Misplaced Pages

#941058

83-555: The Hominoid Personality Questionnaire (also: HPQ ) is a personality rating instrument used for non-human primates . It is an extended version of the Orangutan Personality Questionnaire, which was an extended version of King and Figueredo's Chimpanzee Personality Questionnaire. The HPQ has been used to assess personality in non-human primate species (e.g. chimpanzees , orangutans , rhesus macaques ). The HPQ contains 54 adjectives followed by

166-461: A 'complete mystical experience' experienced a significant mean increase in Openness, whereas those participants who did not meet the criteria experienced no mean change in Openness. Five of the six facets of Openness (all except Actions) showed this pattern of increase associated with having a mystical experience. Increases in Openness (including facets as well as total score) among those whose had

249-552: A biological basis of human personality. If personality traits are unique to the individual culture, then different traits should be apparent in different cultures. However, the idea that personality traits are universal across cultures is supported by establishing the Five-Factor Model of personality across multiple translations of the NEO-PI-R, which is one of the most widely used personality measures. When administering

332-415: A clinical measuring tool to diagnose psychiatric disorders and help with prognosis and therapy planning. Personality is frequently broken into factors or dimensions, statistically extracted from large questionnaires through factor analysis . When brought back to two dimensions, often the dimensions of introvert-extrovert and neuroticism (emotionally unstable-stable) are used as first proposed by Eysenck in

415-442: A continuum, and thus characterize the personality of philosophers of each camp. The "mental make-up" (i.e. personality) of rationalist philosophers is described as "tender-minded" and "going by "principles", and that of empiricist philosophers is described as "tough-minded" and "going by "facts." James distinguishes each not only in terms of the philosophical claims they made in 1907, but by arguing that such claims are made primarily on

498-424: A culture can also be useful evidence for the universality of traits across cultures, as the same underlying factors can still be found. Results from several European and Asian studies have found overlapping dimensions with the Five-Factor Model as well as additional culture-unique dimensions. Finding similar factors across cultures provides support for the universality of personality trait structure, but more research

581-671: A description. Forty-one items were taken from the 75 items of Goldberg 's " Big Five ". Examples include Dominant, Sympathetic, Helpful, Sensitive, Submissive, Dependent, Independent, Fearful, Decisive, Timid, Cautious, Intelligent, Persistent. This primate -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Personality Although there is no consensus definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with one's environment. Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell , define personality as traits that predict an individual's behavior. On

664-515: A disposition that generally leads them to experience a higher degree of positive affect. In their study of extraversion, Lucas and Baird found no statistically significant support for the instrumental theory but did, however, find that extraverts generally experience a higher level of positive affect. Research has been done to uncover some of the mediators that are responsible for the correlation between extraversion and happiness. Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two such mediators. Self-efficacy

747-486: A fluid style of consciousness that allows them to make novel associations between remotely connected ideas. Closed people by contrast are more comfortable with familiar and traditional experiences. Openness to experience correlates with creativity , as measured by tests of divergent thinking . Openness has been linked to both artistic and scientific creativity as professional artists, musicians, and scientists have been found to score higher in openness compared to members of

830-474: A genetic component. Identical twins (who have the same DNA ) show similar scores on openness to experience, even when they have been adopted into different families and raised in very different environments. A meta-analysis by Bouchard and McGue , of four twin studies, found openness to be the most heritable (mean = 57%) of the Big Five traits. Higher levels of openness have been linked to activity in

913-492: A global personality trait consisting of a set of specific traits, habits, and tendencies that cluster together. Openness tends to be normally distributed with a small number of people scoring extremely high or low on the trait, and most people scoring moderately. People who score low on openness are considered to be closed to experience . They tend to be conventional and traditional in their outlook and behavior. They prefer familiar routines to new experiences, and generally have

SECTION 10

#1732791459942

996-470: A greater influence on happiness levels. Personality is not stable over the course of a lifetime, but it changes much more quickly during childhood, so personality constructs in children are referred to as temperament. Temperament is regarded as the precursor to personality. Another interesting finding has been the link found between acting extraverted and positive affect. Extraverted behaviors include acting talkative, assertive, adventurous, and outgoing. For

1079-469: A lesser extent novelty seeking (conceptually similar to sensation seeking). It also had a moderate negative correlation with harm avoidance . The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measures the preference of "intuition," which is related to openness to experience. Robert McCrae pointed out that the MBTI sensation versus intuition scale "contrasts a preference for the factual, simple, and conventional with

1162-698: A meta-trait associated with mental and physical exploration). There are several personality frameworks that recognize the Big Five factors and there are thousands of measures of personality that can be used to measure specific facets as well as general traits. Some research has investigated whether the relationship between happiness and extraversion seen in adults also can be seen in children. The implications of these findings can help identify children who are more likely to experience episodes of depression and develop types of treatment that such children are likely to respond to. In both children and adults, research shows that genetics, as opposed to environmental factors, exert

1245-604: A more general openness to new and unusual experiences. Openness to experience, like absorption, has modest positive correlations with individual differences in hypnotisability. Factor analysis shows that the fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings facets of openness are closely related to absorption and predict hypnotisability, whereas the remaining three facets of ideas, actions, and values are largely unrelated to these constructs. This finding suggests that openness to experience may have two distinct yet related subdimensions: one related to aspects of attention and consciousness assessed by

1328-581: A narrow range of interests. Rigidity is the most obvious aspect of (low) openness among personality disorders; it shows lack of knowledge of one's emotional experiences. It is most characteristic of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder . Its opposite, known as impulsivity (here: an aspect of openness that shows a tendency to behave unusually or autistically), is characteristic of schizotypal and borderline personality disorders . Openness to experience has mixed relationships with different types of religiosity and spirituality . General religiosity has

1411-425: A narrower range of interests. Openness has moderate positive relationships with creativity, intelligence, and knowledge. Openness is related to the psychological trait of absorption , and like absorption has a modest relationship to individual differences in hypnotic susceptibility. Openness has more modest relationships with aspects of subjective well-being than other Five Factor Model personality traits. On

1494-431: A non-existent thing cannot exist. Further, Spinoza's rationalism argued that the mind does not know itself, except insofar as it perceives the "ideas of the modifications of body", in describing its external perceptions, or perceptions from without. On the contrary, from within, Spinoza argued, perceptions connect various ideas clearly and distinctly. The mind is not the free cause of its actions for Spinoza. Spinoza equates

1577-498: A philosopher is dissatisfied with any other way of seeing things or not. James argued that temperament may be the basis of several divisions in academia, but focused on philosophy in his 1907 lectures on Pragmatism . In fact, James' lecture of 1907 fashioned a sort of trait theory of the empiricist and rationalist camps of philosophy. As in most modern trait theories, the traits of each camp are described by James as distinct and opposite, and maybe possessed in different proportions on

1660-481: A preference for the possible, complex, and original," and is therefore similar to measures of openness. There are social and political implications to this personality trait. People who are highly open to experience tend to be liberal and tolerant of diversity. As a consequence, they are generally more open to different cultures and lifestyles. They are lower in ethnocentrism , right-wing authoritarianism , social dominance orientation , and prejudice . Openness has

1743-492: A shared family environment between siblings has less influence on personality than individual experiences of each child. Identical twins have similar personalities largely because they share the same genetic makeup rather than their shared environment. There has been some recent debate over the subject of studying personality in a different culture. Some people think that personality comes entirely from culture and therefore there can be no meaningful study in cross-culture study. On

SECTION 20

#1732791459942

1826-594: A strong positive correlation (r = .55) with each other. According to research by Sam Gosling , it is possible to assess openness by examining people's homes and work spaces. People who are highly open to experience tend to have distinctive and unconventional decorations. They are also likely to have books on a wide variety of topics, a diverse music collection, and works of art on display. Openness to experience has both motivational and structural components. People high in openness are motivated to seek new experiences and to engage in self-examination. Structurally, they have

1909-449: A stronger (negative) relationship with right-wing authoritarianism than the other five-factor model traits ( conscientiousness has a modest positive association, and the other traits have negligible associations). Openness has a somewhat smaller (negative) association with social dominance orientation than (low) agreeableness (the other traits have negligible associations). Openness has a stronger (negative) relationship with prejudice than

1992-406: A test accurate. "Each item should be influenced to a degree by the underlying trait construct, giving rise to a pattern of positive intercorrelations so long as all items are oriented (worded) in the same direction." A recent, but not well-known, measuring tool that psychologists use is the 16PF . It measures personality based on Cattell's 16-factor theory of personality. Psychologists also use it as

2075-811: A weak association with low openness. Religious fundamentalism has a somewhat more substantial relationship with low openness. Mystical experiences occasioned by the use of psilocybin were found to increase openness significantly (see 'Drug Use,' below). A study examining gender differences in big-five personality traits in 55 nations found that across nations there were negligible average differences between men and women in openness to experience. By contrast, across nations women were found to be significantly higher than men in average neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In eight cultures, men were significantly higher than women in openness, but in four cultures women were significantly higher than men. Previous research found that women tend to be higher on

2158-625: Is a result of the shifts in culture originating in the Renaissance , an essential element in modernity . In contrast, the Medieval European's sense of self was linked to a network of social roles: "the household , the Kinship network, the guild , the corporation – these were the building blocks of personhood". Stephen Greenblatt observes, in recounting the recovery (1417) and career of Lucretius ' poem De rerum natura : "at

2241-638: Is an inability to use any energy to make important or difficult decisions, plan for the future, control or regulate emotions, or perform effectively on other cognitive tasks. One question that has been posed is why extraverts tend to be happier than introverts. The two types of explanations that attempt to account for this difference are instrumental theories and temperamental theories. The instrumental theory suggests that extraverts end up making choices that place them in more positive situations and they also react more strongly than introverts to positive situations. The temperamental theory suggests that extroverts have

2324-881: Is necessary to gain stronger support. Culture is an important factor in shaping the personality of individuals. Psychologists have found that cultural norms, beliefs, and practices shape the way people interact and behave with others, which can impact personality development (Cheung et al., 2011). Studies have identified cultural differences in personality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, indicating that culture influences personality development (Allik & McCrae, 2004). For example, Western cultures value individualism, independence, and assertiveness, which are reflected in personality traits such as extraversion. In contrast, Eastern cultures value collectivism, cooperation, and social harmony, which are reflected in personality traits such as agreeableness (Cheung et al., 2011). The modern sense of individual personality

2407-578: Is one of the domains which are used to describe human personality in the Five Factor Model . Openness involves six facets , or dimensions: active imagination (fantasy), aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety (adventurousness), intellectual curiosity , and challenging authority (psychological liberalism). A great deal of psychometric research has demonstrated that these facets or qualities are significantly correlated. Thus, openness can be viewed as

2490-495: Is one's belief about abilities to perform up to personal standards, the ability to produce desired results, and the feeling of having some ability to make important life decisions. Self-efficacy has been found to be related to the personality traits of extraversion and subjective well-being. Self-efficacy, however, only partially mediates the relationship between extraversion (and neuroticism) and subjective happiness. This implies that there are most likely other factors that mediate

2573-515: Is possible that a different dimensional structure may be apparent, e.g. intellectual curiosity may be unrelated to social/political liberalism in certain contexts. Although the factors in the Big Five model are assumed to be independent, openness to experience and extraversion as assessed in the NEO-PI-R have a substantial positive correlation. Openness to experience also has a moderate positive correlation with sensation-seeking , particularly,

Hominoid Personality Questionnaire - Misplaced Pages Continue

2656-408: Is related to sexual satisfaction. This might be because open wives are more willing to explore a variety of new sexual experiences, leading to greater satisfaction for both spouses. Compared to heterosexuals, people who are homosexual, asexual , or bisexual—particularly bisexuals—average higher in openness. Openness to experience, like the other traits in the five-factor model , is believed to have

2739-533: Is the ability to maintain one's average level of happiness in the face of an ambiguous situation – meaning a situation that has the potential to engender either positive or negative emotions in different individuals. It has been found to be a stronger force in extroverts. This means that the happiness levels of extraverted individuals are less susceptible to the influence of external events. This finding implies that extraverts' positive moods last longer than those of introverts. Modern conceptions of personality, such as

2822-461: Is unrelated to life satisfaction , negative affect , and overall affect in people in general. These relationships with aspects of subjective well-being tend to be weaker than those of other five-factor model traits, that is, extraversion , neuroticism , conscientiousness , and agreeableness . Openness to experience correlates with life satisfaction in older adults after controlling for confounding factors. Openness appears to be unrelated to

2905-473: The Temperament and Character Inventory have suggested four basic temperaments that are thought to reflect basic and automatic responses to danger and reward that rely on associative learning. The four temperaments, harm avoidance , reward dependence , novelty-seeking and persistence , are somewhat analogous to ancient conceptions of melancholic, sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic personality types, although

2988-936: The facets of openness found that the Ideas and Actions facets had modest positive correlations with fluid intelligence ( r =.20 and r =.07 respectively). Meta-analyses have also found the ideas, curiosity, and need for cognition facets (i.e., facets most associated with the intellect aspect of openness) to be positive correlates of fluid abilities with correlations ranging from .18 to .21. Fluid abilities may come more easily for people who tend to be curious and open to learning. Alternatively, people with strong fluid abilities may find it more enjoyable to ponder and explore ideas. Several studies have found positive associations between openness to experience and general knowledge , especially verbal knowledge. People high in openness may be more motivated to engage in intellectual pursuits that increase their knowledge. Openness to experience, especially

3071-814: The 1960s. Many factor analyses found what is called the Big Five , which are openness to experience , conscientiousness , extraversion , agreeableness , and neuroticism (or emotional stability), known as "OCEAN". These components are generally stable over time, and about half of the variance appears to be attributable to a person's genetics rather than the effects of one's environment. These five factors are made up of two aspects each as well as many facets (e.g., openness splits into experiencing and intellect, which each further split into facets like fantasy and ideas). These five factors also show correlations with each other that suggest higher order meta-traits (e.g., factor beta, which combines openness and extraversion to form

3154-627: The Aesthetics and values facets. The strongest personality predictor of economic conservatism was low agreeableness ( r =−.23). Economic conservatism is based more on ideology whereas cultural conservatism seems to be more psychological than ideological and may reflect a preference for simple, stable, and familiar mores. Some research indicates that within-person changes in levels of openness do not predict changes in conservatism. Openness to experience has modest yet significant correlations with happiness , positive affect , and quality of life , but

3237-545: The Ideas facet, is related to need for cognition , a motivational tendency to think about ideas, scrutinize information, and enjoy solving puzzles, and to typical intellectual engagement (a similar construct to need for cognition). Openness to experience is strongly related to the psychological construct of absorption , defined as "a disposition for having episodes of 'total' attention that fully engage one's representational (i.e. perceptual, enactive, imaginative, and ideational) resources.” The construct of absorption

3320-525: The NEO-PI-R to 7,134 people across six languages, the results show a similar pattern of the same five underlying constructs that are found in the American factor structure. Similar results were found using the Big Five Inventory (BFI), as it was administered in 56 nations across 28 languages. The five factors continued to be supported both conceptually and statistically across major regions of

3403-617: The United States tend to score higher on openness to experience than those living in the Midwestern United States and the Southern United States . The highest average scores on openness are found in the states of New York , Oregon , Massachusetts , Washington , and California . Lowest average scores come from North Dakota , Wyoming , Alaska , Alabama , and Wisconsin . Psychologists in

Hominoid Personality Questionnaire - Misplaced Pages Continue

3486-544: The active faculty produces and forms ideas, but does not presuppose thought, and thus cannot be within the thinking thing. The active faculty mustn't be within self because ideas are produced without any awareness of them, and are sometimes produced against one's will. Rationalist philosopher Benedictus Spinoza (1632–1677) argued that ideas are the first element constituting the human mind, but existed only for actually existing things. In other words, ideas of non-existent things are without meaning for Spinoza, because an idea of

3569-418: The ascending dopaminergic system and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex . Openness is the only personality trait that correlates with neuropsychological tests of dorsolateral prefrontal cortical function, supporting theoretical links among openness, cognitive functioning, and IQ . An Italian study found that people who lived on Tyrrhenian islands tended to be less open to experience than those living on

3652-513: The basis of human traits rather than within certain cultures. This can be measured by comparing whether assessment tools are measuring similar constructs across countries or cultures. Two approaches to researching personality are looking at emic and etic traits. Emic traits are constructs unique to each culture, which are determined by local customs, thoughts, beliefs, and characteristics. Etic traits are considered universal constructs, which establish traits that are evident across cultures that represent

3735-466: The basis of temperament. Furthermore, such categorization was only incidental to James' purpose of explaining his pragmatist philosophy and is not exhaustive. According to James, the temperament of rationalist philosophers differed fundamentally from the temperament of empiricist philosophers of his day. The tendency of rationalist philosophers toward refinement and superficiality never satisfied an empiricist temper of mind. Rationalism leads to

3818-488: The brain relates to various psychological processes and behaviors. For instance, in human beings, the frontal lobes are responsible for foresight and anticipation, and the occipital lobes are responsible for processing visual information. In addition, certain physiological functions such as hormone secretion also affect personality. For example, the hormone testosterone is important for sociability, affectivity, aggressiveness , and sexuality. Additionally, studies show that

3901-491: The continuity theory of consciousness . People who have vivid and unusual experiences during the day, such as those who are high in these traits, tend to have more memorable dream content and hence better dream recall. Openness is related to many aspects of sexuality. Men and women high in openness are more well-informed about sex and have wider sexual experience, stronger sex drives, and more liberal sexual attitudes. In married couples, wives' but not husbands' level of openness

3984-402: The core of the poem lay key principles of a modern understanding of the world." "Dependent on the family, the individual alone was nothing," Jacques Gélis observes. "The characteristic mark of the modern man has two parts: one internal, the other external; one dealing with his environment, the other with his attitudes, values, and feelings." Rather than being linked to a network of social roles,

4067-451: The creation of closed systems , and such optimism is considered shallow by the fact-loving mind, for whom perfection is far off. Rationalism is regarded as pretension , and a temperament most inclined to abstraction . Empiricists , on the other hand, stick with the external senses rather than logic. British empiricist John Locke 's (1632–1704) explanation of personal identity provides an example of what James referred to. Locke explains

4150-596: The demands of the society. High openness is characteristic to schizotypal personality disorder (odd and fragmented thinking), narcissistic personality disorder (excessive self-valuation), and paranoid personality disorder (sensitivity to external hostility). Lack of insight (shows low openness) is characteristic to all personality disorders and could explain the persistence of maladaptive behavioral patterns. Problems associated with low openness are difficulties adapting to change, low tolerance for different worldview or lifestyles, emotional flattening , alexithymia , and

4233-618: The drug MDMA , although a study at the individual level in the Netherlands found no differences in openness levels between users and non-users. MDMA users tended to be higher in extroversion and lower in conscientiousness than non-users. A 2011 study found Openness (and not other traits) increased after the use of psilocybin , an effect that held even after 14 months. The study found that individual differences in levels of mystical experience while taking psilocybin were correlated with increases in Openness. Participants who met criteria for

SECTION 50

#1732791459942

4316-581: The early 1960s used the concept of openness to experience to describe people who are more likely to use marijuana . Openness was defined in these studies as high creativity, adventuresomeness, internal sensation novelty seeking, and low authoritarianism. Several correlational studies confirmed that young people who score high on this cluster of traits are more likely to use marijuana. More recent research replicated this finding using contemporary measures of openness. Cross-cultural studies found that cultures high in Openness to experience have higher rates of use of

4399-547: The experience seeking facet. In spite of this, it has been argued that openness to experience is still an independent personality dimension from these other traits because most of the variance in the trait cannot be explained by its overlap with these other constructs. A study comparing the Temperament and Character Inventory with the Five Factor model found that Openness to experience had a substantial positive correlation with self-transcendence (a "spiritual" trait) and to

4482-446: The expression of a personality trait depends on the volume of the brain cortex it is associated with. Personology confers a multidimensional, complex, and comprehensive approach to personality. According to Henry A. Murray , personology is: The branch of psychology which concerns itself with the study of human lives and the factors that influence their course which investigates individual differences and types of personality ...

4565-411: The facets of fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings; the other related to intellectual curiosity and social/political liberalism as assessed by the remaining three facets. However, all of these have a common theme of ‘openness’ in some sense. This two-dimensional view of openness to experience is particularly pertinent to hypnotisability. However, when considering external criteria other than hypnotisability, it

4648-522: The feelings facet of openness, whereas men tend to be higher on the ideas facet, although the 55-nation study did not assess individual facets. A study on individual differences in the frequency of dream recall found that openness to experience was the only big-five personality trait related to dream recall. Dream recall frequency has also been related to similar personality traits, such as absorption and dissociation . The relationship between dream recall and these traits has been considered as evidence of

4731-744: The general population. Openness to experience correlates with intelligence , correlation coefficients ranging from about r =.30 to r =.45. These relations vary significantly based on which component of intelligence is examined. For example, meta-analyses have found relations ranging from .08 with processing speed abilities to .29 with verbal abilities. Another common distinction is between crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence . Some studies have found moderate associations with crystallized intelligence but only weak associations with fluid intelligence. In contrast, more recent meta-analyses have found more similar relations for crystallized and fluid abilities (.20 and .19, respectively). A study examining

4814-527: The identity of a person, i.e. personality, on the basis of a precise definition of identity, by which the meaning of identity differs according to what it is being applied to. The identity of a person is quite distinct from the identity of a man, woman, or substance according to Locke. Locke concludes that consciousness is personality because it "always accompanies thinking, it is that which makes everyone to be what he calls self," and remains constant in different places at different times. Rationalists conceived of

4897-519: The identity of persons differently than empiricists such as Locke who distinguished identity of substance, person, and life. According to Locke, René Descartes (1596–1650) agreed only insofar as he did not argue that one immaterial spirit is the basis of the person "for fear of making brutes thinking things too." According to James, Locke tolerated arguments that a soul was behind the consciousness of any person. However, Locke's successor David Hume (1711–1776), and empirical psychologists after him denied

4980-812: The influence of the first theorists in the field, a group that includes Sigmund Freud , Alfred Adler , Gordon Allport , Hans Eysenck , Abraham Maslow , and Carl Rogers . Personality can be determined through a variety of tests. Due to the fact that personality is a complex idea, the dimensions of personality and scales of such tests vary and often are poorly defined. Two main tools to measure personality are objective tests and projective measures. Examples of such tests are the: Big Five Inventory (BFI), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), Rorschach Inkblot test , Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006 , or Eysenck's Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R). All of these tests are beneficial because they have both reliability and validity , two factors that make

5063-449: The modern man is largely influenced by the environmental factors such as: "urbanization, education, mass communication, industrialization, and politicization." William James (1842–1910) argued that temperament explains a great deal of the controversies in the history of philosophy by arguing that it is a very influential premise in the arguments of philosophers. Despite seeking only impersonal reasons for their conclusions, James argued,

SECTION 60

#1732791459942

5146-408: The nearby mainland, and that people whose ancestors had inhabited the islands for twenty generations tended to be less open to experience than more recent arrivals. Additionally, people who emigrated from the islands to the mainland tended to be more open to experience than people who stayed on the islands, and than those who immigrated to the islands. People living in the eastern and western parts of

5229-787: The occurrence of life experiences. One study has shown how the home environment, specifically the types of parents a person has, can affect and shape their personality. Mary Ainsworth's strange situation experiment showcased how babies reacted to having their mother leave them alone in a room with a stranger. The different styles of attachment, labeled by Ainsworth, were Secure, Ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized. Children who were securely attached tend to be more trusting, sociable, and are confident in their day-to-day life. Children who were disorganized were reported to have higher levels of anxiety, anger, and risk-taking behavior. Judith Rich Harris 's group socialization theory postulates that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are

5312-408: The other five-factor model traits (agreeableness has a more modest negative association, and the other traits have negligible associations). However, right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation are each more strongly (positively) associated with prejudice than openness or any of the other five-factor model traits. The relationship between openness and prejudice may be more complex, as

5395-417: The other hand, many believe that some elements are shared by all cultures and an effort is being made to demonstrate the cross-cultural applicability of "the Big Five". Cross-cultural assessment depends on the universality of personality traits, which is whether there are common traits among humans regardless of culture or other factors. If there is a common foundation of personality, then it can be studied on

5478-587: The other hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and habits . Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable. The study of the psychology of personality, called personality psychology , attempts to explain the tendencies that underlie differences in behavior. Psychologists have taken many different approaches to the study of personality, including biological, cognitive, learning, and trait-based theories, as well as psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches. The various approaches used to study personality today reflect

5561-585: The parental style or home environment. Tessuya Kawamoto's Personality Change from Life Experiences: Moderation Effect of Attachment Security talked about some significant laboratory tests. The study mainly focused on the effects of life experiences on change in personality and life experiences. The assessments suggested that "the accumulation of small daily experiences may work for the personality development of university students and that environmental influences may vary by individual susceptibility to experiences, like attachment security". Some studies suggest that

5644-409: The phenomenon of ego depletion. Ego depletion , or cognitive fatigue, is the use of one's energy to overtly act in a way that is contrary to one's inner disposition. When people act in a contrary fashion, they divert most, if not all, (cognitive) energy toward regulating this foreign style of behavior and attitudes. Because all available energy is being used to maintain this contrary behavior, the result

5727-441: The prejudice examined was prejudice against conventional minority groups (for example sexual and ethnic minorities) and that people who are high in openness can still be intolerant of those with conflicting worldviews. Regarding conservatism , studies have found that cultural conservatism was related to low openness and all its facets, but economic conservatism was unrelated to total openness, and only weakly negatively related to

5810-796: The presence of mental disorders. A meta-analysis of the relationships between five-factor model traits and symptoms of psychological disorders found that none of the diagnostic groups examined differed from healthy controls on openness to experience. Openness to experience may contribute to graceful aging, facilitating healthy memory and verbal abilities as well as a number of other significant cognitive features in older adults. At least three aspects of openness are relevant to understanding personality disorders: cognitive distortions , lack of insight , and impulsivity . Problems related to high openness that can cause issues with social or professional functioning are excessive fantasizing , peculiar thinking, diffuse identity, unstable goals , and nonconformity with

5893-404: The primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic relationships such as parent-child relationships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of children's personality characteristics. Thus, this theory points at the peer group representing the environmental influence on a child's personality rather than

5976-576: The purposes of this study, positive affect is defined as experiences of happy and enjoyable emotions. This study investigated the effects of acting in a way that is counter to a person's dispositional nature. In other words, the study focused on the benefits and drawbacks of introverts (people who are shy, socially inhibited, and non-aggressive) acting extraverted, and of extraverts acting introverted. After acting extraverted, introverts' experience of positive affect increased whereas extraverts seemed to experience lower levels of positive affect and suffered from

6059-407: The relationship between subjective happiness and personality traits. Self-esteem maybe another similar factor. Individuals with a greater degree of confidence about themselves and their abilities seem to have both higher degrees of subjective well-being and higher levels of extraversion. Other research has examined the phenomenon of mood maintenance as another possible mediator. Mood maintenance

6142-400: The research being undertaken. A number of studies have found that openness to experience has two major subcomponents, one related to intellectual dispositions, the other related to the experiential aspects of openness, such as aesthetic appreciation and openness to sensory experiences. These subcomponents have been referred to as intellect and experiencing openness respectively, and have

6225-478: The science of men, taken as gross units ... encompassing " psychoanalysis " ( Freud ), " analytical psychology " ( Jung ), " individual psychology " ( Adler ) and other terms that stand for methods of inquiry or doctrines rather than realms of knowledge. From a holistic perspective, personology studies personality as a whole, as a system, but at the same time through all its components, levels, and spheres. Openness to experience Openness to experience

6308-467: The soul except for being a term to describe the cohesion of inner lives. However, some research suggests Hume excluded personal identity from his opus An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding because he thought his argument was sufficient but not compelling. Descartes himself distinguished active and passive faculties of mind, each contributing to thinking and consciousness in different ways. The passive faculty, Descartes argued, simply receives, whereas

6391-687: The striatum and reduced auto receptor availability in the midbrain. Reward dependence has been linked with the oxytocin system, with increased concentration of plasma oxytocin being observed, as well as increased volume in oxytocin-related regions of the hypothalamus . Persistence has been associated with increased striatal- mPFC connectivity, increased activation of ventral striatal-orbitofrontal-anterior cingulate circuits, as well as increased salivary amylase levels indicative of increased noradrenergic tone. It has been shown that personality traits are more malleable by environmental influences than researchers originally believed. Personality differences predict

6474-409: The temperament of philosophers influenced their philosophy. Temperament thus conceived is tantamount to a bias. Such bias, James explained, was a consequence of the trust philosophers place in their own temperament. James thought the significance of his observation lay on the premise that in philosophy an objective measure of success is whether philosophy is peculiar to its philosopher or not, and whether

6557-456: The temperaments reflect dimensions rather than distance categories. The harm avoidance trait has been associated with increased reactivity in insular and amygdala salience networks, as well as reduced 5-HT2 receptor binding peripherally, and reduced GABA concentrations. Novelty seeking has been associated with reduced activity in insular salience networks increased striatal connectivity. Novelty seeking correlates with dopamine synthesis capacity in

6640-423: The whole, openness appears to be largely unrelated to symptoms of mental disorders. Openness to experience is usually assessed with self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation are also used. Self-report measures are either lexical or based on statements. Which measure of either type is used is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of

6723-412: The will with the understanding and explains the common distinction of these things as being two different things as an error which results from the individual's misunderstanding of the nature of thinking. The biological basis of personality is the theory that anatomical structures located in the brain contribute to personality traits. This stems from neuropsychology , which studies how the structure of

6806-586: The world, suggesting that these underlying factors are common across cultures. There are some differences across culture, but they may be a consequence of using a lexical approach to study personality structures, as language has limitations in translation and different cultures have unique words to describe emotion or situations. Differences across cultures could be due to real cultural differences, but they could also be consequences of poor translations, biased sampling, or differences in response styles across cultures. Examining personality questionnaires developed within

6889-410: Was developed in order to relate individual differences in hypnotisability to broader aspects of personality. The construct of absorption influenced Costa and McCrae's development of the concept of "openness to experience" in their original NEO model , due to the independence of absorption from extraversion and neuroticism . A person's openness to becoming absorbed in experiences seems to require

#941058