55-408: Aesculus hippocastanum , the horse chestnut , is a species of flowering plant in the maple , soapberry and lychee family Sapindaceae . It is a large, deciduous , synoecious (hermaphroditic-flowered) tree . It is also called horse-chestnut , European horsechestnut , buckeye , and conker tree . It is not to be confused with the sweet chestnut or Spanish chestnut, Castanea sativa , which
110-1830: A molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context: Bryophytes [REDACTED] Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The main groups of living angiosperms are: Amborellales [REDACTED] 1 sp. New Caledonia shrub Nymphaeales [REDACTED] c. 80 spp. water lilies & allies Austrobaileyales [REDACTED] c. 100 spp. woody plants Magnoliids [REDACTED] c. 10,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Chloranthales [REDACTED] 77 spp. Woody, apetalous Monocots [REDACTED] c. 70,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1 cotyledon , 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves Ceratophyllales [REDACTED] c. 6 spp. aquatic plants Eudicots [REDACTED] c. 175,000 spp. 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Chloranthales Mart. 1835 Canellales Cronquist 1957 Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Acorales Link 1835 Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 Dioscoreales Brown 1835 Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Liliales Perleb 1826 Asparagales Link 1829 Arecales Bromhead 1840 Poales Small 1903 Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Temperateness In geography ,
165-442: A woody stem ), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees , shrubs and vines , and most aquatic plants . Angiosperms are distinguished from the other major seed plant clade, the gymnosperms , by having flowers , xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids , endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from
220-477: A 7–20 cm (3–8 in) petiole. The leaf scars left on twigs after the leaves have fallen have a distinctive horseshoe shape, complete with seven "nails". The flowers are usually white with a yellow to pink blotch at the base of the petals; they are produced in spring in erect panicles 10–30 cm (4–12 in) tall with about 20–50 flowers on each panicle. Its pollen is not poisonous for honey bees. Usually only 1–5 fruits develop on each panicle. The shell
275-424: A distinct four-season pattern, especially in the continental climate sector. Oceanic climates are created by the on-shore flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have mild summers and cool (but not cold) winters, and relative humidity and precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year. These climates are frequently cloudy and cool, and winters are milder than those in
330-809: A few highland areas of Tasmania , the Australian Alps and Southern Alps of New Zealand . This type of climate is even found in tropical areas such as the Papuan Highlands in Indonesia. Cfc is the categorization for this regime. Even in the middle of summer, temperatures exceeding 20°C (68 °F) are exceptional weather events in the most maritime of those locations impacted by this regime. In some parts of this climate, temperatures as high as 30°C (86°F) have been recorded on rare occasions, while temperatures as low as −15 °C (5 °F) have still been recorded on rare occasions. A cold variant of
385-421: A huge impact on the productivity of agriculture which is less common. Temperate regions have the majority of the world's population, which leads to large cities . There are a couple of factors why the climate of large city landscapes differs from the climate of rural areas. One factor is the strength of the absorption rate of buildings and asphalt, which is higher than that of natural land. The other large factor
440-434: A humid subtropical climate (most notably southeast China and North India ), there is an even sharper wet-dry season, called a monsoon subtropical climate or subtropical monsoon (Cwa). In these regions, winters are quite chilly and dry and summers have very heavy rainfall. Some Cwa areas in southern China report more than 80% of annual precipitation in the five warmest months (southwest monsoon). Mediterranean climates have
495-534: A landmass is) and altitude also shape temperate climates. The Köppen climate classification defines a climate as "temperate" C , when the mean temperature is above −3 °C (26.6 °F) but below 18 °C (64.4 °F) in the coldest month to account for the persistence of frost. However, some adaptations of Köppen set the minimum at 0 °C (32.0 °F). Continental climates are classified as D and considered to be varieties of temperate climates, having more extreme temperatures, with mean temperatures in
550-504: A poor source, and the factory only produced acetone for three months; however, they were collected again in the Second World War for the same reason. The seeds, especially those that are young and fresh, are slightly poisonous, containing alkaloid saponins and glucosides . Although not dangerous to touch, they cause sickness when eaten; consumed by horses, they can cause tremors and lack of coordination. The horse-chestnut
605-469: A summer accent on rainfall. Regions with humid continental climates include southeastern Canada, the upper portions of the eastern United States , portions of eastern Europe , parts of China , Japan and the Korean Peninsula . These are temperate climates that compared to the subtropics are on the poleward edge of the temperate zone. Therefore, they still have four marked seasons including
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#1732787795853660-435: A temperate region is found in southern Africa , where some 24,000 taxa (species and infraspecific taxa) have been described. Farming is a large-scale practice in the temperate regions (except for boreal/subarctic regions) due to the plentiful rainfall and warm summers, because most agricultural activity occurs in the spring and summer, cold winters have a small effect on agricultural production. Extreme winters or summers have
715-610: A total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon ( ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma ( σπέρμα 'seed'),
770-646: A warmer one, but are far more influenced by the polar zones than any other but the very polar climates ( tundra and ice cap climate ). Areas with subpolar oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to polar regions. As a result of their location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates. Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than subarctic climates or continental climates , featuring milder winters than these climates but still with similar summers. This variant of an oceanic climate
825-858: Is starting to impact plants and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100. Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have roots , stems , leaves , and seeds . They differ from other seed plants in several ways. The largest angiosperms are Eucalyptus gum trees of Australia, and Shorea faguetiana , dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are Wolffia duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across. Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs , deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars . The remainder are parasitic , whether on fungi like
880-415: Is a favourite subject for bonsai . Though the seeds are said to repel spiders there is little evidence to support these claims. The presence of saponin may repel insects but it is not clear whether this is effective on spiders. Aesculus hippocastanum is affected by the leaf-mining moth Cameraria ohridella , whose larvae feed on horse chestnut leaves. The moth was described from North Macedonia where
935-414: Is a green, spiky capsule containing one (rarely two or three) nut -like seeds called conkers or horse-chestnuts. Each conker is 2–4 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) in diameter, glossy nut-brown with a whitish scar at the base. The common name horse chestnut originates from the similarity of the leaves and fruits to sweet chestnuts, Castanea sativa (a tree in a different family,
990-412: Is a tree in another family, Fagaceae . Aesculus hippocastanum is a large tree, growing to about 39 metres (128 ft) tall with a domed crown of stout branches. On old trees, the outer branches are often pendulous with curled-up tips. The leaves are opposite and palmately compound, with 5–7 leaflets 13–30 cm (5–12 in) long, making the whole leaf up to 60 cm (24 in) across, with
1045-626: Is found in parts of coastal Iceland , the Faroe Islands , parts of Scotland , northwestern coastal areas of Norway such as Lofoten and reaching to 70° north on some islands, uplands near the coast of southwestern Norway, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska and northern parts of the Alaskan Panhandle , some parts of Southern Argentina and Chile (though most regions are still classified as continental subantarctic), and
1100-492: Is successful in a wide range of temperate climatic conditions provided summers are not too hot, with trees being grown as far north as Edmonton, Alberta , Canada , the Faroe Islands , Reykjavík , Iceland and Harstad , Norway . In Britain and Ireland, the seeds are used for the popular children's game conkers . During the First World War , there was a campaign to ask for everyone (including children) to collect
1155-491: The Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters. Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The sundews , many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs , are carnivorous plants , able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects. Other flowers such as Gentiana verna ,
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#17327877958531210-748: The Arctic Circle in Norway , and Gästrikland in Sweden as well as in many parks and cities around the northern United States and Canada such as Edmonton in Canada . The compact native population of horse chestnut in Bulgaria is distinct from the horse chestnut forests of northern Greece, western North Macedonia and Albania. It is limited to an area of 9 ha in the Preslav Mountain north of
1265-726: The Balkan Mountains , in the valleys of the Dervishka and Lazarska rivers. Bulgaria's relict horse chestnut forests are critically endangered at the national level and protected as part of the Dervisha Managed Nature Reserve. It is widely cultivated in streets and parks throughout the temperate world, and has been particularly successful in places like Ireland , Great Britain and New Zealand , where they are commonly found in parks, streets and avenues. Cultivation for its spectacular spring flowers
1320-487: The Fagaceae ), together with the alleged observation that the fruit or seeds could help panting or coughing horses. Although it is sometimes known as buckeye , for the resemblance of the seed to a deer 's eye, the term buckeye is more commonly used for New World members of the genus Aesculus . The native distribution of Aesculus hippocastanum given by different sources varies. As of March 2023, Plants of
1375-451: The Köppen climate classification . In contrast to oceanic climates, they are created by large land masses and seasonal changes in wind direction. This causes humid continental climates to have severe temperatures for the season compared to other temperate climates, meaning a hot summer and cold winter. Precipitation may be evenly distributed throughout the year, while in some locations there is
1430-584: The clade Angiospermae ( / ˌ æ n dʒ i ə ˈ s p ər m iː / ). The term 'angiosperm' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον / angeion ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / sperma ('seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta . Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders , 416 families , approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species . They include all forbs (flowering plants without
1485-460: The orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants , either wholly like the broomrapes, Orobanche , or partially like the witchweeds, Striga . In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest . The seagrasses in
1540-596: The temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth . These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout the year and more distinct seasonal changes compared to tropical climates , where such variations are often small; they usually differ only in the amount of precipitation . In temperate climates, not only do latitudinal positions influence temperature changes, but various sea currents, prevailing wind direction, continentality (how large
1595-892: The "Big Five" extinction events in Earth's history, only the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the Holocene extinction affects all kingdoms of complex life on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild ( in situ ), or failing that, ex situ in seed banks or artificial habitats like botanic gardens . Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become extinct due to human actions such as habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species , unsustainable logging , land clearing and overharvesting of medicinal or ornamental plants . Further, climate change
1650-513: The Cwb classification have significant monsoon influence, usually having dry winters and wet summers. These climates occur in the middle latitudes, between approximately 35° and 66.5° north and south of the equator. There is an equal climatic influence from both the polar and tropical zones in this climate region. Two types of climates are in this zone, a milder oceanic one and more severe seasonal continental one. Most prototypical temperate climates have
1705-600: The United States, such as the 9/11 Memorial Park , Little Rock Central High School , and two Holocaust Centers. One of them was planted outdoors in March 2013 in front of The Children's Museum of Indianapolis , where they were originally quarantined. The horse chestnut tree is one of the symbols of Kyiv , the capital of Ukraine . Flowering plant Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits , and form
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1760-674: The World Online considered it to be native to the Balkans ( Albania , Bulgaria , Greece and former Yugoslavia ), but also to Turkey and Turkmenistan . A 2017 assessment for the IUCN Red List restricted the native distribution to the Balkan area: Albania, Bulgaria, mainland Greece and North Macedonia . It has been introduced and planted around the world. It can be found in many parts of Europe as far north as Harstad north of
1815-630: The caverns. The practice of serving beer at these sites evolved into the modern beer garden. An inexpensive detergent for washing clothes can be made at home from conkers, and this is said to be an environmentally benign ('eco-friendly') detergent. The seed extract standardized to around 20 percent aescin (escin) is possibly useful in traditional medicine for its effect on venous tone. A Cochrane Review suggested that horse chestnut seed extract may be an efficacious and safe short-term treatment for chronic venous insufficiency , but definitive randomized controlled trials had not been conducted to confirm
1870-552: The coldest month usually being below −3 °C (26.6 °F). The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer (approximately 23.5° north latitude) to the Arctic Circle (approximately 66.5° north latitude). The south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn (approximately 23.5° south latitude) to the Antarctic Circle (at approximately 66.5° south latitude). In some climate classifications,
1925-560: The common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous , over 300 million years ago. In the Cretaceous , angiosperms diversified explosively , becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet. Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based food and livestock feed. Rice , maize and wheat provide half of
1980-410: The continental climate. Regions with oceanic climates include northwestern Europe , northwestern North America , southeastern and southwestern South America , southeastern Australia and most of New Zealand . Humid continental climates are considered as a variety of temperate climates due to lying in the temperate zones, although they are classified separately from other temperate climates in
2035-449: The efficacy. There is risk of acute kidney injury , "when patients, who had undergone cardiac surgery were given high doses of horse chestnut extract i.v. for postoperative oedema . The phenomenon was dose dependent as no alteration in kidney function was recorded with 340 μg/kg, mild kidney function impairment developed with 360 μg/kg and acute kidney injury with 510 μg/kg". Raw horse chestnut seed, leaf, bark and flower are toxic due to
2090-659: The flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. In 2019,
2145-476: The humid subtropics. Warm ocean currents are usually found in coastal areas with humid subtropical climates. This type of climate is normally located along leeward lower east coasts of continents such as in southeast and central Argentina , Uruguay and south of Brazil , the southeast portions of East Asia , southern and portions of the northeast and midwestern United States and portions of, South Africa , Ethiopia , and eastern Australia . In some areas with
2200-518: The manner of vines or lianas . The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes . The APG system seeks to determine the number of families , mostly by molecular phylogenetics . In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for
2255-547: The monsoon-influenced subtropical highland climate similar to subpolar oceanic climates occurs in small areas in Yunnan, Sichuan and parts of the Altiplano between Bolivia , Peru and Chile , where summers are sufficiently short to be Cwc with fewer than four months over 10 °C (50 °F) due to the high altitudes at these locations. El Alto, Bolivia , is one of the few confirmed towns that features this variation of
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2310-517: The opposite rainfall pattern to dry-winter climates, with a dry summer and wet winter. This climate occurs mostly at the western edges and coasts of the continents and are bounded by arid deserts on their equatorward sides that brings dry winds causing the dry season of summer, and oceanic climates to the poleward sides that are influenced by cool ocean currents and air masses that bring the rainfall of winter. The five main Mediterranean regions of
2365-650: The opposite rainfall pattern. This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains , as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere. The vast majority of the world's human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the Northern Hemisphere , due to its greater mass of land and lack of extreme temperatures. The biggest described number of taxa in
2420-510: The presence of aesculin and should not be ingested. Horse chestnut seed is classified by the FDA as an unsafe herb. The glycoside and saponin constituents are considered toxic. Quercetin 3,4'-diglucoside , a flavonol glycoside can also be found in horse chestnut seeds. Leucocyanidin , leucodelphinidin and procyanidin A2 can also be found in horse chestnut. A fine specimen of the horse-chestnut
2475-536: The seeds and donate them to the government. The conkers were used as a source of starch for fermentation using the Clostridium acetobutylicum method devised by Chaim Weizmann to produce acetone for use as a solvent for the production of cordite , which was then used in military armaments. Weizmann's process could use any source of starch, but the government chose to ask for conkers to avoid causing starvation by depleting food sources. But conkers were found to be
2530-475: The species was discovered in 1984 but took 18 years to reach Britain. In Germany, they are commonly planted in beer gardens , particularly in Bavaria . Prior to the advent of mechanical refrigeration, brewers would dig cellars for lagering . To further protect the cellars from the summer heat, they would plant horse chestnut trees, which have spreading, dense canopies but shallow roots which would not intrude on
2585-568: The spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium -rich chalk and limestone , which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement . As for their growth habit , the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants , often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in
2640-509: The subtropical highland climate. Cold summer mediterranean climates ( Csc ) are present in high-elevation areas around coastal Csb climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C. Despite the maritime influence, they are classified alongside other mediterranean climates in the Köppen classification rather than oceanic climates like subtropical highland climates due to
2695-449: The temperate zone may be divided into several smaller climate zones, based on monthly temperatures, the coldest month, and rainfall. These can include the subtropical zone ( humid subtropical and Mediterranean climate ), and the cool temperate zone ( oceanic and continental climates ). These climates are typically found in the more equatorial regions of the temperate zone, between 23.5° and 35° north or south. They are influenced more by
2750-472: The tropics or subtropics. They have characteristically mild temperatures year-round, featuring the four seasons in the subtropics and no marked seasons in the tropics, the latter usually remaining mild to cool through most of the year. Subtropical highland climates under the Cfb classification usually have rainfall spread relatively evenly in all months of the year similar to most oceanic climates while climates under
2805-458: The tropics than by other temperate climate types, usually experiencing warmer temperatures throughout the year, with longer, hotter summers and shorter, milder winters. Freezing precipitation is uncommon in this part of the temperate zone. Humid subtropical climates generally have long, hot and humid summers with frequent convective showers in summer, and a peak seasonal rainfall in the hottest months. Winters are normally mild and above freezing in
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#17327877958532860-717: The world are the Mediterranean Basin in North Africa , Southern Europe , and West Asia , coastal California in the United States , the South and West states of Australia , the Western Cape of South Africa and the south and southwestern coast of Chile . Subtropical highland climates are climate variants often grouped together with oceanic climates found in some mountainous areas of either
2915-559: The world's staple calorie intake, and all three plants are cereals from the Poaceae family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide important industrial plant products such as wood , paper and cotton , and supply numerous ingredients for beverages , sugar production , traditional medicine and modern pharmaceuticals . Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes , with certain flowers playing significant cultural roles in many societies. Out of
2970-483: Was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown , when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister 's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treats
3025-469: Was outside the window of the "secret annex" in the centre of Amsterdam , which Anne Frank mentioned in her diary and which survived until August 2010, when a heavy wind blew it over. Eleven young specimens, sprouted from seeds from this tree, were transported to the United States. After a long quarantine in Indianapolis, each tree was shipped off to a new home at a notable museum or institution in
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