 37, Frederick III travelled to Italy to receive his bride and to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor . His fiancée, the 17-year-old infanta Eleanor , daughter of King Edward of Portugal , landed at Livorno (Leghorn) after

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2134-573: The Order of the Holy Sepulchre , which earned him great reputation. Upon the death of his uncle Duke Frederick IV in 1439, Frederick took over the regency of Tyrol and Further Austria for the duke's heir Sigismund . Again he had to ward off the claims raised by his brother Albert VI; he prevailed by the support of the Tyrolean aristocracy. Likewise he acted as regent for his nephew Ladislaus

2231-710: The Siege of Vienna . Emperor Frederick failed to procure help from the Prince-electors and the Imperial States . In 1483 he had to leave his Hofburg residence in Vienna and fled to Wiener Neustadt , where he also was besieged by Matthias' troops for 18 months until the fortress was captured in 1487. Humiliated, Frederick fled to Graz , and later to Linz in Upper Austria . Frederick's personal motto

2328-457: The cathedral of Monza where it was kept, nor be crowned King of Italy by the archbishop of Milan (on account of Frederick's dispute with Francesco Sforza , lord of Milan), he convinced the pope to crown him as such with the German crown, which had been brought for the purpose. This coronation took place on the morning of 16 March, in spite of the protests of the Milanese ambassadors, and in

2425-590: The "New Monastery". In 1469 Friedrich founded the Order of St. George , which still exists today, whereby the first investiture in the Lateran Basilica in Rome was carried out by him and Pope Paul II . Mary of Burgundy , sole heir to the rich Burgundian kingdom, after the death of her father Charles the Bold , soon made her choice among the many suitors for her hand by selecting Archduke Maximilian of Austria,

2522-399: The "true founder of the Habsburg imperial position". German historians Paul-Joachim Heinig (author of Kaiser Friedrich III. (1440–1493). Hof, Regierung und Politik , Böhlau, 1997) writes that it would be unfair to say that Maximilan stood on the shoulders of a giant, yet nevertheless Frederick provided the shoulders without which Maximilian could not have become a giant himself. Frederick was

2619-682: The Arch-Treasurer by the Hereditary Treasurer (the Count of Sinzendorf ). After 1803, the Duke of Württemberg as Arch-Bannerbearer assigned the count of Zeppelin- Aschhausen as Hereditary Bannerbearer. The German practice of electing monarchs began when ancient Germanic tribes formed ad hoc coalitions and elected the leaders thereof. Elections were irregularly held by the Franks , whose successor states include France and

2716-637: The College of Electors was disrupted when a Catholic branch of the Wittelsbach family inherited the Palatinate. A new Protestant electorate was created in 1692 for the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who became known as the Elector of Hanover (the Imperial Diet officially confirmed the creation in 1708). The Elector of Saxony converted to Catholicism in 1697 so that he could become King of Poland, but no additional Protestant electors were created. Although

2813-530: The Council of Princes by virtue of possessing territory or holding ecclesiastical position. The assent of both bodies was required for important decisions affecting the structure of the Empire, such as the creation of new electorates or States of the Empire. Many electors ruled a number of States of the Empire or held several ecclesiastical titles, and therefore had multiple votes in the Council of Princes. In 1792,

2910-664: The Council of Princes in addition to their positions as electors. In addition to voting by colleges or councils, the Imperial Diet also voted in religious coalitions, as provided for in the Peace of Westphalia . The Archbishop of Mainz presided over the Catholic body, the corpus catholicorum , while the Elector of Saxony presided over the Protestant body, the corpus evangelicorum . The division into religious bodies

3007-561: The Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria. Many changes to the composition of the college were necessitated by Napoleon 's aggression during the early 19th century. The Treaty of Lunéville (1801), which ceded territory on the Rhine 's left bank to France , led to the abolition of the archbishoprics of Trier and Cologne, and the transfer of the remaining spiritual Elector from Mainz to Regensburg . In 1803, electorates were created for

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3104-539: The Elector of Brandenburg had eight votes, the Elector of Bavaria six votes, the Elector of Hanover six votes, the King of Bohemia three votes, the Elector-Archbishop of Trier three votes, the Elector-Archbishop of Cologne two votes, and the Elector-Archbishop of Mainz one vote. Thus, of the hundred votes in the Council of Princes in 1792 , twenty-nine belonged to electors, giving them considerable influence in

3201-606: The Elector of Saxony was personally Catholic, the Electorate itself remained officially Protestant, and the Elector even remained the leader of the Protestant body in the Reichstag . In 1706, the Elector of Bavaria and Archbishop of Cologne were outlawed during the War of the Spanish Succession , but both were restored in 1714 after the Peace of Baden . In 1777, the number of electors was reduced to eight when

3298-545: The Electors admitted in 1803, but the Empire was abolished before they could be created. The Duke of Württemberg, however, started to adopt the trappings of the Arch-Bannerbearer. The electors discharged the ceremonial duties associated with their offices only during coronations, where they bore the crown and regalia of the Empire. Otherwise, they were represented by holders of corresponding " Hereditary Offices of

3395-621: The Electors of Baden, Regensburg , and Würzburg became Grand Dukes . The Elector of Hesse-Kassel, however, retained the meaningless title " Elector of Hesse ", thus distinguishing himself from other Hessian princes (the Grand Duke of Hesse(-Darmstadt) and the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg ). Napoleon soon exiled him and Kassel was annexed to the Kingdom of Westphalia , a new creation. The King of Great Britain remained at war with Napoleon and continued to style himself Elector of Hanover, while

3492-612: The Emperor to leave Mathias alone. Hungary, he proclaimed, "is the shield of all Christendom under cover of which we have hitherto been safe. [...] If the road is thus opened to the barbarians, destruction will break in over all and the consequences of such a disaster will be imputed by God to its authors." Frederick was even defeated in the Austrian–Hungarian War (1477–88) by Matthias Corvinus in 1485, who managed to maintain residence in Vienna until his death five years later in

3589-542: The Habsburg " hereditary lands " of Austria and took a lesser interest in Imperial affairs. Nevertheless, by his dynastic entitlement to Hungary as well as by the Burgundian inheritance, he laid the foundations for the later Habsburg Empire. Despite being mocked as "Arch-Sleepyhead of the Holy Roman Empire" ( German : Erzschlafmütze ) during his lifetime, he is today increasingly seen as an effective ruler. Historian Thomas A. Brady Jr. credited Frederick with leaving

3686-463: The Habsburg dynasty, and his second wife Cymburgis of Masovia . According to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg , the Leopoldinian branch ruled over the duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, or what was referred to as Inner Austria. Only three of Frederick's eight siblings survived childhood: his younger brother Albert (later to be Albert VI, archduke of Austria), and his sisters Margaret (later

3783-582: The Habsburg lands. Therefore, from 1404 William acted as Austrian regent for his minor nephew Albert V . The Tyrolean and Further Austrian lands passed to William's younger brother Duke Leopold IV the Fat . When Duke William died without issue in 1406, the Leopoldian line was further split among his younger brothers: while Leopold IV assumed the regency in Austria, the Inner Austrian territories passed to Ernest

3880-504: The Habsburg territories were incorporated into the Imperial Austrian Circle . The dynasty however was split up again in 1564 among the children of deceased Emperor Ferdinand I of Habsburg . Under the Inner Austrian line founded by his younger son Archduke Charles II , the lands became a centre of the Counter-Reformation , carried out by the Jesuits with great determination. The cadet branch prevailed again, when Charles' son and successor as regent of Inner Austria, Archduke Ferdinand II ,

3977-443: The Hanoverian government continued to operate in London. The Congress of Vienna accepted the Electors of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony as Kings, along with the newly created Grand Duke of Baden. The Elector of Hanover finally joined his fellow Electors by declaring himself the King of Hanover . The restored Elector of Hesse tried to be recognized as the King of the Chatti . The European powers refused to acknowledge this title at

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4074-412: The House of Habsburg's rise to prominence. Despite the fact that their marriage had been unhappy, when Eleanor died the Emperor was affected by her loss and remained widowed for the rest of his long life. Frederick's political initiatives were hardly bold, but they were still successful. Frederick III was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, the first since the death of Emperor Sigismund . His ascension to

4171-416: The Household ". The Arch-Butler was represented by the Hereditary Butler ( Cupbearer ) (the Count of Althann ), the Arch-Seneschal by the Hereditary Steward (the Count of Waldburg , who adopted the title into their name as "Truchsess von Waldburg"), the Arch-Chamberlain by the Hereditary Chamberlain (the Count of Hohenzollern ), the Arch-Marshal by the Hereditary Marshal (the Count of Pappenheim ), and

4268-506: The Iron , while the Tyrolean/Further Austrian passed to the youngest brother Frederick of the Empty Pockets . In 1457 the Leopoldian line again could assume the rule over the Austrian archduchy, when Ernest's son Duke Frederick V of Inner Austria succeeded his Albertine cousin Ladislaus the Posthumous who had died without issue. 1490 saw the reunification of all Habsburg lines, when Archduke Sigismund of Further Austria and Tyrol resigned in favour of Frederick's son Maximilian I . In 1512,

4365-404: The Jews evolved over the years though. Ursula Schattner-Rieser opines that the foundation of Modern Judaism , arising in the eras of Frederick and Maximilian, was "embedded in the principles of humanism". Frederick had five children from his marriage with Eleanor of Portugal : For the last 10 years of Frederick's life, he and Maximilian ruled jointly. In his last years Friedrich remained in

4462-402: The Posthumous , son of late King Albert II and his consort Elizabeth of Luxembourg , in the duchy of Austria (Further Austria). (Ladislaus would die before coming of age). Frederick was now the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty, though his regency in the lands of the Albertinian Line (Further Austria) was still viewed with suspicion. As a cousin of late King Albert II, Frederick became

4559-454: The Romans" ( German : erwählter Römischer Kaiser ; Latin : electus Romanorum imperator ) upon their coronation as kings. The dignity of elector carried great prestige and was considered to be behind only the emperor, kings, and the highest dukes. The electors held exclusive privileges that were not shared with other princes of the Empire , and they continued to hold their original titles alongside that of elector. The heir apparent to

4656-399: The Wettin family in 1547, in the aftermath of the Schmalkaldic War . In 1623, the Elector Palatine, Frederick V , came under the imperial ban after participating in the Bohemian Revolt (a part of the Thirty Years' War ). The Elector Palatine's seat was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria, the head of a junior branch of his family. Originally, the Duke held the electorate personally, but it

4753-436: The afternoon Frederick and Eleanor were married by the pope. Finally, on 19 March, Frederick and Eleanor were anointed in St Peter's Basilica by the Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Francesco Condulmer , and Frederick was then crowned with the Imperial Crown by the pope. Frederick was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned in Rome. His great-grandson Charles V was the last emperor to be crowned, but this

4850-478: The age of 26, Emperor Charles IV enfeoffed his younger brothers Albert III with the Pigtail and Leopold III the Just , who however began to quarrel about the Habsburg heritage. By the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg they finally split late Rudolf's territories: The elder Albertinian line would rule in the Archduchy of Austria proper (then sometimes referred to as "Lower Austria" ( Niederösterreich ), but comprising modern Lower Austria and most of Upper Austria ), while

4947-412: The case of the Arch-Marshal and Arch-Bannerbearer) and thirdly: integrated into the charge within the escutcheon (as in the case of the Arch-Cupbearer, where the Lion of Bohemia acquired a "simple crown" held in his dexter paw). When the Duke of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in 1623, he assumed the latter's office of Arch-Steward. When the Count Palatine was granted a new electorate, he assumed

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5044-486: The cause of death the consequences of leg amputation, senility or rapid diarrhea caused by melon consumption. His bowels were probably buried separately on 24 August 1493 in the Linz parish church. The arrival of Turks in Carinthia and the Krain delayed the arrival of Maximilian and with it the funeral service. On 6 and 7 December 1493, the funeral took place in St. Stephen's Cathedral. His grave, built by Nikolaus Gerhaert von Leyden , in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna ,

5141-777: The death of his son Sigismund Francis in 1665, whereafter all territories ultimately returned to common control with the other Austrian Habsburg lands. The political administration of Inner Austria was centralized at Graz in 1763. Inner Austrian stadtholders went on to rule until the days of Empress Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Frederick became Archduke of Austria in 1457, Habsburg territories united in 1490. Ferdinand became Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. 46°41′40.8″N 14°32′45.23″E  /  46.694667°N 14.5458972°E  / 46.694667; 14.5458972 Prince-electors The prince-electors ( German : Kurfürst ( listen ), pl. Kurfürsten , Czech : Kurfiřt , Latin : Princeps Elector ) were

5238-414: The disputes among the electors. Under it, the Archbishops of Mainz , Trier , and Cologne , as well as the King of Bohemia , the Count Palatine of the Rhine , the Duke of Saxony , and the Margrave of Brandenburg held the right to elect the King. The college's composition remained unchanged until the 17th century, although the Electorate of Saxony was transferred from the senior to the junior branch of

5335-456: The electors enjoyed all the privileges of princes, including the right to enter into alliances, to autonomy in relation to dynastic affairs, and to precedence over other subjects. The Golden Bull granted them the Privilegium de non appellando , which prevented their subjects from lodging an appeal to a higher Imperial court. Although this privilege, and some others, were automatically granted to Electors, they were not exclusive to them and many of

5432-430: The electress of Saxony ) and Catherine . In 1424, nine-year-old Frederick's father died, making Frederick the duke of Inner Austria, as Frederick V, with his uncle, Duke Frederick IV of Tyrol , acting as regent. From 1431, Frederick tried to obtain majority (to be declared "of age", and thus allowed to rule) but for several years was denied by his relatives. Finally, in 1435, Albert V, duke of Austria (later Albert II,

5529-415: The emperor was besieged in his residence by rebellious subjects. In this war between the brothers, Frederick received support from the King of Bohemia, George of Poděbrady . These conflicts forced him into an anachronistic itinerant existence, as he had to move his court between various places through the years, residing in Graz , Linz and Wiener Neustadt . Wiener Neustadt owes him its castle and

5626-494: The fiefs as a dower . Frederick agreed at first, but after Albert took over yet another fief, Regensburg , Frederick withdrew his consent. On 2 January 1487, however, before Frederick's change of heart could be communicated to his daughter, Kunigunde married Albert. A war was prevented only through the mediation of the Emperor's son, Maximilian. In some smaller matters, Frederick was quite successful: in 1469 he managed to establish bishoprics in Vienna and Wiener Neustadt ,

5723-437: The following changes to the Constitution of the Holy Roman Empire were attempted until the Empire's collapse. The arch-chancellor of Germany and archbishop elector of Mainz continued to be an elector, but as the prince of Regensburg, which took over Mainz's arch-episcopal status. The prince of Württemberg received the formerly defunct office of Arch-Bannerbearer, while the other new electors were not given augments or high office in

5820-420: The future Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (son of Frederick III) who became her co-ruler. With the inheritance of Burgundy, the House of Habsburg began to rise to predominance in Europe. This gave rise to the saying "Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry", which became a motto of the dynasty. Frederick secured in 1486 the succession of the son in his own lifetime. On 16 February 1486 Maximilian

5917-411: The historical importance and meaning of his rule and of the early gaining of the Imperial title. Frederick had been very careful regarding the reform movement in the empire. For most of his reign, he considered reform as a threat to his imperial prerogatives. He avoided direct confrontation, which might lead to humiliation if the princes refused to give way. After 1440, the reform of the Empire and Church

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6014-417: The impartial judge between options suggested by the princes. Frederick was an important and powerful patron of music, with a "preference for importing Western talent". This, combined with the efforts by non-coủrtly institutions like the Cathedral at Trent, would contribute to the flourishing of music under Maximilian I. The 110 books he collected form the core collection of the later Bibliotheca Regia , that

6111-444: The initial phase of Imperial Reform, which would mainly unfold under his son Maximilian. Maximilian himself was more open to reform, although naturally he also wanted to preserve and enhance imperial prerogatives. After Frederick retired to Linz in 1488, as a compromise, Maximilian acted as mediator between the princes and his father. When he attained sole rule after Frederick's death, he would continued this policy of brokerage, acting as

6208-432: The king of Germany), awarded him the rule over his Inner Austrian heritage. Almost from the beginning, Frederick's younger brother Albert asserted his rights as a co-ruler, as the beginning of a long rivalry. Already in these years, Frederick had begun to use the symbolic A.E.I.O.U. signature as a kind of motto with various meanings. In 1436 he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land , accompanied by numerous nobles knighted by

6305-420: The larger Imperial Estates were also to be individually granted some or all those rights and privileges. The electors, like the other princes ruling States of the Empire, were members of the Imperial Diet , which was divided into three collegia : the Council of Electors, the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities. In addition to being members of the Council of Electors, most electors were also members of

6402-442: The losing side in the Austro-Prussian War and was absorbed into Prussia. Below are the State arms of each Imperial Elector. Emblems of Imperial High Offices are shown on the appropriate arms. Three Electors Spiritual (Archbishops): all three were annexed by various powers through German Mediatisation of 1803. Four Electors Secular: Electors added in the 17th century: As Napoleon waged war on Europe, between 1803 and 1806,

6499-404: The members of the electoral college that elected the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire . From the 13th century onwards, a small group of prince-electors gained the privilege of electing the King of the Romans . The king would then later be crowned Emperor by the pope . Charles V (elected in 1519) was the last emperor to be crowned (1530); his successors assumed the title "Elected Emperor of

6596-410: The name of the holy empire". The Elector of Saxony was vicar in areas operating under Saxon law ( Saxony , Westphalia , Hannover , and northern Germany), while the Elector Palatine was vicar in the remainder of the Empire ( Franconia , Swabia , the Rhine , and southern Germany). The Elector of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in 1623, but when the latter was granted a new electorate in 1648, there

6693-408: The office of King of the Romans. In the 10th and 11th centuries, princes often acted merely to confirm hereditary succession in the Ottonian and Salian dynasty . But with the actual formation of the prince-elector class, elections became more open, starting with the election of Lothair III in 1125. The Staufen dynasty managed to get its sons formally elected in their fathers' lifetimes almost as

6790-400: The position of Arch-Treasurer of the Empire. When the Duke of Bavaria was banned in 1706, the Elector Palatine returned to the office of Arch-Steward, and in 1710, the Elector of Hanover was promoted to the post of Arch-Treasurer. Matters were complicated by the Duke of Bavaria's restoration in 1714; the Elector of Bavaria resumed the office of Arch-Steward, while the Elector Palatine returned to

6887-409: The post of Arch-Treasurer, and the Elector of Hanover was given the new office of Archbannerbearer. The Electors of Hanover, however, continued to be styled Arch-Treasurers, though the Elector Palatine was the one who actually exercised the office until 1777, when he inherited Bavaria and the Arch-Stewardship. After 1777, no further changes were made to the Imperial Household; new offices were planned for

6984-684: The region on the Danube, in Vienna and in Linz. In 1492 he was elected Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece . Since February 1493, Frederick's health deteriorated increasingly. In the Lent of 1493, Friedrich's personal physicians diagnosed Kaiser in the left leg as a symptom, usually referred to as age-burning, in the research literature, which according to current medical terminology is considered to be

7081-423: The result of arteriosclerosis. On 8 June 1493 he was amputated under the direction of the surgeon Hans Seyff in the Linz castle of the affected area of the leg. This leg amputation is considered one of the most famous and best-documented surgical procedures of the entire Middle Ages. Although Frederick initially survived the procedure well, he died on 19 August 1493 in Linz at the age of 77. The contemporaries cited as

7178-430: The right to choose the monarch was settled on an exclusive group of princes, and the procedure of seeking the approval of the remaining nobles was abandoned. The college of electors was mentioned in 1152 and again in 1198. The composition of electors at that time is unclear, but appears to have included bishops and the dukes of the stem duchies . The electoral college is known to have existed by 1152, but its composition

7275-552: The role of Emperor came with the stipulation that should the previous queen of Bohemia (wife of Albert V of the Albertine line) give birth to a male heir, Frederick would become his guardian. When the queen gave birth to Ladislaus the Posthumous , as according to the stipulations, Frederick took on his guardianship. This led to conflicts between Frederick and other members of the royal family and nobility. His first major opponent

7372-767: The royal election Frederick accompanied his son to Aachen, where Maximilian was crowned on 9 April 1486. There seemed to be tensions between father and son due to differences in personalities and leadership styles. But Frederick saw Maximilian's values in negotiating with the Estates, thus even though he was wary of infringements on his imperial power, Maximilian quickly became an essential partner in imperial politics. In 1487, his daughter Kunigunde married Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria . Albert illegally took control of some imperial fiefs and then asked to marry Kunigunde (who lived in Innsbruck, far from her father), offering to give her

7469-584: The same individual, but in 1253, they were divided between two members of the House of Wittelsbach . The other electors refused to allow two princes from the same dynasty to have electoral rights, so a heated rivalry arose between the Count Palatine and the Duke of Bavaria over who should hold the Wittelsbach seat. Meanwhile, the King of Bohemia, who held the ancient imperial office of Arch-Cupbearer, asserted his right to participate in elections. Sometimes he

7566-724: The south, the County of Görz , which had passed to the House of Habsburg in 1500, and Duino ( Tybein ) bordered on the Domini di Terraferma of Venice . The Imperial Free City of Trieste on the Adriatic Coast linked to assorted smaller possessions in the March of Istria around Pazin and the free port of Rijeka (later corpus separatum of Fiume) in Liburnia . The Styrian lands had already been ruled in personal union by

7663-660: The two agreed to alternate as vicars, with Bavaria starting first. This arrangement was upheld by the Imperial Diet in 1752. In 1777, the question was settled when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria. On many occasions, however, there was no interregnum, as a new king had been elected during the lifetime of the previous Emperor. Frankfurt regularly served as the site of the election from the fourteenth century on, but elections were also held at Cologne (1531), Regensburg (1575 and 1636), and Augsburg (1653 and 1690). An elector could appear in person or could appoint another elector as his proxy. More often, an electoral suite or embassy

7760-531: The younger Leopoldian line ruled the Styrian, Carinthian and Carniolan duchies, then subsumed under the denotation of "Inner Austria". At that time their share also comprised Tyrol and the original Habsburg possessions in Swabia , called Further Austria ; both collectively referred to as "Upper Austria" ( Oberösterreich ) in that context, also not to be confused with the modern state of that name. When Leopold III

7857-486: Was a dispute between the two as to which was vicar. In 1659, both purported to act as vicar, but ultimately, the other vicar recognized the Elector of Bavaria. Later, the two electors made a pact to act as joint vicars, but the Imperial Diet rejected the agreement. In 1711, while the Elector of Bavaria was under the ban of the Empire , the Elector Palatine again acted as vicar, but his cousin was restored to his position upon his restoration three years later. Finally, in 1745,

7954-469: Was a natural choice for Frederick and the Estates to counter Hungary's ambitions. On the occasion of the election of Maximilian, a ten-year land peace was decided. In order to safeguard the peace of the land and against the expansive territorial policy of the House of Wittelsbach , numerous affected empire-related states of Swabia joined in 1488 on Frederick's initiative for the Swabian League. After

8051-680: Was abolished in 1806, and the new electorates were never confirmed by the Emperor. In 1788, the ruling family of Savoy pushed to receive an electoral title. Their ambition was backed by Brandenburg-Prussia. Nonetheless, the French Revolution and subsequent Coalition Wars soon rendered this a moot point. After the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806, the Electors continued to reign over their territories, many of them taking higher or alternative titles. The Electors of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony styled themselves Kings, while

8148-419: Was challenged on the grounds that his kingdom was not German, though usually he was recognized, instead of Bavaria, which, after all, was just a younger line of Wittelsbachs. The Declaration of Rhense issued in 1338 had the effect that election by the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. The Golden Bull of 1356 finally resolved

8245-672: Was crowned King of Bohemia in 1617, King of Hungary in 1618, and finally succeeded his cousin Matthias in the Archduchy of Austria (as Ferdinand III) and as Holy Roman Emperor in 1619. His intentions to translate the absolutist and anti-reformationist Inner Austrian policies to the Crown of Bohemia sparked the Thirty Years' War . The Further Austrian/Tyrolean line of Ferdinand's younger brother Archduke Leopold V survived until

8342-491: Was done in Bologna . Frederick's style of rulership was marked by hesitation and a sluggish pace of decision making. The Italian humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II , who at one time worked at Frederick's court, described the Emperor as a person who wanted to conquer the world while remaining seated. Although this was regarded as a character flaw in older academic research, his delaying tactics are now viewed as

8439-509: Was elected emperor. All of his successors were also from the Habsburg-Lorraine family. Each elector held a "High Office of the Empire" ( Reichserzämter ) analogous to a modern cabinet office position and was a member of the ceremonial Imperial Household . The three spiritual electors became Archchancellors ( German : Erzkanzler , Latin : Archicancellarius ): the Archbishop of Mainz became Archchancellor of Germany ,

8536-749: Was freed in 1452 by the Lower Austrian estates. He acted similarly towards his first cousin Sigismund of the Tyrolian line of the Habsburg family. One of his important advisors during this time was Friedrich II von Graben . Ultimately, Frederick prevailed in all those conflicts by outliving his opponents and sometimes inheriting their lands, as was the case with Ladislaus, from whom he gained Lower Austria in 1457, and with his brother Albert VI, whom he succeeded in Upper Austria . In 1462, his brother Albert raised an insurrection against him in Vienna and

8633-448: Was his brother Albert VI , who challenged his rule. He did not manage to win a single conflict on the battlefield against him, and thus resorted to more subtle means. He held his second cousin once removed Ladislaus the Posthumous , the ruler of the Archduchy of Austria , Hungary and Bohemia, (born in 1440) as a prisoner and attempted to extend his guardianship over him in perpetuity to maintain his control over Lower Austria . Ladislaus

8730-524: Was killed in the 1386 Battle of Sempach against the Old Swiss Confederacy , the Leopoldian heritage fell to his eldest son Duke William the Courteous , who upon the death of his uncle Albert III in 1395 also raised claims to the Archduchy of Austria against Albert's only son and heir Duke Albert IV . Both sides came to an agreement to maintain the Neuberg division but also to assert the common rule over

8827-539: Was later made hereditary along with the duchy. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, a new electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. Since the Elector of Bavaria retained his seat, the number of electors increased to eight; the two Wittelsbach lines were now sufficiently estranged so as not to pose a combined potential threat. In 1685, the religious composition of

8924-680: Was on the basis of the official religion of the state. The electors were originally summoned by the Archbishop of Mainz within one month of an Emperor's death, and met within three months of being summoned. During the interregnum , imperial power was exercised by two imperial vicars . Each vicar, in the words of the Golden Bull, was "the administrator of the empire itself, with the power of passing judgments, of presenting to ecclesiastical benefices, of collecting returns and revenues and investing with fiefs, of receiving oaths of fealty for and in

9021-540: Was sent to cast the vote; the credentials of such representatives were verified by the Archbishop of Mainz, who presided over the ceremony. The deliberations were held at the city hall, but voting occurred in the cathedral. In Frankfurt, a special electoral chapel, or Wahlkapelle , was used for elections. Under the Golden Bull, a majority of electors sufficed to elect a king, and each elector could cast only one vote. Electors were free to vote for whomsoever they pleased (including themselves), but dynastic considerations played

9118-477: Was sustained and led by local and regional powers, particularly the territorial princes. In his last years, however, there was more pressure on him taking action from a higher level. Berthold von Henneberg , the Archbishop of Mainz, who spoke on behalf of reform-minded princes (who wanted to reform the Empire without strengthening the imperial hand), capitalized on Frederick's desire to secure the imperial election for Maximilian. Thus in his last years, he presided over

9215-435: Was the mysterious string A.E.I.O.U. , which he imprinted on all his belongings. He never explained its meaning, leading to many different interpretations being presented, although it has been claimed that shortly before his death he said it stands for Austriae Est Imperare Orbi Universali or Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertan ("All the world is subject to Austria"). It may well symbolise his own understanding of

9312-407: Was the predecessor of the later Imperial Library and the current Austrian National Library ( Österreichische Nationalbibliothek ). German historians tend to be more critical of Frederick than Austrian ones. Austrian historian Adam Wandruszka opines that while he was not an impressive emperor, Frederick III was effective in defending and expanding his family's dynastic interests. Wandruszka calls him

9409-603: Was unanimously elected Roman-German king at the Frankfurt Reichstag by the six electors present. The Elector of Bohemia was not invited because the Bohemian spa law might have been claimed by the Hungarian King Corvinus. There are still discussions regarding whether Frederick actively provided the initiative for his son's election or not. As Frederick's only surviving male heir though, Maximilian

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