137-765: The Supreme Court of Hong Kong was the highest court from 1976 to 1997 in British Hong Kong . It heard cases of first instance and appeals from the District and Magisrates Courts as well as certain tribunals. The Supreme Court was from 1976 made up of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal. Following the handover on 1 July 1997, the Supreme Court became the High Court of Hong Kong , which
274-579: A preference for sons , remained prevalent. Nuclear families were the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families were not unusual. In British-ruled Hong Kong, polygamy was legal until 1971 pursuant to the colonial practice of not interfering in local customs that British authorities viewed as relatively harmless to the public order. Spiritual concepts such as feng shui were observed; large-scale construction projects often hired consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui
411-468: A centre for international trade. In the colony's first decade, the revenue from the opium trade was a key source of government funds. The importance of opium reduced over time, but the colonial government was dependent on its revenues until the Japanese occupation in 1941. Although the largest businesses in the early colony were operated by British, American, and other expatriates, Chinese workers provided
548-533: A conduit for international trade shielded it from most PRC pressure during the 1950s. Hong Kong received Chinese refugees - "Rightists" - fleeing the Chinese Civil War and communist persecution. They became cheap labour. Some were recruited in Hong Kong as anti-communist militants. A major cause of the 1956 Hong Kong riots started by "Rightists" was poverty. The response to the riots favoured
685-523: A connection with a remaining British Dependent Territory would lose that status on the day of the transfer in 1997. Ethnic Chinese Hongkongers became Chinese nationals and could only retain British nationality if they had registered as BN(O)s before the handover. Although they were permitted to use British passports for international travel after the transfer, ethnic Chinese BN(O)s were explicitly restricted from accessing British consular protection within
822-762: A fast track to the Civil Service . Cadet officers gradually formed the backbone of the civil administration. After the Second World War, ethnic Chinese were allowed into the service, followed by women. Cadets were renamed Administrative Officers in the 1950s, and they remained the elite of the Civil Service during British rule. Prior to and during the Second World War , the garrison was composed of British Army battalions and locally enlisted personnel (LEPs) who served as regular members in
959-549: A lease for Guangzhouwan , only 210 miles (340 km) away from Hong Kong, Britain entered into negotiations with the Qing to acquire the New Territories as a compensatory concession in 1898. The British negotiator considered the 99-year lease term to be sufficiently suggestive that the ceded area would be a permanent cession, which was granted rent-free. Hong Kong Governor Frederick Lugard first proposed renegotiating
1096-535: A major expansion of trade and profit, which led to increasing pressure for a revision of the terms. In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Canton detained the Arrow , a Chinese-owned ship registered in Hong Kong to enjoy the protection of the British flag. The Consul in Canton, Harry Parkes , claimed the hauling down of the flag and arrest of the crew were "an insult of very grave character". Parkes and Sir John Bowring ,
1233-583: A military administration with himself as its head. He formally accepted the Japanese surrender on 16 September in Government House . Young, upon his return as governor in May 1946, pursued political reform known as the " Young Plan ", believing that, to counter the Chinese government's determination to recover Hong Kong, it was necessary to give local inhabitants a greater stake in the territory by widening
1370-478: A new path to citizenship for Hong Kong residents with British National (Overseas) status. The Chinese government derided this change as "gross interference" and subsequently withdrew recognition of BN(O) passports as valid travel documents in 2021. The United States enacted the Hong Kong Autonomy Act in response to the national security law, and imposed economic sanctions on 34 individuals that
1507-617: A provision in the Basic Law. The original decision reached by the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal was seen as problematic by the HKSAR government as it would have allowed up to 1.6 million mainland immigrants to enter Hong Kong. The Chinese authorities obliged and the Hong Kong court's judgment was overturned, stopping the potential immigration. Pressures from the mainland government were also apparent, for example in 2000, after
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#17327729919161644-401: A safe haven for dissidents, political refugees, and officials who lost power. British policy allowed dissidents to live in Hong Kong as long as they did not break local laws or harm British interests. The implementation of this policy varied according to what the senior officials thought constituted British interests and the state of relations with China. The Canton–Hong Kong strike (1925–1926)
1781-547: A separate customs territory and ensure continuity of its international rights and obligations. During the second half leading up to the handover, the Liaison Group would consider actions needed to ensure a successful transition in 1997 and assist the incoming regional government in developing relations and agreements with other countries and international organisations for economic and cultural purposes. The mandate for this group ended on 1 January 2000. The third annex of
1918-476: A separate customs territory with free flow of capital. Civil and property rights would remain protected after the transfer of sovereignty. During the transition period from the date the treaty came into force until 30 June 1997, the United Kingdom would continue to be responsible for administering Hong Kong with the objective of maintaining its economic prosperity and social stability. The first annex of
2055-705: A separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century. Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tended to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits. Residents' sense of local identity remained post-handover, with the majority of the population (52%) identifying as "Hongkongers", while 11% described themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population held mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong". Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour , filial piety , and
2192-399: A settlement nearer to Shanghai would cause an "indefinite protraction of hostilities", whereas Hong Kong Island's harbour was a valuable base for the British trading community in Canton. British rule began with the occupation of the island on 26 January. Commodore Gordon Bremer , commander-in-chief of British forces in China, took formal possession of the island at Possession Point , where
2329-568: Is made up of the Court of First Instance and the Court of Appeal . The Supreme Court was established in 1844 after Hong Kong became a British Crown colony under the Treaty of Nanjing . The first sitting of the court was on 1 October 1844 presided over by the first Chief Justice, John Walter Hulme . For almost 70 years after establishment of the court, there was no Court of Appeal in Hong Kong. Appeals were either by way or re-hearing or direct to
2466-573: The British Empire (including Hongkongers) held a common nationality. Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) previously had the unrestricted right to enter and live in the UK until 1962, although non-white immigration was systemically discouraged. Immigration from the colonies and other Commonwealth countries was gradually restricted by Parliament from 1962 to 1971 amid decolonisation , when British subjects originating from outside of
2603-495: The British Islands first had immigration controls imposed on them when entering the UK. The 1981 Act reclassified CUKCs into different nationality groups based on their ancestry and birthplace, and the vast majority of British subjects in Hong Kong became British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) with right of abode only in Hong Kong . Only those reclassified as British citizens held an automatic right to live in
2740-594: The Chief of the Defence Staff of the United Kingdom, Field Marshal Sir Charles Guthrie , also attended. Representing China were the CCP General Secretary and President of China , Jiang Zemin ; Premier of China , Li Peng ; and Tung Chee-hwa , the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong . This event was broadcast on television and radio stations across the world. Hong Kong was a Crown colony of
2877-492: The Cultural Revolution embroiled mainland China beginning in 1966, local communists in Hong Kong started a series of demonstrations against colonial rule that escalated into the 1967 Hong Kong riots . However, the disturbances never gained local support and the subsequent restoration of public order conversely resulted in the colonial government achieving increased popularity among the territory's residents. By
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#17327729919163014-765: The Great Hall of the People . The Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office at first proposed a list of 60–80 Hong Kong people to attend the ceremony. The number was finally extended to 101. The list included Hong Kong government officials, members of the Legislative and Executive Councils, chairmen of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and Standard Chartered Bank , Hong Kong celebrities such as Li Ka-shing , Pao Yue-kong and Fok Ying-tung , and also Martin Lee Chu-ming and Szeto Wah . The handover ceremony
3151-690: The Hangzhou Bay delta across from Shanghai , then to present a letter from himself to a Chinese official for the Emperor of China , then to proceed to the Gulf of Bohai for a treaty, and if the Chinese resisted, then to blockade the key ports of the Yangtze and Yellow rivers. Palmerston demanded a territorial base in the Chusan Islands for trade so that British merchants "may not be subject to
3288-633: The Hong Kong Basic Law , which would stipulate the framework in which the new special administrative region would function. The second annex of the treaty provided for the establishment of the Sino-British Joint Liaison Group, consisting of diplomats from both governments, to facilitate ongoing dialogue for the implementation of the Joint Declaration and a smooth transfer of government. This group
3425-576: The Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal , which was established on 1 July 1997. A full history of the Supreme Court up to the early 20th Century is in James William Norton-Kyshe 's: British Hong Kong Hong Kong was a British colony and later a dependent territory of the United Kingdom from 1841 to 1997, with a period of Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945 during World War II . The colonial period began with
3562-519: The Hong Kong dollar remains the regional currency. In the areas of civil aviation and maritime shipping, Hong Kong would continue as a separate entity from the mainland. Education and the maintenance of public order would be the regional government's responsibility. Right of abode in Hong Kong and immigration matters remain separate from mainland China, and the region could issue its own passports . All of these policies would be further detailed in
3699-719: The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council . From 1913, appeals were heard by a Full Court made up of 3 judges. From 1913 to 1943, a judge of the British Supreme Court for China in Shanghai was eligible to sit on the Full Court. In the 1910s and 1920s, a Shanghai judge would regularly travel to Hong Kong to sit on the Full Court. Sir Havilland de Sausmarez , a judge of the Shanghai court, was
3836-506: The Kowloon Peninsula and was further extended in 1898 when the British obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories . Although the Qing had to cede Hong Kong Island and Kowloon in perpetuity as per the treaty, the leased New Territories comprised 86.2% of the colony and more than half of the entire colony's population. With the lease nearing its end during the late 20th century, Britain did not see any viable way to administer
3973-503: The Second World War and ensuing Japanese occupation of Hong Kong stifled further debate on obtaining a cession. The British government initially prepared for the possibility of having to relinquish Hong Kong after the war, but moved towards retaining the colony over the course of the conflict. Hong Kong returned to British control in 1945. In the immediate post-war period, the Nationalist government continued this dialogue with
4110-674: The Union Jack was raised under a fire of joy from the marines and a royal salute from the warships. Hong Kong Island was ceded in the Treaty of Nanking on 29 August 1842 and established as a Crown colony after the ratification exchanged between the Daoguang Emperor and Queen Victoria was completed on 26 June 1843. By 1842, Hong Kong had become the major arms supply port in the Asia-Pacific region. The Treaty of Nanking failed to satisfy British expectations of
4247-563: The 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow , As Tears Go By , and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyond martial arts films ; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular. Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine , To Live and Wong Kar Wai movies. The city's martial arts film roots were evident in
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4384-577: The 1990s, when the Four Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts. Despite a general decline since late in the decade, Western classical music historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remained a large part of local musical education. The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra , the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosted musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra , composed of classical Chinese instruments ,
4521-410: The 2047 date and were subject to a 50-hectare annual aggregate limit on the total amount of land the government could contract out for purposes other than for housing. A Land Commission consisting of an equal number of representatives from the British and Chinese governments was established to oversee the implementation of this annex until the transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The memoranda attached to
4658-565: The British about the future of Hong Kong, which included discussions of a full retrocession and proposals of turning the colony into an international city . However, communist victory in the Chinese Civil War made a transfer of Hong Kong to the Nationalists an increasingly unlikely scenario, and the status quo was maintained. Although communist troops marched up to the border with Hong Kong, they did not try to forcefully take
4795-413: The British government agreed to transfer control of the territory on that date. China stated its basic policies for administering the returned area; it would establish a special administrative region that would be autonomous in governing local affairs. The economic, social, governing, and legal systems would remain basically unchanged from as they existed under colonial administration. Hong Kong would remain
4932-423: The British government resisted calls by colonial officials and merchants for further expansion into China, deciding to cease territorial acquisitions in the area. However, as Germany , Japan , and Russia coerced China into granting concessions in the late 1890s, Britain considered another expansion of Hong Kong to bolster the colony's defence against attack from these other great powers . When France obtained
5069-558: The British government would pay for their opium stock, the merchants surrendered their 20,283 chests of opium, which were destroyed in public . In September 1839, the British Cabinet decided that the Chinese should be made to pay for the destruction of British property, either by the threat or use of force. An expeditionary force was placed under Elliot and his cousin, Rear-Admiral George Elliot , as joint plenipotentiaries in 1840. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston stressed to
5206-581: The British occupation of Hong Kong Island under the Convention of Chuenpi in 1841 of the Victorian era . In accordance with Art. III of the Treaty of Nanking of 1842, signed in the aftermath of the First Opium War , the island of Hong Kong was ceded in perpetuity to Great Britain. It was established as a Crown colony in 1843. In 1860, the British expanded the colony with the addition of
5343-485: The British. However, the Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and by 1943 the food supply for Hong Kong was problematic. The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the surrender of Japan, the transition back to British rule was smooth, for on the mainland the Nationalist and Communist forces were preparing for a civil war and ignored Hong Kong. In
5480-626: The Chinese and because it assumed that educating the public on the complexity of the issue would be too difficult. Although the Unofficial Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils had repeatedly petitioned the British negotiators to insist on continued administration for as long as possible, they were ultimately unsuccessful. By November 1983, the British accepted that they would have no further authority over Hong Kong after 1997. Negotiations in 1984 centred on nationality and
5617-645: The Chinese government dictated what to do and therefore still followed the points of the declaration. Despite this autonomy, the government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region sometimes sought interference from the Central Chinese government. For example, in 1999 the government of the HKSAR asked China's State Council to seek an interpretation by the National People's Congress Standing Committee on
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5754-533: The Chinese government that the British government did not question China's right to prohibit opium, but it objected to the way this was handled. He viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying a trap for the foreign traders, and the confinement of the British with supplies cut off was tantamount to starving them into submission or death. He instructed the Elliot cousins to occupy one of the Chusan Islands in
5891-594: The Chinese government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek that if Japan attacked Hong Kong, the Chinese National Army would attack the Japanese from the rear to relieve pressure on the British garrison. On 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong began when Japanese air bombers effectively destroyed British air power in one attack. Two days later, the Japanese breached the Gin Drinkers Line in
6028-401: The Chinese government were made clear from the beginning of the process. China would resume both sovereignty and administration over Hong Kong in 1997. It would do this by force if necessary, but preferred to keep the territory's socioeconomic climate stable to maximize the economic benefits it could reap from the transfer. Its proposed plan was to establish a special administrative region in
6165-803: The Convention of Peking. In 1898, the British sought to extend Hong Kong for defence. After negotiations began in April 1898, with the British Minister in Beijing, Sir Claude MacDonald , representing Britain, and diplomat Li Hongzhang leading the Chinese, the Second Convention of Peking was signed on 9 June. Since the foreign powers had agreed by the late 19th century that it was no longer permissible to acquire outright sovereignty over any parcel of Chinese territory, and in keeping with
6302-527: The Hong Kong SAR or any other part of Chinese territory. Residents who were not ethnically Chinese, had not registered as BN(O)s, and would have been stateless on that date automatically became British Overseas citizens . The signing of the Joint Declaration caused some controversy in the United Kingdom because UK's Conservative Party Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was agreeing with China's Communist government represented by Deng Xiaoping . In
6439-563: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), and Hong Kong's previous capitalist system and its way of life would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years. The Joint Declaration provides that these basic policies shall be stipulated in the Hong Kong Basic Law . The ceremony of the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration took place at 18:00, 19 December 1984 at the Western Main Chamber of
6576-711: The Hong Kong Squadron of the Royal Navy or the Hong Kong Military Service Corps and their associate land units. The Hong Kong Brigade served as the main garrison formation. After the outbreak of the Second World War, the garrison was reinforced with British Indian Army and Canadian Army units. A second brigade, the Kowloon Infantry Brigade, was formed to assist in commanding the expanded force. The garrison
6713-524: The Joint Declaration to have ceased any legal effect after the transfer of sovereignty, and that the central government's basic policies as elaborated in the document were a unilateral statement not actually binding. These statements are directly contradicted by the 50-year period of unchanged policies in Hong Kong that the central government committed to as part of the Joint Declaration. Former LegCo president and Standing Committee member Rita Fan has asserted that United Kingdom supervisory responsibility over
6850-559: The Joint Declaration's implementation lapsed when the Sino-British Joint Liaison Group disbanded in 2000. The United Kingdom, United States , and G7 maintain that the Joint Declaration remains valid and in force. The Foreign Office has labelled the Causeway Bay Books disappearances in 2015, enactment of the Hong Kong national security law in 2020, disqualification of opposition Legislative Council candidates in 2020, and electoral reform in 2021 as serious breaches of
6987-565: The Letters Patent and Royal Instructions. The Executive Council determined administrative policy changes and considered primary legislation before passing it to the Legislative Council for approval. This advisory body also itself issued secondary legislation under a limited set of colonial ordinances. The Legislative Council debated proposed legislation and was responsible for the appropriation of public funds. This chamber
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#17327729919167124-506: The New Territories. The British commander, Major-General Christopher Maltby , concluded that the island could not be defended for long unless he withdrew his brigade from the mainland. On 18 December, the Japanese crossed Victoria Harbour . By 25 December, organised defence was reduced into pockets of resistance. Maltby recommended a surrender to Governor Sir Mark Young , who accepted his advice to reduce further losses. A day after
7261-647: The PRC; the PRC provided a list of Taiwanese agents. By this time, Britain no longer considered a Taiwanese conquest of China to be realistic; the evolving discourse on human rights also made it difficult to legitimize being a sponsor of state terrorism . The Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by both the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Premier of the People's Republic of China on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with
7398-423: The President of the Full Court from 1910 to 1920. From 1926 to 1941, a judge of the Hong Kong Supreme Court also sat on the full court of the British Supreme Court for China . The Court of Appeal was established in 1976. Appeals from the Court of Appeal and Full Court and, certain criminal appeals from the High Court, lay to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom. In order to appeal to
7535-402: The Privy Council, leave to appeal was required either from the court appealed from or the Privy Council. After the transfer of sovereignty the Supreme Court was renamed as the High Court and the High Court of the former Supreme Court was renamed the Court of First Instance . Appeals from the Court of Appeal (and where there is such a direct appeal, the Court of First Instance) are now heard by
7672-470: The Rightists; Rightist instigators were lightly prosecuted, compensation was denied to communists and bystanders, and the communists were officially blamed as coinstigators. The lax persecution of the riots Rightists instigators was used by the PRC to criticize the "airy use of the rule of law as a pragmatic stand-in for human rights " that characterized British colonialism. In 1963, Hong Kong suppressed cells of Taiwanese militants in response to demands from
7809-442: The Sino–British deal had prevented any of these changes to continue according to Jonathan Fenby of The Guardian . Wu Bangguo , the chairman of the National People's Congress Standing Committee stated in a conference in Beijing 2007, that "Hong Kong had considerable autonomy only because the central government had chosen to authorize that autonomy". The Chinese and Hong Kong governments have stated since 2014 that they consider
7946-513: The Supreme Court were heard by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , which exercised final adjudication over the entire British Empire. In March 1975 the Hong Kong government introduced a programme to measure public opinion of government efforts, known as Movement of Opinion Direction (MOOD). In 1861, Governor Sir Hercules Robinson introduced the Hong Kong Cadetship, which recruited young graduates from Britain to learn Cantonese and written Chinese for two years, before deploying them on
8083-399: The Treaty of Tientsin, the Chinese accepted British demands to open more ports, navigate the Yangtze River, legalise the opium trade and have diplomatic representation in Beijing. During the conflict, the British occupied the Kowloon Peninsula , where the flat land was valuable training and resting ground. The area in what is now south of Boundary Street and Stonecutters Island was ceded in
8220-439: The UK and the Commonwealth , as well as Chinese cities and places. Aside from Chinese New Year , Christmas was celebrated as the second-most important festival. In literature , some idioms in Cantonese were directly translated from those in English. A Mandarin Chinese speaker might recognise the words but not understand the meaning. Food in Hong Kong under British rule was primarily based on Cantonese cuisine , despite
8357-555: The US State and Treasury Departments determined to have materially contributed to Joint Declaration breaches. The list of sanctioned persons includes Chief Executive Carrie Lam , principal officials of the Hong Kong government , and members of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress . In March 2024 the pro-Beijing legislature in Hong Kong fast-tracked Article 23, a new security law which introduces harsh new penalties such as life imprisonment for new offences such as external interference and insurrection. Critics claim
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#17327729919168494-408: The United Kingdom . Formal negotiations began in September 1982 with the arrival of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Hong Kong Governor Edward Youde in Beijing to meet with Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang and paramount leader Deng Xiaoping . In the initial phase of negotiations from October 1982 to June 1983, the main point of contention was the issue of sovereignty. The goals of
8631-437: The United Kingdom Government declared that it would relinquish Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People's Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong. In accordance with the One Country, Two Systems principle agreed between the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China, the socialist system of People's Republic of China would not be practised in
8768-400: The United Kingdom and maintained an administration roughly modelled after the Westminster system . The Letters Patent formed the constitutional basis of the colonial government and the Royal Instructions detailed how the territory should be governed and organised. The Governor was the head of government and appointed by the British monarch to serve as the representative of the Crown in
8905-408: The White Paper that contained the Joint Declaration, it was declared by Her Majesty's Government that "the alternative to acceptance of the present agreement is to have no agreement", a statement meant as a rebuttal to criticisms that the declaration had made too many concessions to China, and hinting at China's significant leverage during the negotiations. Some political analysts thought that there
9042-563: The annual Tuen Ng Festival . The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board 's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993. The Hong Kong Jockey Club , known between 1960 and 1996 as the Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club, became the territory's largest taxpayer. Three forms of gambling were legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football. During China's turbulent 20th century, Hong Kong served as
9179-487: The arbitrary caprice either of the Government of Peking, or its local Authorities at the Sea-Ports of the Empire". In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lin's successor, Qishan , in the Convention of Chuenpi during the First Opium War . On 20 January, Elliot announced "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements", which included the cession of the barren Hong Kong Island and its harbour to the British Crown . Elliot chose Hong Kong Island instead of Chusan because he believed
9316-456: The bulk of the manpower to build a new port city. By the late 1980s, many ethnic Chinese people had become major business figures in Hong Kong. Amongst these billionaires was Sir Li Ka-shing , who had become one of the colony's wealthiest people by this time. British Hong Kong was characterised as a hybrid of East and West . Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blended with Western ideals, including economic liberty and
9453-437: The call of the Communists was basically heeded by the working men, and their actions practically paralysed the colony for a year. By the [end of the] 1960s, however, the attempts by the Hong Kong government to maintain stability and good order which helped improve everyone's living conditions, and ... the beginning of the emergence of a Hong Kong identity, changed the attitude of the local Chinese. They overwhelmingly rallied around
9590-406: The colonial British regime. 22°17′N 114°10′E / 22.28°N 114.16°E / 22.28; 114.16 Sino-British Joint Declaration The Sino-British Joint Declaration was a treaty between the governments of the United Kingdom and People’s Republic of China signed in 1984 setting the conditions in which Hong Kong was transferred to Chinese control and for
9727-421: The colonial government, and two memoranda from each party describing transitional nationality arrangements for local residents. In the main text of the treaty, the Chinese government declared its intention to resume the exercise of its sovereignty over the entire area of Hong Kong (including the ceded areas of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula , as well as the leased New Territories ) on 1 July 1997 and
9864-553: The colony by dividing it, whilst the People's Republic of China would not consider extending the lease or allow continued British administration thereafter. With the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984, which stated that the economic and social systems in Hong Kong would remain relatively unchanged for 50 years, the British government agreed to transfer the entire territory to China upon
10001-567: The colony until 1974, when Chinese was accorded co-official status. In addition to British English being taught in primary and secondary schools , there were also English-medium schools operated by the English Schools Foundation , established in 1967. For the metro system, the metro lines were named after places instead of numbered, unlike Mainland China , where metro lines were numbered. Roads were named after British royals, governors, famous people, cities and towns across
10138-679: The colony. Executive power was highly concentrated with the Governor, who himself appointed almost all members of the Legislative Council and Executive Council and also served as President of both chambers. The British government provided oversight for the colonial government; the Foreign Secretary formally approved any additions to the Legislative and Executive Councils and the Sovereign held sole authority to amend
10275-423: The colony. Initial engagement between the colonial and new Chinese authorities were largely friendly and cooperative. While it was clear that the long-term goal of the communists was to absorb the territory, they chose to take no action on the issue in the near-term. The Chinese were content with the political status of the colony for the time being so long as no efforts were made to introduce democratic development in
10412-504: The crash of the Hong Kong dollar 's value on Black Saturday in September 1983. The talks were entirely conducted without meaningful input from the people of Hong Kong. Early in the process, British officials had used the analogy of a "three-legged stool" to describe a scenario where Hong Kong was party to the negotiations with the United Kingdom and China. The Chinese government dismissed this idea, claiming that it already represented
10549-562: The document expired and invalid as of June 30, 1997, while the UK continues to believe that it remains valid and effective. Hong Kong became a British colony in 1842 after the Qing dynasty 's defeat in the First Opium War . The territory initially consisted only of Hong Kong Island and was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island in 1860 after another Qing loss in the Second Opium War . After this addition,
10686-416: The document remains binding in operation. Following China's 2020 imposition of national security legislation on Hong Kong and a 2021 National People's Congress decision to approve a rework of local election laws that reduces the number of regional legislature seats elected by the public , the UK has declared China as being in a "state of ongoing non-compliance" with the Joint Declaration. China deemed
10823-405: The election of pro-independence candidate Chen Shui-bian as Taiwan 's president, a senior mainland official in Hong Kong warned journalists not to report the news. Another senior official advised businessmen not to do business with pro-independence Taiwanese. With this and other changes, ten years after the return, in 2007, The Guardian wrote that on the one hand, "nothing has changed since
10960-499: The end of the treaty contains transitional nationality arrangements for local residents, which included a stipulation that a new nationality would be created for Hongkongers that did not confer right of abode in the United Kingdom . The Hong Kong Act 1985 created the British National (Overseas) status to fulfil this requirement. All British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) connected with Hong Kong who did not have
11097-419: The end of this lease. The Chinese government declared in the treaty its basic policies for governing Hong Kong after the transfer. A special administrative region would be established in the territory that would be self-governing with a high degree of autonomy, except in foreign affairs and defence. Hong Kong would maintain its existing governing and economic systems separate from that of mainland China under
11234-442: The entire territory. In the second phase of negotiations, the British attempted to negotiate an extension of their administration in Hong Kong past 1997 in exchange for their acknowledgement of Chinese sovereignty. This was again soundly rejected by the Chinese as unacceptable. The continued stalled state of negotiations precipitated a drop in investor confidence, causing a sharp decline in local property values that culminated with
11371-556: The exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People's Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985. In the Joint Declaration, the People's Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island , Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and
11508-460: The expiration of the New Territories lease in 1997 – with Hong Kong becoming a special administrative region (SAR) until at least 2047. In 1836, the imperial government of the Qing dynasty undertook a major policy review of the opium trade, which had been first introduced to the Chinese by Persian then Islamic traders over many centuries. Viceroy Lin Zexu took on the task of suppressing
11645-504: The fourth Governor of Hong Kong , seized the incident to pursue a forward policy. In March 1857, Palmerston appointed Lord Elgin as Plenipotentiary, with the aim of securing a new and satisfactory treaty. A French expeditionary force joined the British to avenge the execution of a French missionary in 1856. In 1860, the capture of the Taku Forts and occupation of Beijing led to the Treaty of Tientsin and Convention of Peking . In
11782-463: The governance of the territory after 1 July 1997. Hong Kong had been a colony of the British Empire since 1842 after the First Opium War and its territory was expanded on two occasions; first in 1860 with the addition of Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island , and again in 1898 when Britain obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories . The date of the handover in 1997 marked
11919-518: The handover in 1997 and that the treaty is a historical document with no extant binding authority. The central government's primary regional agency, the Hong Kong Liaison Office , declared in April 2020 that it was exempt from Basic Law restrictions on mainland government interference in local affairs. Following China's imposition of national security legislation on Hong Kong in 2020, the UK extended residence rights and created
12056-416: The handover to China 10 years ago", but this was in comparison to the situation before the last governor Chris Patten had introduced democratic reforms three years before the handover. A chance for democracy had been lost as Hong Kong had just begun to develop three vital elements for a western-style democracy (the rule of law , official accountability and a political class outside the one-party system) but
12193-418: The immediate years following the transfer of sovereignty, Chinese oversight of Hong Kong was considered relatively benign and hands-off. Although the Chinese had reversed the last British democratic reforms for Legislative Council elections, general governance of the region was otherwise virtually unchanged. While most organisations with royal patronage dropped this association prior to the handover, there
12330-410: The interests of the people of Hong Kong. Local residents were apprehensive about the prospect of being handed over to Chinese rule and overwhelmingly preferred that Hong Kong remain a British territory; contemporary opinion polls show that 85 per cent of residents favoured this option. The Foreign Office rejected holding a general referendum on the future of the colony due to vehement opposition from
12467-638: The invasion, Chiang ordered three corps under General Yu Hanmou to march towards Hong Kong. The plan was to launch a New Year's Day attack on the Japanese in the Canton region, but before the Chinese infantry could attack, the Japanese had broken Hong Kong's defences. The British casualties were 2,232 killed or missing and 2,300 wounded. The Japanese reported 1,996 killed and 6,000 wounded. The Japanese soldiers committed atrocities, including rape, on many locals. The population fell in half, from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000 at war's end because of fleeing refugees; they returned in 1945. The Japanese imprisoned
12604-437: The issue with Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping . MacLehose suggested setting aside the 1997 date for land leases and replacing those contracts with ones that were valid for as long as British administration continued in the colony. Deng rejected this suggestion, but he informed the governor that while sovereignty over Hong Kong belonged to China, the territory held a special status that would continue to be respected. MacLehose informed
12741-541: The late 1970s, Hong Kong had become one of the largest trading ports and financial centres in the world. Local investors began expressing their concern in the mid-1970s over the long-term viability of continued real estate investment. The colonial government could not legally grant new land leases in the New Territories past 1997 and needed to resolve the uncertainty with the Chinese government. During an official visit to Beijing in March 1979, Governor Murray MacLehose raised
12878-636: The lease as a formal cession in 1909 in return for restoring Weihaiwei to China. Although the Colonial and Foreign Offices considered this, the plan was never brought to the Chinese government before Weihaiwei was transferred to the Republic of China in 1930. Alternate plans that involved offering China a substantial loan and settling land disputes on the Burmese border were suggested, but these ideas similarly did not progress past discussion. The start of
13015-405: The long run the occupation strengthened the pre-war social and economic order among the Chinese business community by eliminating some conflicts of interests and reducing the prestige and power of the British. On 14 August 1945, when Japan announced its unconditional surrender, the British formed a naval task group to sail towards Hong Kong. On 1 September, Rear-Admiral Cecil Harcourt proclaimed
13152-541: The move was significant, but the implication of this change was that Communist China alone would determine the territory's future, excluding the people of Hong Kong. Post-war Hong Kong experienced rapid economic growth through the 1950s as it industrialised into a manufacturing-based export economy. This development continued through the following decades bolstered by a strong trading network, robust banking and financial systems, and an educated and growing workforce supplemented by continuing immigration from mainland China. As
13289-559: The opium trade. In March 1839, he became Special Imperial Commissioner in Canton , where he ordered the foreign traders to surrender their opium stock. He confined the British to the Canton Factories and cut off their supplies. Chief Superintendent of Trade, Charles Elliot , complied with Lin's demands to secure a safe exit for the British, with the costs involved to be resolved between the two governments. When Elliot promised that
13426-686: The opportunity to mobilise their followers to protest against the colonial government. Chinese Communist Party supporters organised the Anti-British Struggle Committee during the riots. Steve Tsang , director of the China Institute of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London , wrote that it was "ironic" that despite Hong Kong being a symbol of China's humiliation by Britain, there
13563-488: The other territorial cessions China made to Russia , Germany and France that same year, the extension of Hong Kong took the form of a 99-year lease. The lease consisted of the rest of Kowloon south of the Sham Chun River and 230 islands, which became known as the New Territories . The British formally took possession on 16 April 1899. In 1941, during the Second World War, the British reached an agreement with
13700-709: The political franchise to include them. Hong Kong remained a part of the UK and overseas colonies from 1949 until it transitioned its colony to a British dependent territory in 1983. The economy was the main concern after the Chinese Civil War . Hong Kong welcomed business from both the PRC and Taiwan . Investments from Taiwan were particularly lucrative, and Taiwanese interests were given preferential treatment in state compensation and justice. The Triads were strongly embedded in Taiwanese economic connections. POlitical activity, covert activity and low intensity violence - including assassinations - by Chinese and Taiwanese agents
13837-416: The principle of " one country, two systems ". This blueprint would be elaborated on in the Hong Kong Basic Law (the post-handover regional constitution) and the central government's policies for the territory were to remain unchanged for a period of 50 years after 1997. China has stated since 2014 that it considers the treaty to be spent with no further legal effect, while the United Kingdom maintains that
13974-509: The public that further investment would be safe. Market reaction was optimistic; stock valuations rose and further investment in real estate boosted the value of Hong Kong's land to the highest in the world. Just before the start of formal negotiations with China over Hong Kong, Parliament enacted a major reform of British nationality law – the British Nationality Act 1981 . Prior to the passage of this Act, all citizens of
14111-688: The role of the Joint Liaison Group . British negotiators and Hong Kong Executive Council members wanted to ensure the continued status of Hongkongers as British Dependent Territories citizens (BDTCs) after the transfer of sovereignty, but the Chinese would not allow this and even demanded that further granting of BDTC status be halted immediately. Although there were debates in the British Parliament on granting all residents British Overseas citizenship that could be transferred to children for up to two generations after 1997, this
14248-419: The roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan , Donnie Yen , Jet Li , Chow Yun-fat , and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually declined to about 60 in 2017. Cantopop
14385-404: The rule of law. Although the vast majority of the population was ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong developed a distinct identity from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development, with mainstream culture was derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education,
14522-399: The ruling British colonial elite and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by appointments to advisory councils and neighbourhood watch groups. The policy worked well for Japan and produced extensive collaboration from both the elite and the middle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities. Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with Japanese businesses replacing
14659-541: The sovereignty of Hong Kong. The British began negotiations believing that they could secure an extension of the New Territories lease while retaining sovereignty of the ceded areas. Although the UK had just successfully defended its hold on the Falkland Islands in a war against Argentina , Hong Kong's proximity to mainland China made a military defence of the territory impossible. Thatcher later recounted that Deng had told her directly "I could walk in and take
14796-608: The special administrative region, which is given a "high degree of autonomy" in exercising those powers in all areas except for defence and diplomatic affairs. The region retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations. Socialism as practised in mainland China would not be extended to Hong Kong and the territory's capitalist economy and the civil liberties of its residents (such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion) would be protected and remain unchanged for 50 years. The territory would be allowed to maintain its separate financial markets;
14933-422: The territory that would be governed by local residents and to maintain the existing structures of government and economy in place for as long as 50 years. Constitutional arrangements had already been made to implement this plan and the Chinese would not accept anything less than a full reversion of Hong Kong. During her first visit to Beijing, Thatcher asserted the continuing validity of British treaty rights for
15070-599: The territory was taken up by additional British forces who were rotated from Europe. The garrison was further supplemented by LEPs, and Gurkhas . The latter came from Nepal , but formed part of the British Army. The size of the garrison during the Cold War fluctuated and ended up being based around one brigade. The Royal Hong Kong Regiment , a military unit which was part of the Hong Kong Government,
15207-442: The territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice was the staple food, and was usually served plain with other dishes. Freshness of ingredients was emphasised. Poultry and seafood were commonly sold live at wet markets , and ingredients were used as quickly as possible. There were five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh . Dim sum , as part of yum cha (brunch),
15344-655: The territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics , Between 1972 and 1996, Hong Kong athletes won 60 medals at the Paralympic Games . As part of the Commonwealth , British Hong Kong participated in the Commonwealth Games , in which it won 17 medals , the city's last appearance in the Games being in 1994 . Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during
15481-466: The territory; they were simply hostile to the idea of a potentially independent Hong Kong. In 1972, China successfully petitioned the United Nations to remove Hong Kong from its list of non-self-governing territories , and declared that the colony was a "Chinese territory under British administration". The United Kingdom did not raise any objections to this and the local population did not think
15618-501: The treaty came into force when instruments of ratification were exchanged on 27 May 1985 and was registered at the United Nations by both governments on 12 June 1985. The Joint Declaration consists of its main text, Annex I elaborating the Chinese government's basic policies for Hong Kong, Annex II concerning plans for the Sino–British Joint Liaison Group , Annex III explaining protections for land leases granted by
15755-436: The treaty dealt with the validity of land leases granted by the colonial Hong Kong government. All existing land lease contracts continue to be recognised by the post-handover SAR government. All leases without options of renewal that expired before 30 June 1997 could be extended for periods lasting no later than 30 June 2047. New leases granted by the colonial government after the treaty came into force could last no longer than
15892-474: The treaty elaborates on the Chinese government's basic policies for Hong Kong. There are 14 policies listed in Annex I, providing a framework under which the post-handover government would be established. This part of the Joint Declaration provides for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty. Executive, legislative, and judicial powers would be devolved by the central government to
16029-451: The treaty. Since 2021, the UK has considered China to be in a "state of ongoing non-compliance" with the Joint Declaration. China disregards accusations of Joint Declaration breaches as foreign interference and neocolonist tampering, and considers Hong Kong matters to be part of its internal affairs. Chinese foreign ministry spokespersons have repeatedly stated that the United Kingdom lacks supervisory authority over Hong Kong following
16166-401: The vast majority of the colony's land still would have reverted to China at the conclusion of the New Territories lease. Because most of the territory's industry was developed there, separating the leased area and returning only that part of the colony to China was economically and logistically infeasible. Negotiations were stalled until Britain conceded that it would relinquish sovereignty over
16303-445: The whole lot this afternoon", to which she replied, "There is nothing I could do to stop you, but the eyes of the world would now know what China is like." The Chinese pushed back against the assertion of sovereignty rights and insisted that it was not bound by the 19th-century unequal treaties that ceded Hong Kong to the UK. Even if the two sides had agreed on the binding nature of the Treaty of Nanking and Convention of Peking ,
16440-414: Was a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee , cha siu bao , siu yuk , egg tarts , and mango pudding . Local versions of Western food were served at cha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea . Film making in Hong Kong began as early as 1909, but Hong Kong
16577-407: Was a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-style shidaiqu , it was also influenced by Cantonese opera and Western pop. Local media featured songs by artists such as Sam Hui , Anita Mui , Leslie Cheung , and Alan Tam ; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience. The genre's popularity peaked in
16714-441: Was an urgency to make an agreement because there were fears that without a treaty the economy in Hong Kong would collapse in the 1980s. Concerns about land ownership in the leased New Territories also added to the problem. Although discussions on the future of Hong Kong had started in the late 1970s, the final timing of the Joint Declaration was more affected by property and economic factors rather than geopolitical necessities. In
16851-419: Was anti-imperialist in nature. The 1966 riots and Maoist -led 1967 riots , essentially spillovers from the Cultural Revolution , were large scale demonstrations fuelled by tensions surrounding labour disputes and dissatisfaction towards the government. Although the 1967 riots started as a labour dispute, the incident escalated quickly after the leftist camp and mainland officials stationed in Hong Kong seized
16988-551: Was believed to determine the success of a business. Bagua mirrors were regularly used to deflect evil spirits, and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4 ; the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese. A prominent example of cultural integration in everyday life in British Hong Kong, was the use of British English as a common second language , and also the sole official language of
17125-472: Was created in June 1984 to draft the text of the treaty and its annexes. This was completed in three months, and on 26 September 1984, a draft copy of the Joint Declaration was initialed by British Ambassador to China Richard Evans and Chinese Vice Foreign Minister Zhou Nan . The final version was signed on 19 December 1984 by Prime Minister Thatcher and Premier Zhao in the Great Hall of the People in Beijing;
17262-567: Was defeated during the Battle of Hong Kong , by the Empire of Japan . After the Second World War and the end of the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong , the British military reestablished a presence. As a result of the Chinese Civil War , the British Army raised the 40th Infantry Division and dispatched it to garrison Hong Kong. It later left for combat in the Korean War , and the defense of
17399-462: Was deputy to the Governor. The judicial system was based on English law , with Chinese customary law taking a secondary role in civil cases involving Chinese residents. The Supreme Court of Hong Kong was the highest court and ruled on all civil and criminal cases in the colony. During the early colonial period, extraterritorial appellate cases from other regions of China involving British subjects were also tried in this court. Further appeals from
17536-732: Was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Wan Chai on the night of 30 June 1997. The principal British guest was Charles, Prince of Wales (Charles III, King of the United Kingdom) who read a farewell speech on behalf of the Queen . The newly elected Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Tony Blair ; the Foreign Secretary , Robin Cook ; the departing Governor of Hong Kong , Chris Patten ;
17673-576: Was no strict requirement for renaming; the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club and Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch maintain the "Royal" prefix in their names. Colonial-era street names and postbox royal cyphers are not actively removed by the government and remain unchanged. After the Asian financial crisis in 1997 the Hong Kong measures were taken with the full co-operation of the Central Chinese government. This did not mean that
17810-493: Was not a film making hub until the late 1940s, when a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory; these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade. By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong . When Bruce Lee 's The Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During
17947-491: Was not implemented and the Joint Declaration instead provided for a new status to be created. The Chinese initially wanted the Joint Liaison Group to act as an oversight committee during the transition period of administering Hong Kong up to the handover date. At the insistence of Governor Youde and Executive Council members, the group was limited in its scope to be strictly advisory. A bilateral working group
18084-399: Was not one major movement started by the Chinese residents of the colony for its retrocession to China, even though there had been several upsurges of Chinese nationalism . He explained: In the 1920s, the working class Chinese of Hong Kong did not have a good reason to rally around the Hong Kong government, and they were more susceptible to appeals based on Chinese nationalism. Consequently,
18221-491: Was reformed in the last years of colonial rule to introduce more democratic representation. Indirectly elected functional constituency seats were introduced in 1985 and popularly elected geographical constituency seats in 1991 . Further electoral reform in 1994 effectively made the legislature broadly representative. The administrative Civil Service was led by the Colonial Secretary (later Chief Secretary), who
18358-412: Was strictly intended to be a channel of close communication for both parties and did not have authority to supervise or participate in the administration of the territory. The Joint Liaison Group was given two specific objectives during the period between its establishment and the transfer of sovereignty. In the first half of this period, it would consider actions necessary to maintain Hong Kong's status as
18495-644: Was the leading Chinese ensemble and played a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community. Despite its small area, the territory regularly hosted the Hong Kong Sevens , Hong Kong Marathon , Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup , and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup . Hong Kong was separately represented from mainland China , with its own sports teams in international competitions. The territory participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and earned four gold medals . Lee Lai-shan won
18632-436: Was tolerated so long as it did not disrupt public order or threaten British sovereignty. Hong Kong was a base for American-sponsored Taiwanese and anti-communist insurgents and terrorists operating in southern China in the 1950s and early 1960s. The British claimed that increasing policing to control movement from Hong Kong to China was impractical, and that the mutual open border policy was responsible. Hong Kong's value as
18769-589: Was trained and organised along the lines of a British Territorial Army unit. As such, it was supported by British Army regular personnel holding key positions. These British Army personnel, for their duration of service to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment, were seconded to the Hong Kong Government. In the post-WWII era, the majority of the regiment's members were local citizens of Chinese descent. The stability, security, and predictability of British law and government enabled Hong Kong to flourish as
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